JEM

Emergency management leadership in 2030:

Shaping the next generation meta-leader

Carol L. Cwiak, JD, PhD

Ronald Campbell, CEM, MEP
Matthew G. Cassavechia, MPS, EFO, CEM
Chuck Haynes, MS
Lanita A. Lloyd, MS, CEM
Neil Brockway, BS
George O. Navarini, MA, CEM
Byron E. Piatt, MPA, CEM
Mary Senger, BS

ABSTRACT Key words: emergency management, meta-leader-

The complexities, interdependencies, and ambigu-
ity that face next generation emergency management
meta-leaders in an ever-evolving global community
heighten the expectation and need for competencies
that far exceed those common in practice today and
necessitate the ability to move seamlessly through
the dimensions of meta-leadership (ie, the person, the
situation, and connectivity) while utilizing scientific-
based evidence, information, resources, processes, and
tools. The objective of this effort was to examine the
recently developed next generation emergency man-
agement competencies through a meta-leadership
lens by juxtaposing the competencies and the meta-
leadership model. This resulted in a new framing of
the skills and attributes within the meta-leadership
model as they are relevant to each competency.
Selected trends, drivers, and challenges were used
to provide examples within each competency area
of the utility of meta-leadership to next generation
emergency management practice. This effort also
offers training and education implications for next
generation emergency management meta-leaders. The
examination of the new framing created in this effort
is intended to prompt dialog and research within
the emergency management practice and academic
communities that furthers the practice and study of
emergency management.
ship, training, education, competencies, next generation
INTRODUCTION
Vince Lombardi once said, “Leaders aren't born,
they are made. And they are made just like anything
else, through hard work.” It is with an appreciation of
the truth in Lombardi's words that this effort exam-
ines the skills and attributes next generation emer-
gency management meta-leaders will need.
This effort specifically looks at the next gen-
eration emergency management core competencies1
within the dimensions presented in the meta-lead-
ership model2 to further the dialog about the trends,
drivers, and challenges that will affect the practice
of emergency management in 2030 and beyond and
what that will mean for next generation emergency
management meta-leaders. “Meta-leaders are able to
imaginatively and effectively leverage system assets,
information, and capacities”3(p128) that are critical to
the advancement of the evolving emergency manage-
ment mission. Meta-leadership incorporates dimen-
sions across the leadership spectrum that are inte-
grally tied to the identity and principles of emergency
management.
“Emergency management seeks to promote safer,
less vulnerable communities with the capacity to
cope with hazards and disasters.”4 In practice, it is

DOI:10.5055/jem.2017.0317
Journal of Emergency Management 81
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017

