Educational Psychology in Practice

theory, research and practice in educational psychology

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The use of genograms in educational psychology

practice

Adele Tobias

To cite this article: Adele Tobias (2017): The use of genograms in educational psychology
practice, Educational Psychology in Practice, DOI: 10.1080/02667363.2017.1411787

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 Educational Psychology in Practice, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2017.1411787

The use of genograms in educational psychology practice

Adele Tobias
Brighton and Hove City Council, Brighton and Hove Inclusion Support Service (BHISS), Brighton, UK

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This article explores the application of the genogram in educational Educational psychology;
psychology (EP) practice. It provides a brief overview of the historical genograms; case study;
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and theoretical development of the genogram. It then reviews and family work; assessment;
critiques some of the current literature regarding clinical application intervention
of the genogram in casework with children and adolescents and their
families. Finally, it provides a case example of the application of the
genogram, as an assessment and intervention tool in EP practice,
highlighting its strengths and limitations.

Introduction
A genogram is a pictorial presentation of a person’s family relationships. It builds upon the
concept of a traditional family tree by including hereditary or behavioural patterns and
psychological aspects of relationships. The genogram has been described variously in the
literature as, “a graphic portrayal of the composition and structure of one’s family” (Rempel,
Neufeld, & Kushner, 2007, p. 403) and “a visual tool for exploring a client’s social relationships
across time” (Pope & Lee, 2015, p. 10). Taylor, Clement, and Ledet (2013) summarise geno-
grams as a source of “important information about client relationships and interactions” that
“typically focus on historical data, more problematic interactions, and past patterns of behav-
iour” (p. 278).
Genograms are commonly used in systemic family therapy (Borcsa & Stratton, 2016). They
might be drawn up during therapy with a family to explore: the differing relationships
between various family members; family narratives; cultural values and sources of shame
or pride, both voiced and unvoiced (Burnham, 2012). They are used to formulate hypotheses
that help explain why a family might be facing difficulties. A practice also encouraged in
family therapy is for therapists to use genograms to explore the origins of their own personal
stories; to gain a better understanding of the potential biases and assumptions that might
underlie their thinking about the families with whom they work (Krause, 2012).
Several parallels can be drawn between case formulation in Systemic Family Therapy and
current educational psychologist (EP) practice. Methods of enquiry and hypothesis-gener-
ation in EP practice tend to be eco-systemic and include consideration of the impact of the
family system. Professional practice guidelines published by The British Psychological Society
Division of Educational and Child Psychology (DECP, 2002) state that EP assessment “should

CONTACT Adele Tobias adele.tobias@brighton-hove.gcsx.gov.uk

© 2017 Association of Educational Psychologists
 2  A. TOBIAS

consult as widely as possible with other people who know the young person” (p. 16), “be
conducted over time and in relation to different contexts” (p. 24), “involve parents and/or
carers as essential contributors” (p. 24) and reflect “the dynamic, interactive nature of chil-
dren’s learning and social behaviours with the environments in which they develop” (p. 23).
Well-known approaches such as problem analysis (Monsen, Graham, Frederickson, &
Cameron, 1998), consultation (Wagner, 2000), the interactive factors framework (IFF)
(Frederickson & Cline, 2009) and the constructionist model of informed and reasoned action
(COMOIRA) framework (Gameson & Rhydderch, 2008), all highlight the importance of looking
at a case from multiple, interacting perspectives. The family is considered to be one of a
child’s key spheres of influence. This article sets out to explore the capacity of genograms
as potential tools of assessment and intervention in EP casework.

A brief historical and theoretical overview of the genogram

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Defining characteristics
To give an idea of the breadth and scope of information that a genogram might encompass,
a summary of the common symbols used in genogram construction can be found in
Appendix 1. Genogram construction is not constrained to these common symbols; they
provide a foundation, from which any number of new symbols can be created to express
important aspects of family disposition and structure. To help visualise what a completed
genogram might look like, Figure 1 is an exemplar of a basic genogram.

