Assumptions made in plastic design It may be noted that if the material at the center of the section is

increased the value of shape factor increases. The shape factor nearly
Plastic analysis is defined as the analysis in which the criterion for equal to unity shows the section is efficient in resisting bending
the design of structures is the ultimate load. We can define it as the
analysis of inelastic material that is studied beyond the elastic limit
(which can be observed in the stress-strain diagram).
The following are the assumptions are made in plastic design to
simplify computations:
1) The material obeys Hooke, Law till the stress reaches fy. 2) The
yield stress and modulus of elasticity have the same value in
compression and tension. 3) The material is homogeneous and S = Zp / Ze
isotropic in both the elastic and plastic states. 4) The material is 1) Elactic modulus Ze
assumed to be sufficiently ductile to permit large rotation of the yt = [(100 x 12 x 6) + (12 x 138 x 81)] / [(100 x 12) + (12 x 138)]
section to take place. 5) Plastic hinge rotation is large compare with = 49.48 mm
the elastic deformations so that all the rotations are concentrated at yb = 150 – 49.48 = 100.52 mm
the plastic hinges. The segments between the plastic hinges are rigid. Ixx = [b1d13 / 12 + A1h12] + [b2d23 / 12 + A2h22]
6) The magnitude of bending moment caused by the external loads = [100x123/12+(100x12x43.482)] + [12x1383/12+(10x138x31.522)]
will at the most be equal to the plastic moment reached the capacity = 6.27 x 106 mm4
of the section. 7) The influence of normal and shear forces on plastic Ze = I / Ymax = 6.27 x 106 / 100.52 = 62375.65 mm3
moments is not considered. 8) Plane sections remain plane even after 2) Plastic modulus
Equal area axis
bending and the effect of shear is neglected. 9) The equilibrium of
A/2 = width of flange x h , 2856/2 = 100h
forces at the time of collapse is considered for the undeformed state h = 14.28 mm (from top)
of the structure. 10) No instability occurs in any member of the y1=[(100x12x(6+2.28))+(12x135.72x67.86)] / [(100x12)+(12x135.72)]
structure upto collapse = 42.58 mm
y2 = 107.42/2 = 53.71 mm
Limit State Design Method. Zp = A/2 (y1 + y2) = 2856/2 (42.58+53.71) = 137502.12 mm3
 Shape factor S = Zp / Ze = 2.20
Limit states method was introduced as an advancement over the
traditional design philosophies. The acceptable limits of safety and
serviceability requirements before failure occur are called a limit Two plates 200 x 8 mm of grade 410 are connected by 20 mm
state. The working stress method was based on calculations on bolts using butt joint. Design the bolted connection to transmit a
service load conditions whereas the limit states method aims for a pull equal to the strength of plate. Bolts are of grade 4.6
rational and comprehensive solution to the design problem, by
considering serviceability at working loads and safety at ultimate
loads
Principle of limit state method
The philosophy of multiple safety factor format is made use in limit
state method which attempts to provide adequate safety at the
ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at the service loads,
by considering all possible limit states.The limit state is also defined
as a state of impending failure beyond which a structure ceases to
perform its intended function satisfactorily in terms of either safety
or serviceability either collapses or becomes unserviceable.The loads
obtained from multiplying characteristics loads with suitable factors
of safety should be used to design the structures and also depending Required thickness of cover plate = (5/8) * 8 = 5mm
on the nature of loads or their combinations. These factors of safety Provide cover plates of 6 mm thickness
for loads are termed partial safety factors for loads. Provide two bolts in one row
Design load Fd = (Characteristic load F)×(Partial safety factor for
load λf) Tensile force carried by the plates
= 0.9(200 - 2 * 22) * 8 * 410 / (1.25 * 1000) = 368.4kN
Working Stress Design Method. Strength of bolts in double shear = 2 (0.462 * 400 * 245 / 1000)
= 90.4 KN