02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 81 26/04/17 5:11 PM

 defined as a “managerial function charged with creat-
ing the framework within which communities reduce
vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters” by
“coordinating and integrating all activities necessary
to build, sustain, and improve the capability to miti-
gate against, prepare for, respond to, and recover from
threatened or actual natural disasters, acts of terror-
ism, or other man-made disasters.”4 The Principles
of Emergency Management detail the underpinnings
of effective practice in stating that emergency man-
agement must be: comprehensive, progressive, risk
driven, integrated, collaborative, coordinated, flexible,
and professional.4
The expectations for the effective practice of
emergency management clearly require an ability to
lead across a variety of spectrums. Indeed, the meta-
leadership model's value in regard to emergency
preparedness activities has been previously noted3;
however, the meta-leadership model has not been
previously used in conjunction with established emer-
gency management competencies or next generation
competencies to identify the skills and attribute
needs of next generation emergency management
meta-leaders. This effort not only examines those
skills and attributes that emerge from a juxtaposition
of the next generation core competencies and meta-
leadership model, but also makes recommendations
regarding training and education of those skills and
attributes.
In addition, this effort pulls from other literature
sources to highlight selected trends, drivers, and
challenges that will be relevant to the practice of
emergency management in 2030 and beyond within
the 12 competencies delineated in the next genera-
tion emergency management core competencies.1 This
allows for a richer and more salient examination of
next generation opportunities and challenges. The
trends, drivers, and challenges noted herein are
addressed only cursorily but serve as a launch point
for future dialogs and research within the emergency
management practice and academic communities.
Likewise, the identified skills and attributes and
recommendations for training and education that are
offered in this effort are not intended to be the end of
the discussion, but instead, the beginning of a dialog
82
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 82
that advances the collective emergency management
community's directives.
NEXT GENERATION EMERGENCY
MANAGEMENT CORE COMPETENCIES
The next generation emergency management
core competencies were developed through a mul-
tistage process under the auspices of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Higher
Education Program. The process began with a 2-day
focus group wherein the participants “debated the
drivers of future disasters” and the “foundations
an emergency manager of 2030 and beyond might
require.” 1(p2) The core competencies were “built
on existing emergency management purview and
competencies” and took into consideration a review
of global disaster risk trends.1(p3) Once consensus
was reached, draft competencies were created and
a two-cycle Delphi study was used to analyze and
refine the competencies.1(p2) The 12-core competen-
cies that resulted from the aforementioned process
are grouped into four categories: broad knowledge
base, organizational acumen, problem solvers, and
emergency management leadership. The competen-
cies and their explanative narrative are presented in
their entirety below.1
Broad knowledge base
Scientific literacy. Emergency management profes-
sionals must possess a fundamental understanding
of the natural, social, fiscal, and applied sciences as
they impact the local, regional, national, and global
community. Scientific literacy is “the capacity to use
scientific knowledge, to identify questions and draw
evidence-based conclusions to understand and help
make decisions about the natural world and the
changes made to it through human activity.”5(p123) The
scientific process provides an objective means to work
through complex problems, enhance decision making,
and interact with multiple stakeholders. Scientific
literacy helps emergency management professionals
understand and interpret the scientific evidence as it
relates to hazards, risks, and vulnerabilities so it can
be effectively communicated to policy makers and the
public.
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 Geographic literacy. Emergency management profes-
sionals must possess a foundational understanding
of the geographic configurations of hazards, vulner-
ability, and risk. This comprehensive understanding
better enables emergency managers to determine
the day-to-day risks they are addressing. Geographic
literacy is evident in the ability to conceptualize the
interconnections, interactions, and implications of
complex environments, as well as, the ability to uti-
lize available analysis and technological tools to track
environmental changes that result in changing risk
profiles.
Sociocultural literacy. Emergency management pro-
fessionals must recognize the ways in which sociocul-
tural factors contribute to population vulnerability.
Sociocultural literacy provides the lens to examine
and understand human behavior, and the ways in
which humans, both individually and collectively, may
increase their vulnerability to risk. An understand-
ing of sociocultural dynamics, such as the rules and
unwritten nuances of social groups and subgroups,
economic disparities, the importance of trust, empa-
thy, and respect both within and across groups, dif-
ferential impacts based on needs, gender, age, ability,
etc, population movement, and increasing pluralism,
is necessary for enhancing community capacity, capa-
bility, and resilience.
Incorporate evolving technologies. Emergency man-
agement professionals must be able to exercise infor-
mal influence across organizational boundaries with
public, private, nonprofit, and academic partners to
harness and incorporate converging and emerging
technologies. Doing so requires an understanding
of available technology, recognition of the expertise
needed to utilize such technology, and a grasp of the
security measures necessary to protect the technol-
ogy and an ability to recognize and evaluate the
value of technological solutions to emergency man-
agement.
Organizational acumen
Understanding complex systems. Emergency manage-
ment professionals must be able to work in global
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 83
systems, understand and manage interconnections,
and recognize interdependencies to reduce risk. The
nonlinear and emergent characteristics of complex
systems can bring about unexpected outcomes that
exacerbate risk. The world is increasingly intercon-
nected and interdependent, and the ability to read
and understand complex systems is necessary to suc-
cessfully address newly developing hazards, vulner-
abilities, risks, and opportunities in the social, built,
and physical environments.
Risk governance. The emergency management profes-
sional must be able to advocate for risk awareness,
assessment, measurement, and reduction across a
broad spectrum of stakeholders. The way in which
risk is managed is referred to as risk governance, and
includes all levels. The complexity of risk governance
in a global community requires recognition that risk
is inherent in interdependencies, risk governance