Development
The genogram appears to have been in use as a tool, without a standardised format, primarily
within family therapy and medicine throughout the earlier part of the twentieth century. The
North American Primary Care Research Group, in collaboration with leading family therapists,
agreed on symbols and a standardisation in the 1980s (Kennedy, 2010). Genograms were pop-
ularised in 1985, by McGoldrick and Gerson, with the publication of their first book, Genograms
in Family Assessment, a practical guide to the application of genograms in clinical practice

Figure 1. Genogram exemplar.

 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE  3

(McGoldrick & Gerson, 1985). Since that time, genogram use has become increasingly popular
in a range of areas, including: social work; psychology; psychiatry; genealogy; genetic research
and education (Kennedy, 2010). The symbols have become expanded and modified to reflect
this.

Scope of application
The use of genograms varies widely. In medicine or genetic research, for example, they might
be used by professionals to note hereditary patterns of disease. In social work, they might
be employed to identify existing support networks surrounding a family in crisis, or help
place a child in a foster family with appropriately matched values and dynamics. The literature
also makes reference to a range of other uses, such as: career and life coaching (Di Fabio,
2010); marriage-counselling (Hof & Berman, 1986); supporting the assimilation of immigrants
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into a new culture (Yznaga, 2008); crisis intervention (Sproul & Gallagher, 1982); and treat-
ment of complex psychosocial disorders such as bulimia (Gewirtzman, 1988).
In family therapy, genograms are generally co-created, with the therapist acting as the
curious facilitator and family members telling their family story. Co-constructing the geno-
gram acts as a form of information gathering; an assessment tool for identifying behavioural
patterns and psychological aspects of family relationships, as well as part of the therapeutic
intervention itself.

Clinical applications of the genogram: a review and critique of the current

literature
Search details
A review of the literature was undertaken to see where the genogram had been useful, either
as an assessment tool in casework, or as part of therapeutic intervention work; specifically,
in case work with children and adolescents and their families. An advanced search of the
PsychINFO database through EBSCO, using the subject terms “genogram*” AND “assess*”
produced 14 journal articles. Of these, the results that were non-English (1), book reviews
(5) and articles that were centred on adult relationships (4) were discarded. A similar search
using the subject terms “genogram*” AND “interven*” produced nine journal articles. The
book reviews (3), articles which had been cross referenced in both searches (2) and the
adult-centred articles (3) were discarded.
As there were so few relevant articles, an additional search was carried out using only the
subject term “genogram*”. This yielded four additional journal articles that were written in
English, and where the age of the participants was appropriate (birth to 18 years). More
specifically to EP practice, the subject term “genogram*” in a search of Educational Psychology
in Practice, resulted in two articles, and a search of Educational and Child Psychology yielded
one article. The British Journal of Psychology yielded no results. The 12 resulting articles were
reviewed, a summary of which can be found in the table in Appendix 2.

Search findings
Overall, the literature reports positively upon the application of genograms across a wide
variety of contexts, both as an assessment tool and as part of a therapeutic intervention.
 4  A. TOBIAS

The papers repeatedly highlighted the extensive benefits of applying the genogram, with
children and young people, in applied practice. The genogram is reported to: draw out
detailed information (Altshuler, 1999; Hall, 1988); engage children and young people because
of its non-threatening and compelling nature (Altshuler, 1999; Davis, Geikie, & Schamess,
1988); enhance a child’s voice and show their perspective (Gibson, 2005; Taylor et al., 2013);
explore connections and highlight patterns and parallels across the different spheres of a
child’s existence, for example, family/school/sport team (Galvin, Fletcher, Stilwell, & Jellinek,
2006; Gibson, 2005; Hall, 1988; McMillen & Groze, 1994; Pellegrini, 2009; Sudano, 2012); allow
for co-construction and a collaborative approach (McMillen & Groze, 1994; Pellegrini, 2009);
enhance self-awareness (Gibson, 2005; Hall, 1988; Mala, 2013; Sudano, 2012); encourage
communication and rapport between family members, children and professionals (Altshuler,
1999; Gibson, 2005); aid processing of emotional trauma (Davis et al., 1988; Hall, 1988;
Sudano, 2012) and highlight what might be an appropriate subsequent intervention (Ellis
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& Boyan, 2010; Gibson, 2005; McMillen & Groze, 1994).