The working stress method is a traditional method that is mainly used Strength of bolt in bearing = 2 * 20 * 8 * 410 / 1000 = 131.2 kN
for reinforced concrete as well as for structural steel and timber Required number of bolts = 368.4/90.4 = 4.7 Nos say 5 bolts
design. This method obeys Hook’s law, which means that the stress Minimum pitch = 2.5 * 20 = 50mm
is directly proportional to strain up to the point of collapse.
Remarks: Since the strength of joint is equal to strength of bolts the
Principle of working stress method The main principle of the
working stress method is that it works under the assumption that efficiency is maximum. This example can be worded as (Design the
structural materials behave in a linear elastic manner and also can joint to give maximum efficiency)
ensure adequate safety by suitably restricting the stresses in the
material induced by the expected working load on the structure. Design the lap joint between plates of sizes 100 x 16 mm thick
PermissibleStress=Ultimateoryieldstress/FactorofSafety and 100 x 10 mm thick so as to transmit a factored load of 100
Working Stress ≤ Permissible
kN using single row of bolts of grade 4.6 and grade 410 plate.
But the working stress method does not provide a realistic measure
of the actual factor of safety for a design and also fails to
discriminate between different types of load that act simultaneously.
But some of the advantages is that the structures designed based on
the working stress method have larger safety factors than in the limit
state method.
This method is simple in concept as well as application. Still, the
working stress method is accepted in India for special structures such
as RC bridges, water tanks, and chimneys. Solution:
Assume e=30 mm and area of bolt = 157 mm²
Shape Factor Diameter of bolt = 16 mm, Diameter of hole 16+2 = 18 mm
Single shear capacity of bolt = Vdsb = Vnsh/Ymb
The ratio of plastic moment to elastic moment Mp/My is the property = (fu/√3) (nn Anb + ns Asb)/1.25 = 0.462 fu nn Anb
of cross-sectional area and is not dependent on material properties.
= 0.462 x 400 x 1 x 157/1000 =29 kN
This ratio Mp/My is called shape factor, S, and is given by :
S= Mp/My = Zp / Ze Bearing capacity of thinner plate = Vdpb = Vnpb / Ymb
= 2.5 Kb d tp fu / 1.25 = 2 Kb d tp fu
Kb is smaller of:
0.63[=30/(3 x 16)] or 0.49 = [40/(3 x 18) - 0.25] or 0.98(=400/410)
Kb = 0.49
Vdpb = 2 x 0.49 x 16 x 10 x 410 / 1000 = 64.29 kN
Least bolt value Bv = 29 kN
Required number of bolts = 100/29 = say 4 bolts
Provide 4-16 mm bolts at 40 mm pitch with 30 mm end distance
Remarks: The forces transferred by upper plate and the lower plate
are not colinear and cause moment but such small moment is
neglected
ISA 100 x 100 x 10 mm angle is to be welded in shop to 12 mm
gusset plate The angle carries an ultimate pull of 300 kN applied
along its centroidal axis which is 28.4 mm from the back of the
angle
a) Determine the length of side fillet weld required at the heel
and toe of the angle
b) Determine the length of side fillet weld if the transverse fillet
weld is added at the end of the angle.
(a) Weld along the length
Let P1 , P₂ be the resisting forces exerted by the weld at the heel and
toe of an angle section respectively as shown in Fig. They are
assumed to act along the edges of the angle.
Taking moment of forces about P₂
P1x 100 = 300 x ( 100 – 28.4) = 300 x 71.6
P1 = 214.8 kN
P₂ = 300-214.8=85.5 kN
Maximum size of the weld at the rounded corner = 3/4 x 10= 7.5mm
Using 6 mm weld > 5mm (see Table 3.1)
Throat thickness =0.707 x 6 = 4.24 mm
Strength of 6 mm weld = 4.24 fu / √3 Ymw = 4.24x0.462x410
= 803.1 N/mm
Effective length L1 of the weld required
=(214.8 x 1000)/803.1=267 mm say 270 mm
Provide 6 mm weld 270 mm weld at the heel of the angle
Effective length L2 of the weld required
=85.5 x 1000/803.1=106.4 mm say 110 mm
Hence, provide 6 mm weld 110 mm long at the toe
b) Transverse weld added at the end of the angle
If transverse weld is added at the end of the angle, it should be
applied symmetrically about the c.g. of the section to avoid
eccentricity of loading.
Remarks:
1) Normally this accuracy is not considered in the design and weld is