spans individuals’ ownership of risk, and the present
and future risk implications are inherent in stake-
holders’ decisions and activities.
Problem solvers
Critical thinking. The emergency management pro-
fessional must be a critical thinker. Critical think-
ing is a disciplined intellectual process that involves
innovative thinking that is fundamental in decision
making in complex environments. Critical thinkers
identify, analyze, synthesize, apply, and evaluate data
from all sides of an issue with a focus on improving
problem solving and informing actions. Critical think-
ing places emphasis on the importance of finding and
recognizing relevant evidence, making clear the rela-
tionships between potential causes and effects, and
understanding the relationship between sometimes
complex variables before making decisions.
Professional ethics. The emergency management pro-
fessional must be ethical. Professional ethics are
framed by standards that delineate expected and
appropriate conduct, principles, and moral and ethical
values that guide practice in the face of both known
and emerging issues. Emergency management profes-
sionals must both abide by and champion professional
83
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 ethics, to ensure professionalism and address power
inequities.
Continual learners. The emergency management pro-
fessional must be a continual learner. Operating in
a dynamic and continually evolving risk environ-
ment requires more than the simple acquisition of
new skills and fact accumulation. Continual learners
develop and nurture a frame of mind that values and
utilizes curiosity, reflection, and the development of
new capabilities.
Emergency management leadership
Operate within the emergency management frame-
work and principles. The emergency management
professional must utilize a proactive, anticipatory,
and innovative approach for guiding public policy
and in the application of the emergency management
framework and principles. Emergency management
seeks to promote safer and more resilient communi-
ties. All necessary actions are employed to mitigate
against, prepare for, respond to, and recover from
threatened or actual hazards. Emergency manage-
ment activities must be comprehensive, progressive,
risk driven, integrated, collaborative, coordinated,
flexible, and professional.4
Facilitate community risk understanding and owner-
ship. The emergency management professional must
communicate, promote, and support the need for
individuals, families, businesses, and organizations
to “own” the risks to which they are exposed within
their discreet communities. Therefore, the ability to
understand risk, make clear the roles and tasks that
can be undertaken by individuals and community
representatives is essential.6
Community leadership, team building, and resource
management. The emergency management profes-
sional must lead boldly. Effective emergency man-
agement leadership puts an emphasis on team
building, collaboration, and collective leadership.
This leadership is enhanced and emboldened by:
informed decision making, strong management tech-
niques, communicating and fostering a shared vision,
84
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 84
empowering others, establishing communication capa-
bilities across varied networks, and creating an out-
come-oriented environment for continual improvement.
META-LEADERSHIP MODEL
The meta-leadership model was designed with the
intent of integrating and framing existing “leadership
analysis, practice, and scholarship” within dimensions
that are easier for leaders to conceptualize and use.2(p9)
The goal of the model is “to help leaders effectively navi-
gate complex situations.”2(p9) The model utilizes three
dimensions that capture the broad themes in the leader-
ship literature: the person, the situation, and connectiv-
ity.2 These dimensions both stand-alone and intertwine
with each other to produce a capable meta-leader.
“The person” focuses on the importance of meta-
leaders “knowing themselves and the impact they
have on others.”2(p10) This requires a “high degree of
emotional intelligence” as evidenced in attributes
such as: “self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation,
empathy, and social skills.”2(p10) Meta-leaders under-
stand how to “build, manage, and maintain trust”;
the value of role modeling, “composure, balance, and
appropriate perspective”; the importance of intellec-
tual curiosity; the ways in which “subconscious biases
and heuristics shape how an individual perceives
and evaluates other people and phenomena”; and the
necessity of being able to “view situations as com-
plex, adaptive systems where patterns of connection,
dependence, and interdependence are better sources
of understanding system behavior than is a focus on
the individual components or actors.”2(pp10-13)
“The situation” focuses on the meta-leader's
responsibility to diagnose and communicate what is
happening in a “complex situation, time of change,
or moment of crisis.”2(p14) This requires both organi-
zational awareness and situational awareness and is
closely tied to the attributes in the person dimension.2
Meta-leaders must be able to understand and inte-
grate “divergent perspectives”; build and foster “unity
of purpose and effort”; make informed decisions in a
condensed timeline; and “work with ambiguity.”2(pp14-17)
“Connectivity” focuses on the meta-leader's abil-
ity to forge “strategic connectivity for coordinated
effort among stakeholders” by leading down, up,
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 across, and beyond.2(p19) This requires the ability to
utilize “negotiation and conflict resolution theory and
practice” and the ability to foster “leadership devel-
opment throughout the system.”2(pp19-20) In “leading
down,” meta-leaders lead their own team; in “leading
up,” meta-leaders exercise influence to inform and
educate the people above them; in “leading across,”
meta-leaders develop relationships with other depart-
ments and organizations to enhance outcomes for all;
and in “leading beyond,” meta-leaders reach beyond
to extend influence to “individuals and other inter-
organizational entities.”2(pp19-26)
JUXTAPOSING THE COMPETENCIES WITH META-LEADERSHIP
By juxtaposing the next generation competencies
with the meta-leadership model, the competencies can
be examined both within the singular dimensions and
across all of the dimensions. The model creates a spe-
cial lens by which the competencies can be construed.
This allows for an extension of both the competency
effort and the meta-leadership model. Hence, this cur-
rent effort creates the frame for next generation emer-
gency management competencies for meta-leaders.
Table 1 shows the resulting skills and attributes
that emerged from the juxtaposition of the competen-
cies and the meta-leadership model. This juxtaposi-
tion narrowed the examination of the competencies to
the meta-leadership framing. Table 1 helped inform
the examination of trends, drivers, and challenges
across the competency areas and next generation
emergency management meta-leader training and
education recommendations.
TRENDS, DRIVERS, AND CHALLENGES
ACROSS THE COMPETENCIES
Trends, drivers, and challenges across the com-
petencies that are relevant given the identified skills
and attributes (see Table 1) are examined within each
competency. This examination is not intended to be all-