However, there was very little, if any, discussion of the genogram’s limitations. There were
also several caveats in terms of the theoretical underpinnings of the research itself. Most of
the papers come from a US context; nine of the 12 articles being American in origin, and
just three originating in the UK. Although the US and the UK are both western developed
and English-speaking contexts, there are significant cultural and social differences.
Conclusions drawn from research carried out in the US must therefore be judged cautiously,
when considering potential applications in the UK.
The papers are drawn from a wide variety of working contexts, including: social work;
family therapy; psychotherapy; psychiatry; academia; school psychology and sport psychol-
ogy. Almost every paper has a qualitatively different background context, with respectively
differing values, systems and objectives. Due to these differences, conclusions drawn from
research carried out in social work or sport psychology settings, for example, can only be
tentative when bridging across to an EP context.
Of the three papers that did have a UK, educational psychology perspective, one is now
quite dated (Hall, 1988), and only Mala (2013) used a formal, structured methodology. In
fact, in most of the papers reviewed, formal methodology was entirely absent. Three papers
(Ellis & Boyan, 2010; Gibson, 2005; and Sudano, 2012) were written in general, hypothetical
terms, without reference to case examples, reading more like instructional manuals than
research papers. A further six papers (Altshuler, 1999; Davis et al., 1988; Galvin et al., 2006;
McMillen & Groze, 1994; Pellegrini, 2009; Taylor et al., 2013) were written in an anecdotal
descriptive style. Assertions were illustrated with reference to case studies, without employ-
ing any formal methodology to demonstrate the trustworthiness of conclusions. Pellegrini
(2009) highlights this in his paper, justifying his stance as responding to: “corporate models
of accountability that do not take into account the many aspects of relation-based psycho-
logical processes and systemic interventions which can be difficult to quantify” (p. 272).
In ontological and epistemological terms, the papers’ positions were not stated, with the
exception of Pellegrini (2009). Most of the papers appear to have been written from a critical
realist perspective, where it is felt that external facts and objects do exist but that the indi-
vidual’s perception of these is an important factor. Perhaps the nature of the genogram itself
is particularly well-suited to a critical realist epistemology because it is a visual representation
of some observable and externally verifiable information (such as basic family structure, age
and gender) as well as some socially and individually constructed information (such as the
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE  5

strength of bonds between family members and the unvoiced values of a family). It therefore
follows that the methodologies are largely qualitative, though a mixed methods approach
would be more usual in this positioning. Of great benefit to the literature would be the
addition of some formal qualitative and quantitative methodologies that look to explore
themes arising from the perspectives of those using the genograms (whether children, fam-
ilies or professionals) and to evaluate both the experience and the outcome.
Given that the literature reviewed was overwhelmingly positive about the benefits of
using genograms but ultimately untrustworthy in terms of its theoretical underpinnings, it
was felt that an exploration of the application of the genogram in working practice was
warranted. This would enable some of the assertions put forward in the literature to be tested
and an exploration of whether the genogram could usefully be applied specifically in an EP
context. The position of this small piece of practice research is from a standpoint of social
constructionism; the assumption that reality is fluid and is constructed subjectively by people
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and groups. The genogram was used in the case study outlined below, as a tool to help one
family construct a narrative which might help them to find ways of moving forward from a
position of being stuck. This is in line with a postmodern systemic family therapy approach,
which would aim to engage people in sharing understandings and views with each other
and exploring ways forward that work for them, rather than seeking to discover any one
truth behind a situation (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2008).

Applications of the genogram in EP practice: a case study

Introduction
The genogram was used both as an assessment tool and as the initial intervention in a piece
of casework with an 11-year old girl (renamed Holly for the purposes of this article) who had
not attended school for several months. Holly had begun to refuse to attend school during
Year 6, when it had become increasingly difficult to bring her to school and to keep her on
the premises. EP involvement began after she made the transition to secondary school but
did not attend. Two, approximately two-hour visits to the family home were carried out. An
anonymised representation of the finished genogram can be found in Appendix 3.