added to the full width of the angle. The resisting force becomes
eccentric but the moment due to this eccentricity is neglected.
2) The weld thickness is approximately taken as 0.7 size of weld
instead of 0.707 of size of weld
Length of transverse weld = 2 x 28.4 = 56.8 mm
Therefore, force resisted by 56.8 mm length of 6 mm weld
= 56.8 x (0.707 x 6 ) x 0.462 x 410 x 10- 3 =45.64 kN
Balance load = 300-45.64 =254.36 kN
P1x 100 = 254.36 x 71.6
P1 = 182.1 kN
P₂ = 254.36 – 182.1 = 72.2 kN
Effective length L1 =182.1 x 1000/803.5 =226.6~say 230 mm
Effective length L2 = 72.2 x 1000/803.5=89.8 mm say 90 mm
A diagonal member of the truss is an ISA 65 X 65 X 6 mm ,
welded in field to a gusset plate 8 mm thick. The grade of steel
used for angle is Fe410. Design the joint to the full strength of
angle
(a) If field weld is provided along the length of the member.
(b) If field weld is provided along all sides of the angle
For Given member
Area of angle =744 mm2 and distance of c.g. from its heel is 18.1 mm
(a) field welding along the length of the member
Strength of angle = (area of c.s) x fy /Ymo
= 744 x 250/(1.1 x 1000) = 169.1 kN
Taking moment about P1 ,
P₂ x65=169.1 x 18.1 >> P₂ = 47.1kN
P1 = 169.1-47.1=122 kN
Max size of weld = 3/4 x 6 = 4.5 mm
Assume 4 mm weld. Throat thickness =0.7 x 4=2.8 mm
Stress in field weld = fwd = fwn / 1.5 = 0.666 fu /√3 = 0.385 fu
Strength of weld = 2.8 x (0.385 x 410) = 442 N/mm
Effective length L1 =122 x 1000/442 =276~mm say 280 mm
Effective length L2 = 47.1 x 1000/442=106.6 mm say 110mm
(b) welding is provided along all sides of the angle
Using 4 mm weld force in weld 442 N as obtained in 'a' above
Force resisted by side weld P3 = 442 x 65/1000=28.73 kN
Taking moment of forces about P1,
P2 x 65+ P3 x 65/2 = 169.1 x 18.1
P2 = 169.1 x 18.1 / 65 – P3 / 2 = 47.08 – 28.73 / 2 = 32.72 kN
P1 = 169.1 - 28.73 – 32.72 = 107.65 kN
length of weld L2 = 32.72 x 1000/ 442 = 74 mm
length of weld L1 = 107.65 x 1000/ 442 = 243.5 mm say 244 mm
length of weld L3 = 28.73 x 1000/ 442 = 65 mm
Total length of weld required = 74+244 +65 = 383 mm
A tie member consisting of ISMC225 @ 25.9 kg/m is connected to
either side of the gusset plate of 12 mm thick. Design the welded
joint to develop full strength of the tie if the overlap is limited to
400 mm
For ISMC225, tf =12.4~mm , tw =6.5~mm , A=3330 mm2
Tensile strength of each channel:
Strength due to yielding of gross section, Tdg =Ag fy / Ymo
= 0.91 Ag fy = 0.91 x 3330 x 250 / 1000 = 757.6 kN
Strength due to rupture, Tdn = α An fu / Yml = 0.8 (α An fu)
= 0.8 x (0.8 x 3330 x 410) / 1000 = 873.3 kN
Design strength = 757.6 kN
Minimum size of weld = tw - 1.5=6.5-1.5=5.0mm
Using 4 mm weld, throat thickness = 0.707 x 4 = 2.83 mm
Strength of weld/mm = 2.83 x 0.462 x 410/1000 = 0.535 kN/mm
Total length of fillet weld required to connect the channel section
=757.6/0.535=1416 mm
Vdsb = 0.462 fu nn Anb
= 0.462 x 400 x ( 1 x 245 ) =45.27 kN
Strength in double shear = 2 x 45.27 = 90.54 kN
Strength of bolt in bearing = Vdpb = 2 d tp fu
=2 x 20 x 8 x 400 / 1000 = 128 kN
Strength of plate in tearing = 0.9 x 410 x (50-22) x 8 /(1.25x103)
= 66.12 kN
Strength of plate per pitch length = 0.9 x 410 x 50 x 8/ (1.25 x 1000)
=118 kN
Efficiency of the joint = 100 x (66.12/118) = 56%
Remarks: For the same configuration efficiency of butt joint is 1.46
(=66.12/45.3) times greater than the lap joint
STEPS FOR DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
1) Calculate the factored load Pu and the maximum bending moment
BM and shear force Vu
Assume self weight of structure as 1kN/m
Factored Load Wd = W x 1.5
Total load = Wd + self weight = ----- kN/m
Max BM Md = Wd x L2 / 8 = ---- kN.m
Max SF Vu = Wd x L / 2 = ------ kN
2) Obtain the plastic modulus of section (Zp)req (Ymo = 1)
(Zp)req = Md x Ymo / fy = _______ mm3
Provided plastic moment of resistance
Md = Bb*Zp*fy / Ymo = 1(1337.6 * 10 ^ 3) * 250 / (1.1 * 10 ^ 6)
= 303.5kN .m>281.25 kN.m(=M p ) ……OK
Check for Shear
Plastic Shear Resistance Vd = 0.525*Av * fyw
= 0.525(400 * 8.6) * 250 / 1000
= 451.5kN >V (=187.5 kN)
V/Vd = 187.5/451.5 = 0.41 < 0.6
No reduction in moment capacity is required