inclusive; it is intended to highlight the ways in which
these trends, drivers, and challenges will affect the prac-
tice of emergency management in potentially positive
or negative ways. Examining these items are helpful in
identifying training and education recommendations for
next generation emergency management meta-leaders.
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 85
As can be seen in the discussion below, many of
the trends, drivers, and challenges are relevant to
multiple competencies and the competencies them-
selves are tightly connected. As such, it is noted at
the outset that the complexities, interdependencies,
and ambiguity that face next generation emergency
management meta-leaders in an ever-evolving global
community heighten the expectation and need for
competencies that far exceed those common in prac-
tice today. Next generation emergency management
meta-leaders will need to be able to move seamlessly
through the dimensions of meta-leadership (ie, the
person, the situation, and connectivity) while utiliz-
ing scientific-based evidence, information, resources,
processes, and tools.
Scientific literacy
While it is widely agreed across the emergency
management community that the practice of emer-
gency management must be evidence based and firmly
rooted in the natural, social, fiscal, and applied sciences,
the extent to which the relevant science is known and
utilized is less than optimal. Often in emergency man-
agement, conventional wisdom is relied upon despite
its incongruence with empirical research.7 The chal-
lenge facing emergency management in this arena is
multifaceted. First, the discipline of emergency man-
agement is young and emerging8; second, the body of
knowledge is still being identified and gathered within
the emergency management higher education commu-
nity from an assortment of disciplines with literature
relevant to the study and practice of emergency man-
agement9; and third, there has been limited success
in translating and communicating research findings
into actionable elements for practice.10 Fortunately,
emergency management higher education programs
are utilizing textbooks that emphasize the importance
of evidence-based practice and graduates entering the
field are more aware of the existing literature. There
is also growing anecdotal evidence that emergency
management graduates have an appreciation for, and
capacity to use, scientific knowledge to inform practice
(ie, scientific literacy).
Scientific literacy denotes evidence-based knowl-
edge and “a range of thinking skills related to the proper
85
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 Table 1. Next generation emergency management meta-leader skills and attributes
The person
Self-awareness; self-regula-
Next generation tion, motivation; empathy;
emergency man- social skills; trust; curiosity;
agement core imagination; and, systems
competencies1 thinking.
Must possess curiosity and
imagination, be a systems
Scientific literacy thinker, and be self-aware
about subconscious biases
and heuristics.
Must be a systems thinker and communicate what is happen-
Geographic
be self-aware about subcon-
literacy
scious biases and heuristics. moment of crisis and work with
Must possess empathy and
Sociocultural social skills, be a systems
literacy thinker, and be able to build
and maintain trust.
Must possess curiosity and
Incorporate
imagination, be able to build
evolving tech-
and maintain trust, and be a
nologies
systems thinker.
Must possess social skills, be
able to build and maintain
Understanding
trust, possess curiosity and
complex systems
imagination, and be a systems
thinker.
Must be motivated, possess
social skills, be able to build
Risk governance
and maintain trust, and be a
systems thinker.
Must be self-aware, possess
curiosity and imagination, and
Critical thinking
be self-aware about subcon-
scious biases and heuristics.
86
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 86
Meta-leadership model2
The situation Connectivity
Diagnose and communicate Forge strategic connectivity for coordi-
what is happening in a complex nated and more effective efforts; utilize
situation or moment of crisis; un- negotiation and conflict resolution tech-
derstand and integrate divergent niques; foster leadership development
perspectives; build and foster throughout the system; and lead down,
unity of purpose and effort; up, across, and beyond.
make informed decisions in a
condensed timeframe; and work
with ambiguity.
Must be able to understand and
integrate divergent perspec-
Must be able to forge strategic connec-
tives, build and foster unity of
tivity for coordinated and more effective
effort, diagnose and commu-
efforts and lead down, up, across, and
nicate what is happening in a
beyond.
complex situation or moment of
crisis, and work with ambiguity.
Must be able to diagnose and
Must be able to forge strategic connec-
tivity for coordinated and more effective
ing in a complex situation or
efforts and lead down, up, across, and
beyond.
ambiguity.
Must be able to understand and
Must be able to forge strategic connec-
integrate divergent perspec-
tivity for coordinated and more effective
tives, build and foster unity of
efforts, utilize negotiation and conflict
effort, and diagnose and com-
resolution techniques, foster leadership
municate what is happening in
development throughout the system,
a complex situation or moment
and lead down, up, across, and beyond.
of crisis.
Must be able to forge strategic connec-
Must be able to build and foster tivity for coordinated and more effective
unity of effort. efforts and lead down, up, across, and
beyond.
Must be able to diagnose and Must be able to forge strategic connectiv-
communicate what is happen- ity for coordinated and more effective
ing in a complex situation or efforts and lead down, up, across, and
moment of crisis. beyond.
Must be able to understand and
Must be able to forge strategic connec-
integrate divergent perspec-
tivity for coordinated and more effective
tives, build and foster unity of
efforts, utilize negotiation and conflict
effort, and diagnose and com-
resolution techniques, foster leadership
municate what is happening in
development throughout the system,
a complex situation or moment
and lead down, up, across, and beyond.
of crisis.
Must be able to diagnose and
communicate what is happening
in a complex situation or mo- Must be able to lead down, up, across,
ment of crisis, make informed and beyond.
decisions in a condensed time-
frame, and work with ambiguity.
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 Table 1. Next generation emergency management meta-leader skills and attributes (continued)
Meta-leadership model2
The person The situation Connectivity
Self-awareness; self-regula- Diagnose and communicate Forge strategic connectivity for
Next generation tion, motivation; empathy; what is happening in a complex coordinated and more effective efforts;
emergency man- social skills; trust; curiosity; situation or moment of crisis; utilize negotiation and conflict
agement core imagination; and, systems understand and integrate resolution techniques; foster leadership
competencies1 thinking. divergent perspectives; build development throughout the system;
and foster unity of purpose and and lead down, up, across, and beyond.
effort; make informed decisions
in a condensed timeframe; and
work with ambiguity.