Rationale for using a genogram

(1) This was to be the first home visit to the family and previous records noted selec-
tive mutism. As Holly might refuse to speak directly, it was felt that a family group
activity might act as a gentle icebreaker to lower her defences, and bridge the way
to further and more direct assessments.
Focusing the interview on a concrete task such as genogram construction can reduce children’s
discomfort level and give them an opportunity to discuss their feelings (p. 781, Altshuler, 1999).
(2) School reports indicated that the main source of Holly’s distress, when arriving at
school, seemed to be separation from her mother. The genogram was felt to be a
useful starting point to talk about who in the family had strong bonds and who had
difficult relationships, and why this might have come about.
(3) The research into school refusal behaviour shows that many of the predisposing and
precipitating factors are family-based (Kearney & Silverman, 1995). It was therefore
 6  A. TOBIAS

considered to be pertinent to explore some of these using the genogram; in par-

ticular, whether any other family members had experienced anxiety disorders or
school refusal, and what the triggers were felt to be.

Co-construction
Initially the genogram was drawn up roughly on a large piece of flip chart paper in the middle
of the family’s living room floor. A selection of felt tip pens were laid out and the family were
encouraged to add to the drawing themselves. Prior to the visit, a conversation had taken
place about the activity, so that the family had an opportunity to think about it a little
beforehand. Holly’s mother contributed the most, but Holly was also encouraged to con-
tribute, as well as her three siblings (an older brother and sister, aged 19 and 16, and a
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younger brother, aged six), who were variously in and out of the room. This collaborative
approach, where the professional facilitates the construction of the genogram by acting as
a curious enquirer, is described by Taylor et al. (2013) as being reflective of “postmodern
therapeutic approaches” with “the client being the expert on the problem and the counsellor
acting as consultant to help the client uncover strengths and resources and open possibil-
ities” (p. 280).

Casting the net wide

As the genogram was constructed, questions were asked to gain an overview of the family’s
values, any major events, themes and patterns. Holly’s maternal grandmother had left the
family home when Holly’s mother was 16 years old, having had an affair. Since then she had
had no contact with the rest of the family. Holly’s older sister was very surprised to learn this,
having not previously known about it.
Holly and her three siblings had four separate fathers, in varying degrees of closeness or
separation to the family. Her own father was reported as a strange character who had given
Holly’s mother a false name and had disappeared before Holly’s birth. Some initial themes
arose: strength of character, anxieties, trustworthiness versus betrayal, and you’re either loyal
to the family or you are completely cut off.
Holly was described as the odd one out in the family, not showing many similarities to
anyone else. She was a selective mute and displayed controlling behaviour in relation to
food, clothing, washing and sleeping, perhaps due to sensory sensitivities. (Holly did not
like to expose her skin or to bathe and had difficulty tolerating certain tastes and textures
and wearing certain fabrics). She had a fondness for animals, in particular her pet dog, which
was described as her best friend. On the rare occasion that Holly spoke during my visit, it was
to say something about her dog.

Deepening thinking and formulating hypotheses

A second home visit was arranged, where the family was explored in further depth.
Co-constructed symbols were used to create a key, and several of the initial themes that had
emerged were examined further. These included:
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE  7

Attachments
Highlighted from the genogram was Holly’s mother’s state of mind during Holly’s early life
(given her single status, lack of a supportive maternal figure, abandonment by Holly’s father
and her older daughter’s challenging behaviour – leading to a diagnosis of ADHD); how this
may have impacted upon the bonding process and Holly’s current separation anxiety.

Loyalty and exclusion

Family members were very close but if anyone was disloyal or untrustworthy they were cut
off. Holly’s biological father’s whereabouts had not been known for 11 years and he was
considered to be an untrustworthy person. What was the impact of his rejection and absence
upon Holly? Holly did not feel a strong connection to anyone in the family, being described
as closest to the dog and the odd one out. Was this something that drew her to seek closer
proximity to her mother, or caused her to worry that she may become cut off? Did being
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happy at school, away from her mother, constitute being disloyal in some way?