3) Obtain section modulus (Ze) (S= 1.14) Check for Web Buckling
Ze = Zp / S Assume the stiff portion of bearing = 75mn
Depth of the strut between flanges d1= 348mm
4) Check for section classification (for beam from steel table) r = tw / sqrt(12) = 8.6 / (sqrt(12)) = 2.48mm
For fy = 250, ꞓ = 1 Leff = 0.7xd = 0.7 * 348 = 243.6m
For rolled steel section (I section) L eff / r = 243.6/2.48 = 98
For bh / tf = 9.4 plastic, bh / tf = 10.5 compact, l eff /r = 98 , fcd=110 MPa
bh / tf = 15.7 semi-compact Assume stiff portion of web b1 = 75 mm
For d / tw = 84 plastic, d / tw = 105 compact, Ab = (b1+ n1) * tw where, b1 + n1 = 75 + 348/2 = 249 mm
d / tw = 126 semi-compact, Ab= 249 * 10.2 = 2540 mm ^ 2
5) Calculate design shear for web Buckling resistance =f cd * Ab
Vd = fy D tw / (Ymo x √ 3) = 0.525 fy D tw =110*2540/1000=279.4 kN > V(=187.5)
Check that Vd > Vu and Vu < 0.6 Vd : safe
6) Check for web buckling
If d / tw < 67ꞓ web stifferners are not required Check for Web Crippling
Assume stiff portion of web b1 = 75 mm
7) Calculate moment resisted by the section do = tf + R1 = 17.2 + 17 = 34.2mm
Mr = ꞵb Zp Fy / Ymo Web crippling strength = (b1+ n2) *t w * f yw /Ymo
b1+ n2 = 75 + 2.5 * 29.75 = 149.37mm
ꞵb = 1 for plastic and compact sections
Web crippling strength
For semi-compact section Mr = Ze fy / Ymo
= 149.37 * 8.6 * 250 / 1.1 * 1000 = 291.9kN > 187.5kN
Mr > Md (safe)
safe
8) Check for deflection
Check for deflection
ɗallowable = Le /300, ɗmax = 5/384 (WL2/EI) Required D= 5000 / 300 = 16.7mm
ɗmax < ɗallowable Actual deflection = 5W L ^ 3 / (384EI) + WL ^ 3 / (48EI)
= 5(40 * 1000 * 5) * 5000 ^ 3 /(384*2*10^ 6 *23426.8*10^4 + 50 *
1000*5000^3 / (48* 2 * 10^6 * 23426.8 *10^4)
A simply supported beam 5 m span carries uniformly distributed =6.94 + 2.78 = 9.72mm < 16.7mm
load 20 kN/m. In addition, the beam carries a central point load Hence , Safe
of 50 kN. The beam laterally supported. Design the section and
check the section for shear and deflection. A non-sway intermediate column in a building frame with
flexible joint is 4.0 m high and it is ISHB 300 @ 588 N/m steel
section. Check the adequacy of the section when the column
Calculation of factored Load
issubjected to following load :
Uniformly distributed load = 1.5 * 40 = 60kN / m (i) Factored axial toad - 500 kN
Point load = 1.5 * 50 = 75kN (ii) Factored moments (Mx) & (My)
Mx My
Calculation of maximum Bending moment and shear force Bottom +7.0 kN.m - 1.0 kN.m
Maximum factored BM = w L ^ 2 / 8 + WL / 4 Top +15.0 kN.m + 0.75 kN.m
=(60.x 5^ 2 /8)+75*5/4 =187.5+93.75= 281.25kN .m Assume effective length of column 3.4 m along both the axes.
Maximum factored SF - w L / 2 + W / 2 = (60 * 5) / 2 + 75/2 = 1)Cross section properties
187.5kN i) Flange thickness tf = 10.6 mm