Must be self-aware, be able to Must be able to forge strategic connec-

self-regulate, possess
Professional
empathy and social skills, be
ethics
motivated, and be able to
build and maintain trust.
Must be able to build and foster
tivity for coordinated and more effective
unity of effort and understand
efforts, utilize negotiation and conflict
and integrate divergent per-
resolution techniques, and lead down,
spectives.
up, across, and beyond.

Must possess curiosity and

Must be able to forge strategic connec-
imagination and be self-aware Must be able to work with
Continual learners tivity for coordinated and more effective
about subconscious biases ambiguity.
efforts.
and heuristics.

Must be able to diagnose and

communicate what is happen-
ing in a complex situation or
Operate within Must be able to self-regulate, Must be able to forge strategic connec-
moment of crisis, understand
the emergency possess social skills, be able to tivity for coordinated and more effective
and integrate divergent
management build and maintain trust, and efforts, utilize negotiation and conflict
perspectives, build and foster
framework and possess curiosity and resolution techniques, and lead down,
unity of effort, make informed
principles imagination. up, across, and beyond.
decisions in a condensed
timeframe, and work with
ambiguity.

Must be able to diagnose and

communicate what is happening
Facilitate Must possess empathy and Must be able to forge strategic connec-
in a complex situation or mo-
community risk social skills, be able to build tivity for coordinated and more effective
ment of crisis, understand and
understanding and maintain trust, and be efforts and lead down, up, across, and
integrate divergent perspec-
and ownership motivated. beyond.
tives, and build and foster unity
of effort.

Must be able to diagnose and

Must be self-aware, possess
Community
empathy and social skills, be
leadership,
able to build and maintain
team-building,
trust, be self-aware about
and resource
subconscious biases and
management
heuristics, and be motivated.
Must be able to forge strategic connec-
communicate what is happen-
tivity for coordinated and more effective
ing in a complex situation or
efforts, utilize negotiation and conflict
moment of crisis, understand
resolution techniques, foster leadership
and integrate divergent
development throughout the system,
perspectives, and build and
and lead down, up, across, and beyond.
foster unity of effort.

utilization of science and technology information.”11(p407) emergency management partners supply the subject
Scientific literacy is pertinent to all areas of emergency matter expertise involved in discipline-specific scien-
management practice, from informing preparedness tific information; however, that does not remove the
activities to estimating storm surge elevations. Often, need for the emergency management practitioner to be