Anxiety, health concerns and school attendance within the wider family
Anxiety and health were common themes, with various family members being prescribed
medication: her sister was taking medication for ADHD; her younger brother was prescribed
sleep medication and Holly was taking medication to reduce anxiety. Holly’s sister was also
described as being a hypochondriac; always feeling anxious and imagining that she had
symptoms of life threatening conditions. Holly had been displaying signs of wider social
anxiety for much of her life, which had led the family to avoid exposing her to crowds or
busy places wherever possible. Several features of Holly’s behaviour were felt to warrant
investigation into a possible diagnosis of autism spectrum condition. Insomnia was an issue
for several family members. Periods of school non-attendance had also been a feature of
her sister’s education and the youngest child was starting to show signs of this too.

Mutism
There was no pattern within the family, other than Holly’s sister being a chatterbox, which
may have been an example of what is described as a “complementary relationship” within
the family system (Burnham, 1986). Holly had always been very quiet, preferring to speak
to the family dog or her younger brother most. She would often act as though nothing had
been said to her when approached, even by her mother. Was Holly worried about what she
might say if she relaxed and spoke at will?

Strength
Several family members were felt to have stayed strong through difficult times. Her mother
had shown strength, being single when Holly was a baby with a seven, and four-year-old to
look after. Holly’s biological father’s behaviour (disappearing and having a false identity)
was a shock, difficult for her mother to talk about years later. She reported her older daughter
to the police for shoplifting when she was 14, and carried Holly to school kicking and scream-
ing during Year 6, because it was the right thing to do. In exploring this theme, Holly’s mother
also revealed that, as a teenager, she had been the one to tell her father about her own
mother’s infidelity. It might be inferred that Holly also showed strength of mind in her actions
when she refused to speak or attend school.
 8  A. TOBIAS

Gender
Holly’s mother related that her perception of men was that they were more straightforward,
but women were often bitchy, or two-faced. She described her relationship with her daugh-
ters as fiercely overprotective, which possibly related back to her own experiences being
mothered. She was keen to avoid severing the mother–daughter bond, as had happened
in her own adolescence. This may have been linked to the difficulties that both daughters
had experienced separating from their mother to attend school regularly.

Strengths and limitations of the approach

As an assessment tool, the genogram was able to gather an extremely rich source of infor-
mation, and its co-construction with the family facilitated a much deeper discussion than
would have normally been possible within the constraints of an initial consultation. Somehow,
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in co-constructing a visual picture, social awkwardness and embarrassment were reduced

to enable discussion about some very personal family events and feelings.
It was also helpful as part of an initial intervention, because it drew the family’s attention
to some of the repeated patterns of behaviour and unresolved, or unvoiced, issues. It helped
family members to view events and relationships from other perspectives; to consider how
other members might be feeling within the family system.
As with any assessment or intervention tool, success is dependent upon the motivation
of the client to engage. Holly’s mother had not been very forthcoming in previous consul-
tations with other professionals, and Holly had refused to speak to anyone at all (leading to
the family being discharged by the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service for lack of
engagement). The genogram construction in the home environment was more motivating
for this family, Holly’s mother agreeing readily to a second home visit. Holly had also made
a small contribution and had remained engaged, observing carefully for the full duration,
which was rare for her. This would suggest that genogram construction is more motivating,
and perhaps less threatening, than other forms of consultation, though it is, of course, impos-
sible to generalise this assertion to all families.
The genogram is created from the perspective of the family members making the largest
contribution, in this case Holly’s mother. In other cases, the young person might be able to
contribute more to the process. However, in Holly’s case, with her very minimal contribution,
this made the genogram less relevant for her than for her mother.
Finally, the genogram presents hypotheses that can be followed up, rather than answers.
It needs to be used in conjunction with other methods of assessment and intervention and
not as a stand-alone assessment. In the case of school refusal, the literature argues for an
“interactionist analysis” of the “multiple factors in the child’s environment” which maintain
extended school non-attendance (Pellegrini, 2009) and not a single focus upon the family.