ii) Clear depth between flanges, h = d = 300 – 2 x 10.6 = 278.8mm
Calculate required plastic modulus iii) Thickness of web, tw = 7.6 mm
Required plastic section modulus Zp=M Ymo/fy= 281.25 * 10 ^ 6 * iv) flange width bf = 250 mm
1.1 / 250 = 1237.5 * 10 ^ 3 * mm ^ 3 v) area of cross-section Ag = 7485 mm2
Elastic section modulus = 1237.5 * 10 ^ 3 / 1.14 vi) Radius of gyration rx = rz = 129.5 , ry = 54.1 mm
= 1085 * 10 ^ 3 * m m ^ 3 vii) M.I. Izz = Ixx = 12545.2 x 104 mm4
Iyy = 2143.6 x 104 mm4
Select the section viii) Section modulus Zx = 836.3 x 103 mm3, Zy = 175.5 x 103 mm3
Try ISWB400
Properties of the section are 2) Section Classification
D=400 mm, bf= 200mm , tf= 13mm, tw= 8.6mm, i) [bf/2] / tf = 11.8 < 13.65ꞓ
Zxx = 1173.3 * 10 ^ 4 mm ^ 4, h2 = 29.75 , R1 = 13 mm d / tw = 36.7 < 40.95ꞓ
section is semi-compact
Section classification
3)Check for resistance of cross-section to the combined effects of
Depth of the strut between the flange yielding
d1 =D - 2 x(tf + R1) = 400 - 2x(13 + 13) = 348mm Fyd = fy/Ya = 250/1.15 = 217.4 N/mm2
d1 /tw = 348/8.6 = 40.4mm < 84 . bh/tf= (200/2)/13 = 7.6 < 9.4 Ag = 7485 mm2
Section is plastic Fc = 500 kn
Zp provided=1173.3*10^ 3 )* 1.14 Mx = +15 kNm My = - 1.0 kNm
= 1337.6 * 10 ^ 3 m m ^ 3 > 1237.5 * 10 ^ 3 mm^3
The Interaction eqation is Let us try ISWB 225@332-56 N/m
Fc / Ag Fyd + Mx / Zx Fyd + My / Zy Fyd < 1 Area A = 4324 mm², Depth D=225mm,width of flunge, bf = 150mm
0.307 + 0.083 + 0.026 = 0.416 < 1
Thickness of flunge, tf = 9.9mm
Hence, Section is O.K against combined effects of yielding
Thickness of web tw= 6.4mm
4)Check for resistance of cross-section to the combined effects of Root radius R1 = 9mm
buckling depth of web, d = D - 2(tf + R1)
Effective length of the column = 3.4 m = 225 - 2(9 .9 + 9) = 187. 2mm
Slenderness ratio = λx = Leff / rx = 3400/129.5 = 26.3 plastic section modulus Zpz = 389.93*10^3 mm3
λy = Leff / ry = 3400/54.1 = 62.8 Elastic section modulus, Zez = 348. 5 * 10 ^ 2 mm 3
λ1 = √(π2 E / Fy) = √(π2 2x 105 / 250) = 88.9 :: Moment of Inertia,
Nondimensional slenderness ratio I zz =3420.5*10^ 4 mm^ 4
λ = λ / λ1 Iyy = 448.6 * 10 ^ 4 mm ^ 4
λx = λx / λ1 = 26.3 / 88.9 = 0.296
λy = λy / λ1 = 62.8 / 88.9 = 0.706 Section classification
i) for Flange :
Ф Values
[bf/2] / tf = (150/2)/(9 .9) = 7.57 < 9.46
Ф = 0.5 [ 1+ α ( λ - 0.2 ) + λ2 ]
ii) for web :
Фx = 0.5 [ 1 + 0.21 (0.296 – 0.2) + 0.2962 ] = 0.554
Фy = 0.5 [ 1 + 0.34 (0.706 - 0.2) + 0.7062 ] = 1.006 d/(tw) = 187.2/(6 .4) = 29.25 < 84 ꞓ
-Hence, the entire section is plastic.
ꭓ - values
ꭓ = ꭓ1 / [Ф + (Ф2 - λ2)1/2] Design bending moment capacity.
ꭓx = 1 / [0.554 + (0.5542 – 0.2962)1/2] = 0.580 Mdz = ꞵb *Zpz*Fy/Ymo
=1.0*389.93*10^3*250/1.10
The Interaction Equation is Mdz= 88.62 KN-M
Fc / fd + kx Mx / Mux + ky My / Muy <= 1