Journal of Emergency Management 87

Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017

02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 87 26/04/17 5:11 PM

 able to ask the appropriate questions and make sound
conclusions on the evidence provided.
For example, it is expected that the impacts of cli-
mate change will profoundly affect the United States
over decades to come and will change the nature and
extent of events faced in emergency management prac-
tice.12 This will change the focus of community emer-
gency management-oriented priorities and activities.
Other trends and drivers in the social, technological,
environmental, economic, and political arenas will
also carry significant and far-reaching impacts that
will affect vulnerability, adaptability, and the types
of services emergency management delivers.12 Next
generation emergency management meta-leaders will
need to work with a broad partner base to ensure that
they are utilizing current evidence-based information
to address the many complexities involved in deal-
ing with the hazards their communities face. They
will also need to effectively communicate the science
as they lead down, up, across, and beyond to secure
the appropriate support and resources necessary to
implement evidence-based programs.
Geographic literacy
In its simplest presentation, geographic literacy is
“the ability to express knowledge of basic geographic
subject matter, specifically the ability to (1) dem-
onstrate map reading skills, (2) knowledge of place
locations, and (3) an understanding of human sys-
tems, society, and the physical environment.”13(p7) This
literacy is relevant in both the varying terrains and
community compositions in the United States and in
the global society. In today's world, goods, culture, ide-
ology, collaboration, vulnerability, and risk no longer
have simple geographic boundaries; hence, geographic
literacy is more important than ever. The intercon-
nectivity and dependencies that exist as a result of
globalization, both create new risk and vulnerabilities
and exacerbate existing ones.
An understanding of the “patterns and processes
that shape global patterns” are necessary to under-
stand and manage the increasing uncertainty in the
world.14(p316) Spatial thinking is essential to develop-
ing this understanding. “Spatial thinking comprises
the knowledge, skills, and habits of mind to use
88
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 88
concepts of space, tools of representation, and rea-
soning processes to structure, solve, and to express
solutions to problems. Spatial thinking underlies a
significant amount of geographic learning such as the
use of maps, graphs, images, diagrams, models, and
visualizations. In addition, it supports the descrip-
tion, explanation, and discussion of the functions,
structures, relationships, and operations of a wide
variety of spatiotemporal processes.”14(p316) An aware-
ness of global disaster risk reduction goals and efforts,
such as those pursued within the Hyogo and Sendai
frameworks, helps inform a vulnerability worldview
and provides insight into the types of activities that
have been successful in reducing risk.6,15
Next generation emergency management meta-
leaders must possess an understanding of the ways in
which global patterns, disasters, economic situations,
and political unrest are relevant to analyzing risk in
the United States. Geographic literacy is crucial to
understand and track global risks such as the impacts
of public health events, climate change, or the grow-
ing terrorist threat. Next generation emergency man-
agement meta-leaders must be able to conceptualize,
interpret, and communicate changing risk profiles
within a complex system.
Sociocultural literacy
Next generation emergency management meta-
leaders will have to adopt a broader agenda that
incorporates an understanding of the strengths, vul-
nerabilities, and needs of communities based on socio-
cultural realities, which harkens to a much broader
disaster risk reduction approach.16(p10) This requires
not only literacy but also high-level engagement and
strategic connectivity across all levels of government
and social and cultural institutions. This is in align-
ment with the “whole community” approach12 and is
productive in reducing vulnerability and increasing
social capital.
Factors such as age, gender, disability, race, ethnic-
ity, language, sexual orientation, employment status,
generational cohort, religious beliefs, housing condi-
tions, geography, etc, can affect not only individual
vulnerability but also the ways in which messaging
should be sent (and by whom), the ability to evacuate,
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 the willingness to shelter, and engagement in other
like activities in the emergency management pur-
view that are used to help keep the citizenry safe and
secure. Further, a lack of trust in government, lack of
social and financial resources, and firmly held beliefs
about the nature of disasters (or ones’ ability to cope)
can further exacerbate vulnerability. The pressure
and release model, which examines the progression
of vulnerability through root causes, dynamic pres-
sures, and unsafe conditions, illustrates the extent to
which vulnerability is, in many ways, quite predict-
able.17 Next generation emergency management meta-
leaders must fully engage with the communities they
serve to understand the diversity in thought, belief,
capability, and experience that exist within the com-
munity and the ways in which that diversity affects
or changes the delivery of service. This will require
strong social skills, the ability to connect with a wide
variety of interests and groups, the ability to build and
foster unity of effort, and the ability to foster leader-
ship within diverse populations in the community.
There are two troubling trends in recent years,
that while not the purview of emergency manage-
ment to repair, are potentially quite problematic to
the practice of emergency management. The first is
a growing distrust in government, particularly in
the law enforcement community (a key emergency
management partner).18 The second trend is a decline
in tolerance and civility regarding difference across
sociocultural parameters. This has created division
within and across various groups, decreased the sense
of legitimacy afforded to others, and decreased social
capital.19 As this is the fabric of the community within
which next generation emergency management meta-
leaders will work, this division complicates efforts to
address disparities. The next generation emergency
management meta-leader will need to work closely
with community partners and lead down, up, across,
and beyond to help address these challenges as they
exist in the community they serve.
Incorporate evolving technologies
Technological advancement has enhanced and
redefined emergency management process, expecta-
tion, and capability. The last decade has evidenced an
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 89
increased focus on the ways in which technology can
serve the practice of emergency management and the
challenges and concerns it presents.20-23 Technologies,
such as “the internet, wireless technology, GIS, direct
and remote sensing, emergency management decision
support systems, hazard analysis and modeling, and
warning systems,” have changed the nature and expe-
diency of the practice of emergency management.23(p48)
Social media has increasingly been used to communi-
cate and receive information and has been effective
for all levels and sizes of government.24
Historically, the primary challenges with new
technology have been lack of expertise, training, and
resources necessary to engage with the quick-moving
technology evolution. Additionally, the technology
has often advanced more quickly than the ability to
examine the psychological, legal, and ethical implica-
tions of using said technology.25-28 Drone technology
is an example of a powerful tool for emergency man-
agement that carries with it as many questions as
answers.29,30
Even as technology has proven to be transforma-
tive, it has also introduced new and more complex
vulnerabilities as jurisdictions have come to rely on
its capabilities.31-34 Threats to cyber infrastructure
have become one of the most vexing problems facing
emergency management.35,36 With greater use and
reliance on technology have come additional vulner-
abilities that must be addressed.
The next generation emergency management
meta-leader will need to be able to recognize the ways
in which technology advances program directives;
analyze and address the psychological, legal, and ethi-
cal implications of its use; create security protocols to
secure essential technology; and partner with subject
matter experts to envision future uses for technology.
This will require the ability to apply systems think-
ing while maintaining a constant state of intellectual
curiosity about the ways in which new technologies
can assist emergency management practice. Next
generation emergency management meta-leaders will
need to lead down, up, across, and beyond to meet the
extensive partnership and resource needs associated
with the investigation and implementation of new
technologies.
89
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 Understanding complex systems
The most defining paradigm shift for next genera-
tion emergency management meta-leaders to face is
emergency management's movement from a histori-
cally linear view of hazards and their effects to a non-
linear, dynamic, and complex system lens. Complex
systems are characterized by large numbers of inter-
acting elements; nonlinear effects; dynamic action
that appears to be unpredictable (although order is
apparent in retrospect); multiple right answers, which
when implemented change the system; and the whole
of the system is greater than the sum of its parts.37
Complex systems require a different framework for
situational awareness and action than linear systems.