Conclusions and implications for practice

The genogram is not found within the literature as a common assessment or intervention
tool in EP practice. Yet the literature asserts that the genogram has multiple benefits in its
use with children and young people, including: being a rich source of information; enhancing
engagement, communication and rapport; improving self-awareness and highlighting areas
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE  9

for intervention. Several of these assertions were supported by this case study; in particular,
producing more detailed information than might otherwise have been possible.
The genogram approach would benefit from further research, examining the claims made
about its usefulness in a robust and trustworthy way, using some formalised methods of
enquiry. There are also limitations in its scope of use. It would generally need to be used in
conjunction with other tools, so as not to falsely locate all a child’s difficulties within the
family context alone.
However, as a result of reviewing the literature and applying the genogram in practice,
it is felt that this tool could have application across a range of EP casework, where issues are
felt to be exacerbated by, or originate from within, the family system. The genogram also
appears to be a useful tool for identifying strengths within the family system, which might
be drawn upon in drafting plans for supporting a child. It has subsequently become a per-
manent part of the author’s tool kit of resources.
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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Holly’s family for allowing their experience to be used as a case study.
I am pleased to report that Holly is now successfully attending at her mainstream secondary
school.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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Yznaga, S. D. (2008). Using the genogram to facilitate the intercultural competence of mexican
immigrants. The Family Journal, 16(2), 159–165.
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE  11

Appendix 1. Some common symbols used in genogram construction

[Source: http://courses.wcupa.edu/ttreadwe/courses/02courses/standardsymbols.htm] Image used
with the permission of T. Treadwell, Dept. of Psychology, West Chester University.
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Appendix 2. Summary of the literature reviewed
Title/Author
Assessing the meaning of suicidal risk
behaviour in adolescents. Galvin et
al., 2006
Using placement genograms in child
welfare practice. McMillen & Groze,
1994
Use of the genogram and process
questions to address conflict among
collegiate student-athletes. Sudano,
2012
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Context Edited Summary of Abstract
USA Presents three exercises (the Moral Genogram;
the Suicide Walk; and the Value Matrix) that
Psychiatry context have been found to be clinically useful with
Psychodynamic young suicidal patients. The goal was to
stance uncover “conscience-related psychodynamic
Descriptive and issues” that support or protect against
exploratory suicidality, and use these in treatment
paper planning
Informal
qualitative
methodology
USA The placement genogram is used as an
assessment and intervention tool for children
in the child welfare system. It graphically
depicts the family and placement histories of
children in care and can be used to assess the
Social work influence of previous experiences on the
context children’s behaviour as well as facilitate
interventions: to help children deal with the
Descriptive and losses they have suffered; to help workers
exploratory focus on important patterns of maladaptive
paper behaviour and to help placement providers
Informal better understand the struggles of the
qualitative children in their care
methodology
USA Describes the use of the genogram as a
Psychotherapy/ 40-minute individual intervention tool to
sport address stressful conflict within student
psychology sports teams (which can lead to performance
context suffering). “In an intimate setting such as a
Descriptive paper, sports team, anxiety and conflict is inevitable
that gives and may imitate family patterns of emotional
instructions for process and interaction.” The genogram is
how to use the used to provide insight by informing the
technique student-athlete of their own emotional
response to fellow teammates and
introducing the possibility for a calm,
interpersonal discussion.”
Key Findings
The genogram can be used to identify degrees
of emotional warmth and conflict, and
affirmations of moral worth, for adolescents
within family relationships, which the
authors felt was a helpful assessment of
suicide risk
More useful with older children and
adolescents and those who are cognitively
and verbally able to co-construct this
Enables caregivers to view behaviour in the
context of a child’s current setting and
multiple historical settings
Exposes patterns which can be useful clues to
understanding triggers (repeated trauma,
loss, separation, themes etc)
Useful guide in thinking about the suitability
of a placement
Enables exploration of patterns of conflict,
anxiety and how these are managed within
the student’s family to be compared to those
within the sports team
12
Comments
No evaluation is made of the
success of this technique
Single case study, illustrated
 A. TOBIAS
with examples of the
adolescent’s responses
Anecdotal style: although
examples are given from the
case study, no formal
method of evaluation is
applied
Difficult to create a concise
and comprehensive
genogram for children with
multiple placements and
very complex histories
Difficult to decide what
information to include
– subjective decision
Single case study, only one
example is described
There is no evaluation made of
the tool by the key users (the
child and his caregivers)
Narrow focus
There is no evaluation made of
the tool by the key users
(student athletes/sports
teams)
The article is more like an
instructional guide than a
research study
The age of the target
participants is bordering on
adult level (college age
being over 18 in the USA)