λx = M2 / M1 = 7/15 = 0.467 Design tensile strength,

i) strength on the basis of gross c/s yielding
ꞵmx = 1.8 – 0.7 φx = 1.8 – 0.7 x 0.467 = 1.473
Tdy =Ay * f y / Ymo
ux = λx (2 ꞵmx - 4) = 0.296 (2 x 1.473 – 4 ) = - 0.312
= 4324 * 250/1.10
kx = 1 - (ux fc / Pcx) (Pcx = ꭓx Ag fy)
=982.72kN
= 1 – [ (-0.312) x 500 x 103 / 0.978 x 7485 x 250 ) = 1.085
ii) strength on the basis of net section rupture
λy = M2 / - M1 = 0.75 / -1 = - 0.75
Tdn =0.9* An* f u / Ym1 = 0 .9 * 4324*410 /1.25 = 1276.44KN
ꞵmy = 1.8 – 0.7 φy = 1.8 – 0.7 ( - 0.75) = 2.325
uy = λy (2 ꞵmy - 4) = 0.706 ( 2 x 2.325 – 4) = 0.459
Design tensile strength
ky = 1 - (uy fc / Pcx) (Pcy = ꭓy Ag fy) Nd = 982.72KN
= 1 – [0.459 x 500 x 103 / 0.58 x 7485 x 250) = 0.788
Check for local Capacity
NOTE :-
N/Nd + Mz/Mdz <= 1.0
Fd = ꭓmin Ag Fyd = .580 x 7485 x 217.4
Mux = Zx Fyd = 836.3 x 103 x 217.4 (450 * 10 ^ 3)/(982.71* 10 ^ 3) + (35 * 10 ^ 6)/(88 .62 * 10 ^ 6)
Muy = Zy Fyd = 175.5 x 103 x 217.4 0.8528 =< 1.0 ok.

The Interaction Equation is ... check for overall buckling strength

Fc / fd + kx Mx / Mux + ky My / Muy <= 1 Meff= M – ψ T .Zez / A (ψ = 20/35 = 0.571)
0.640 < 1 = 35 * 10 ^ 6 – ( 0.571 * 450 * 10 ^ 6 * 348 . 5 *10 ^ 3 / 4324
Hence, Section is O.K. against combined effect of building = 14.29kN - m < Mdz = 88.62KN-m ……………..ok.

Design a beam column for the following data:

Length of the member, L = 3.5m
factored axial tension, T = 450 KN.
factored Moment (Mz) i) Top of column = 35 KN-m
ii) Bottom of column = 20 kN - m
Steel of grade: fe410.

for fe 410 grade of steel

fy = 250 mpa, fu= 410 N / mm 2
partial safety factor, Ymo = 1.10 Ym1 = 1.25

Net required area of cross-section,

An= T Ym1/0.9fu= (450 * 103 * 1. 25)/(0.9 * 410) = 1524.39mm 2
Gross required area of cross section
Ag = T. Ymo/ f y = 450x10^3 x 1.10 /250 = 1980 mm²

NOTE: The gross area so determined may be Sufficient for axial

tensile force, but the member is also subjected to bending moment.
Therefore, to account for bending moment let us increase the
required gross area so determined by 100%.
Required gross area = 2 * 1980 = 3960 mm²