Leaders in complex systems must “sense, analyze, and
respond” while considering and investigating multi-
ple options for response (with recognition that action
affects the system in a potentially nonlinear way).37(p3)
Complex systems are, by their very nature, rife
with uncertainties and interdependencies that dra-
matically reduce predictability; yet, they often liberate
self-organization efforts that are more effective than
preplanned efforts.38-40 As such, complex systems war-
rant a higher level of flexibility and adaptability within
the emergency management system, which must be
coupled with “well-coordinated interorganizational net-
works and trust between government agencies at all
levels and between the public and private sectors.”41(p33)
Complex systems inherently create “whole community”
engagement that must be addressed with aforethought;
citizen engagement in events will be emergent and
decentralized, utilize a wide breadth of technologies,
and drive adaptation within the system.12
Complex systems require an emergency manage-
ment structure with a capability focus as opposed to
the highly structured framework approach that is typ-
ical of bureaucratic systems.42 “Traditional education
and training largely focuses on enhancing competence
(knowledge, skills, and abilities). In today's complex
world, we must educate not merely for competence
but for capability (the ability to adapt to change, gen-
erate new knowledge, and continuously improve per-
formance); capability is enhanced through feedback
on performance, the challenge of unfamiliar contexts,
and the use of non-linear methods such as storytelling
90
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 90
and small group, problem based learning.”43(p799)
Emergency management structures that allow flex-
ibility within capability frameworks are better suited
to deal with complex systems.
The nature of complexity that the emergency
management community will deal with in the future
will result in “more incidents, new and unfamiliar
threats, more information to analyze (possibly with
less time to process it), new players and participants,
sophisticated technologies, and exceedingly high public
expectations.”12(p2) In addition, challenges in regard
to technology dependence,12,44 critical infrastructure
dependencies and interdependencies,45,46 and global
dependencies and interdependencies47 have become
more salient in recent years, particularly in the face
of evolving terrorist threats.12 Successful leadership
into the future will require next generation emergency
management meta-leaders to embrace and operate
from a complex adaptive framework, understand the
connections and interdependencies in global systems,
and foster strong relationships across far-reaching
networks. The ability to foster and engage intellectual
curiosity and to maintain situational awareness will be
essential to effective emergency management practice.
Risk governance
Risk governance is arguably the most important
next generation competency and is integrally interwo-
ven with many of the other competencies. The central-
ity of risk, its role in daily emergency management
decisions and operations, the complexities involved
in correctly assessing and controlling exposure, and
the obligation to convey potential impacts with suf-
ficient gravity across a wide variety of audiences all
contribute to the need for strong and strategic risk
governance.
Risk is inherent in society,48 and modern societies
not only create and exacerbate their own risk17,49 but
are also shaped by the risks they face.48 With globali-
zation has come an expansion of risk and increased
sensitivity to interconnectedness in the systems
within which we live and work. In a “world risk soci-
ety,” global risk characteristics such as delocalization,
incalculableness, and noncompensability reframe the
risk evaluation and action equations.50(p333)
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 “Global shocks” defined as “a major rapid-onset
event with severely disruptive consequences covering
at least two continents” have become an increasing
concern over the past decade.51(p3) “The principle differ-
ences between global shocks and local or even national
level shocks are the interconnected pathways through
which risks can accumulate, propagate, and culminate
in a much greater scale of effects.”51(p4) Events that
start locally and rapidly spread, such as pandemics,
are currently “poorly mapped and modeled” and “often
require a higher level of coordinated, international
response.”51(p3) Global shocks can also have direct
and secondary critical infrastructure disruptions.51
Slow-developing catastrophic risk, such as climate
change, can become a global shock based on a lack of
awareness and action.52 This type of risk “is built into
the very fabric of our complex sociopolitical-economic
world, just as it is in the ecosystems of which we are a
part, and their occurrence is inevitable.”52(p3)
The International Risk Governance Council in
addressing emerging risk governance has set forth
“guidelines designed to deal with complex, evolving,
and uncertain environments.”53(p3) These guidelines
require a sophisticated, multifaceted examination of
risk that presents itself in a nonlinear fashion, calls
for well-reasoned decisions made in periods of deep
uncertainty, and an ability to develop strong situ-
ational awareness skills.53 This requires strategic fore-
sight and governance54 far beyond the common current
practice in the emergency management community. It
requires an ability to utilize a systems framework and
to be comfortable dealing with complexity.
As the world becomes more complex and inter-
dependent, next generation emergency management
meta-leaders will need to foster relationships across
all sectors and help unite many groups, agencies, and
organizations with varying levels of engagement and
missions in an overarching shared mission via a net-
work governance approach16 and be prepared not only
to lead but also to foster leadership within the network.
Network governance is powerful in that it helps address
budget constraints and gain access to a wide variety of
subject matter expertise.55 The concept of network
governance is similar to FEMA's “Whole Community”56
approach, but that approach is less emphatic about
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 91
sharing governance and addressing endemic societal
problems and more focused on engaging and empow-
ering the community to share responsibility for its
own safety and resilience in regard to emergencies,
disasters, and catastrophes. In contrast, the National
Response Framework,57 utilizes a form of network gov-
ernance in emergency support functions (albeit, only
with federal agencies). Into the future, whether the
model being utilized is the more rigorous network gov-
ernance or the softer community engagement approach,
the next generation emergency management meta-
leader will need to heavily utilize relationship building,
unity of effort, conflict resolution, and leadership skills
while leading down, up, across, and beyond.
Critical thinking
Bloom's58 taxonomy ,and more recently its revi-
sion,59 has long been used to promote advanced levels of
thinking in the training and education arena. Likewise,
the importance of teaching critical thinking skills60
and utilizing these skills in practice61,62 has also been
recognized in the emergency management community.
Strong critical thinking skills are deemed essential to
situational awareness and decision making; this is par-
ticularly salient because information received in a crisis
may be ambiguous, unstructured, vary in amount (from
too little to too much), contradictory, and confusing.63(p1)
The ability to assess, manage, and communicate what
is happening in a complex situation (situational aware-
ness) to key stakeholders is the “basis for effective
choices for strategy, direction, and action.”63(p1)
Decision making is best informed by situational
awareness developed in an environment that is cognizant
of perceptual and cognitive biases and the types of errors
they can produce, an environment that actively seeks to
mitigate these biases.64 Active recognition of the potential
for error based on biases forces a more rigorous process
and requires a self-aware leader. Such a leader must rec-
ognize the innate vulnerability toward bias in their own
process, and develop and facilitate an environment where
others can also recognize this vulnerability.63(p11)
The complexity and interdependency that exacer-
bates risk governance, coupled with the evolution in the
amount of information available, the way it is received,
and the challenges with vetting said information, both
91
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 increases the need for a strong critical thinking process
and challenges the process. Next generation emergency
management meta-leaders will be challenged to work
in an environment where they must quickly analyze
evidence, synthesize information, and understand the
effect decisions can have in a dynamic environment.
The quality of their critical thinking process will under-
pin their ability to grapple with the uncertainty present
in a crisis and allow them to make informed decisions
in a condensed timeframe.
Professional ethics
“A profession's code of ethics is perhaps its most
visible and explicit enunciation of its professional
norms.”65(p110) Professional ethic codes are particularly
important in professions that have a duty to serve
the public, especially those professions focused on
protecting the interests, safety, and security of indi-
viduals and communities. “A code embodies the col-
lective conscience of a profession and is testimony to
the group's recognition of its moral dimension.”65(p110)
Additionally, such a code can articulate the expected
standard of care in professional practice which is rele-
vant in regard to liability when a duty of care exists.66
While some state and national associations serv-
ing the emergency management community have