The Family Genogram Interview:
Reliability and validity of a new
interview protocol. Platt & Skowron,
2013
Applied systemic theory and
educational psychology: can the
twain ever meet? Pelligrini, 2009
Working with parents who abuse their
children: An interdisciplinary
approach in a multi ethnic society.
Hall, 1988;
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USA A study to develop and test the psychometric The FGI has good inter-interviewer reliability The research exists to move
Academic properties of the family genogram interview Construct validity assessments yielded mixed towards developing a
research (FGI), a standardised genogram format results standardised genogram to
context theoretically grounded in Bowen Family use in clinical settings but
Evaluative paper Systems Theory. The sample consisted of 50 The results indicate the FGI is a positive step does not make any
with a positivist heterosexual married women who had at towards standardisation and advancement application of this
stance least one child between 4 and 10 years of of genogram interviewing in research and
Mixed methods age, who completed the FGI with a trained clinical applications
methodology, interviewer
primarily
quantitative
UK A reflection on the potential benefits of The genogram is used collaboratively with the Single case study
applying systemic theory to the work of EPs, family to identify the values and beliefs held
illustrated through a case study. Includes the in the wider family about food and eating
use of a genogram in helping to formulate habits
Educational hypotheses about “Jane”, a five-year old with Genogram construction is used together with The genogram forms only a
psychology a strained relationship with her mother and circular questioning techniques small part of the work
context particular difficulties with eating carried out with the family
Descriptive, and is not the main focus
‘self-reflexive’
and evaluative
paper
UK Describes the use of detailed family interviews States that the genogram is ‘a highly powerfulDescribed as part of a wider
with family members (primarily abusive construct for working with people who approach alongside other
parents) to develop genograms in the hope violently harm their children.’ therapeutic interventions
of increasing parents’ awareness of the and assessment methods
Educational nature and consequences of abuse to their Genograms enable exploration of relationships The article is written
psychology children and affecting positive change and power in families, histories of abuse, descriptively and in
context attitudes to abuse and differing accounts hypothetical, general terms.
It does not give real case
examples
Descriptive/ No evaluation is made of the
instructional success of this approach
paper
(Continued)
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE 
13

Appendix 2. (Continued).
Title/Author
Postmodern and alternative
approaches in genogram use with
children and adolescents. Taylor et al.,
2013;
Developing our cultural strengths:
Using the ‘Tree of Life’ strength-
based, narrative therapy intervention
in schools, to enhance self-esteem,
cultural understanding and to
challenge racism. Mala, 2013;
The use of genograms in a group for
latency age children. Davis et al.,
1988;
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Context Edited Summary of Abstract Key Findings Comments
USA Examples of alternative genogram and Genograms allowed children to “give voice to Anecdotal style: although
Mental health interactional constructions for use with their feelings, actions, goals, strengths and assertions are backed up
context children and adolescents (including a hopes for the future” and “assist children and using illustrations of
 A. TOBIAS
therapeutic Facebook page, a support tree, adolescents in describing their relationships children’s genograms, no
amoeba people and standard genograms with family members and important others.” formal method of analysis is
with alternative, age appropriate symbols). applied
Descriptive paper Case examples are included Practice-based evidence
Informal
qualitative
methodology
UK Evaluates the use of the ‘Tree of Life’ (ToL) Found a significant improvement in the pupil’s The ToL shares characteristics
Educational intervention with a class of 29 Year 5 pupils self-concept post-intervention of a cultural genogram but is
psychology (aged 9 to 10-years-old) in a primary school a more complex representa-
context in North London. The study explores whether tion incorporating a child’s
Exploratory and ToL could be adapted to a mainstream Pupils also reported positive improvements in hopes, dreams, skills and
evaluative education setting and used as a whole class cultural understanding of themselves and abilities
paper intervention It examines the effectiveness of other class members whilst some reported a
Qualitative ToL in enhancing the pupils’ self-esteem and reduction in racist behaviour
analysis of in developing their understanding of their
semi-structured own culture and that of their peers
interviews with
pupils
USA Describes a model of group therapy for five The four children who completed the therapy Small participant group
latency-age (9–10 years) children from “all showed notable improvement” and
“dysfunctional and/or unstable families”, who “academic and behavioural difficulties
demonstrated emotional and behavioural largely disappeared.”
Psychotherapy problems at school as well as a variety of Genograms are felt to have been useful
context “psychosomatic complaints.” Genograms because they were, “developmentally
were drawn up by each child and each was appropriate, cognitively compelling, and
presented to the group for discussion over a relatively non-threatening for latency-aged
series of 30 sessions children.”
Exploratory and Reports that re-experiencing family disruption Anecdotal style – results are
evaluative helped the children to process feelings of reported anecdotally as the
paper shame, guilt, anger, and loss personal observations of the
Informal researcher but there is no
qualitative reference to a formal
methodology methodology

The use of genograms in career
counselling with elementary, middle,
and high school students. Gibson,
2005;
Constructing genograms with children
in care: Implications for casework
practice. Altshuler, 1999
Intervention strategies for parent
coordinators in parental alienation
cases. Ellis & Boyan, 2010
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USA Focuses on the benefits of using genograms in Using career family trees and career The article is written
career counselling with elementary, middle, genograms promotes communication and descriptively and in
and high school children. Suggests that education between children and families hypothetical, general terms.
proven successful use with adults could It does not give real case
transfer well to children examples
School Allows opportunities for children to learn how No evaluation is made of the
counselling/ to self-assess and examine family career success of these suggested
education themes that affect career decision making interventions
context
Descriptive, The genogram is suggested to
instructional be completed as part of
paper wider support
The authors suggest that
research should be carried
out to ascertain
effectiveness
USA Uses case studies to illustrate the use by Genogram construction was found to be Anecdotal style: although
Social work caseworkers of genogram construction with helpful in encouraging initial engagement assertions are backed up
context six children (aged 10–15 years) in foster care and gathering information using quotes from the
Descriptive and It enhanced rapport between caseworkers and children, no formal method
exploratory children of different ethnicities, supported of analysis is applied
paper permanency planning efforts for children in
Informal kinship foster care, and made it possible for
qualitative the voices of the children in care to be heard
methodology
USA Describes the use of genograms to illustrate the PCs are in a good position to make effective The article is written
difficulties of “establishing normal visitation interventions in these cases descriptively and in
and re-negotiating binuclear families” in five hypothetical, general terms.
different cases characterised by parental It does not give real case
alienation (for example following divorce) examples
Family therapy Genograms are then used to suggest Five interventions are identified: (1) Creating a No evaluation is made of the
context interventions for court appointed parenting buffer zone to facilitate crossing the success of these suggested
Descriptive paper coordinators (PCs) co-parental boundary, (2) Helping the child interventions
summarising separate from the enmeshment with the
intervention alienating parent, (3) Blocking intrusions from
types the alienating parent, (4) Strengthening the
bond with the targeted parent, and (5)
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE 
Weakening the coalition around the
alienating parent–child dyad
15
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16
 A. TOBIAS

Appendix 3. Holly’s Family Genogram