developed ethical codes within their organizational
frameworks, the field of emergency management does
not currently have a professional code of ethics that
puts forth the “expected and appropriate conduct, prin-
ciples, and moral and ethical values that guide practice
in the face of both known and emerging issues.”1 Such
a code is necessary for the emergency management
community to become a true profession that is inter-
nally controlled by its own expectations of professional
practice.67 Next generation emergency management
meta-leaders will be tasked with shaping, implement-
ing, and upholding professional ethics necessary to
advance emergency management ideals and practice.
This will require an expansive understanding of the
emergency management literature and effective prac-
tices; an appreciation of the extent to which practice
varies across jurisdictions, sectors, and organizations;
and the ability to bring together and integrate perspec-
tives across the emergency management community.
92
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 92
For example, the extent to which vulnerability
exacerbates hazard impacts15,17,68-71 illustrates the
need for the professional ethical code to expect that
those practicing emergency management can under-
stand, identify, and competently address inequities
that will create differential impacts in the face of
emergency or disaster. The code will also necessarily
address the expected care required to meet the duty
of care owed to those the emergency management
practitioner serves. As is true in all aspects of meta-
leadership, the next generation emergency manage-
ment meta-leader will have to rely heavily on the abil-
ity to build trust and relationships to effectuate unity
of effort. In addition, they will need to be dynamic in
leading divergent perspectives to consensus.
Continual learners
As is evidenced in a historical review of emer-
gency management (from its early days in Civil
Defense to current), political, social, and economic
factors have long driven change in the practice of
emergency management.72 Indeed, it can be said that
emergency management allows nothing less than
continual learning based on its history of seemingly
constant evolution. However, there is more to con-
tinual learning than merely embracing the notion
that change will be constant and keeping up with
new developments, continual learning is optimized
by fostering the development of intellectual curiosity
and by utilizing “action learning.”73
Intellectual curiosity is best framed as “a hungry
mind.”74 A person who is intellectually curious will
often ask “why” questions and seek a more in-depth
understanding of the phenomenon they encounter.
Action learning examines pressing problems that
have no single correct answer through a process of
asking questions, looking at the various layers of a
problem, and taking action to implement solutions.73
“Action learning promotes practical solutions, group
emotional intelligence, and individual, team, and
organizational learning.”73(p40)
Next generation emergency management meta-
leaders will face new and different challenges that
emerge in an increasingly interdependent and com-
plex global system and require engagement across
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 a diverse group of stakeholders with multilayered
interests. They must possess the capacity to work with
ambiguity and to use intellectual curiosity to self-pro-
pel learning. Next generation emergency management
meta-leaders must be able to ask “high-quality ques-
tions” that force examination of new ideas, challenge
closely held assumptions and beliefs, and recognize the
power in questioning, listening, and reflection.73(p40)
Operate within the emergency management
framework and principles
Emergency management activities are dictated by
a simple premise: “safer, less vulnerable communities
with the capacity to cope with hazards and disas-
ters.”4 Toward that end, the Principles of Emergency
Management and other operational frameworks at
the state and national level are designed to guide and
facilitate effective practice. The next generation emer-
gency management meta-leader must be proactive,
anticipatory, and innovative in reviewing, revising, and
shaping future frameworks to ensure that they remain
focused on emergency management's guiding premise.
In addition, next generation emergency management
meta-leaders must inform and guide public policy that
affects vulnerability, individual and community resil-
ience, and the practice of emergency management.
The ability to articulate emergency management's
identity, professional purview, mission, partnerships,
and challenges will be essential to successfully contrib-
uting to, and controlling, the operational framework
and advancing the autonomy of the professionalizing
field.75 This requires next generation emergency man-
agement meta-leaders to embrace their role as change
agents76,77 with the responsibility to actively lead
the field. In part, this necessitates a strong and pur-
poseful partnership between emergency management
practitioners and academics, support of established
and respected professional organizations focused on
advocacy, and dedicated efforts toward the steps nec-
essary to professionalize the field.78 Next generation
emergency management meta-leaders will need to
utilize all of their strengths, relationships, and fore-
sight to lead down, up, across, and beyond to ensure
emergency management activities produce the desired
outcome.
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 93
Facilitate community risk
understanding and ownership
“The national emergency management system is
built on shared responsibilities and active participa-
tion at all levels” with the citizenry serving as the
foundation of the system.79(p9) Unfortunately, citizen
preparedness (ie, individual, household, business, and
organization preparedness) is woefully lacking. Only
one in four Americans believe that their community
will be impacted by disaster.80 And only a third of
Americans have an emergency plan.80 Citizens are
most likely to prepare for risks that they perceive to
be a significant threat81and risk perception is influ-
enced by the type of disaster, the individual's charac-
teristics,82 and individual's knowledge.83
Public education preparedness campaigns have suf-
fered from “substantial underuse of theory from the social
and behavioral sciences.”83(p602) There is a lack of “clear
evidence-based knowledge of the underlying process
through which public education information is trans-
formed into consequent desired behavior change.”83(p602)
As a result, the shared responsibility and active par-
ticipation that the emergency management system is
built upon at the citizenry level is a failed premise that
will enhance the possibility of system failure. Yet, it
is expected that in 2030, the role of citizens will need
to expand to address public funding constraints.12 For
the citizen capacity to grow to meet future needs, risk
ownership must be transferred. The citizenry must be
informed that the management of risk for events that
impact them starts with them and failures to plan for
such events can have detrimental consequences.
To successfully shift risk ownership to the citizenry
and motivate preparedness actions, next generation
emergency management meta-leaders will need to
shift from just communicating about the risk to com-
municating what to do about the risk to citizens—
“behaviors they should take, how to take them, and
how they can benefit from taking such actions.”83(p612)
They will also need to partner across diverse networks
to “distribute consistent information over many differ-
ent public communication channels.”83(p612) This will
require next generation emergency management meta-
leaders to coordinate efforts and lead down, up, across,
and beyond to ensure that the correct information is
93
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 communicated to the citizenry that empowers them to
effectively manage and reduce their own risk.
Community leadership, team building,
and resource management
The emergency management community is tasked
with tremendous responsibility, but few resources. The
emergency management doctrine shift to “whole com-
munity”56 arose out of recognition that it does indeed
take a whole community to achieve key national, state,
and local emergency management goals. As such, part-
nership and collaboration are essential to effective
emergency management practice.84 Next generation
emergency management meta-leaders must be able to
foster partnership and collaboration through strong
leadership. This requires the ability to engender trust,
develop and foster strong alliances, and build teams with
a shared vision. This effort is made more difficult by the
lack of direct authority over those in the collaborative
network.85 Next generation emergency management
meta-leaders must be able to imagine a “new conceptual
framework” and develop “governance arrangements
that bridge and integrate holistically, rather than isolate
risk.”86(p279) This will include arrangements that cross
organizations, jurisdictions, borders, and oceans.
Next generation emergency management meta-
leaders must also be able to marshal a community's
“social capital resources” to “improve the community's
resilience to risks and hazards.”87(p297) Utilizing commu-
nity resources in this way results in reduced conflict and
greater altruism in disasters88 while advancing shared
community goals. This requires flexibility to work
with emergent groups that can provide just-in-time
manpower and fluid operational directives in chaotic
environments.89 With the increasingly connected global
community, these groups can emerge from across the
world and exist primarily in cyberspace. The opportu-
nity to collaborate with such groups requires the ability
to accurately assess and communicate the situation and
needs across a wide variety of platforms and networks
to empower an outcome-oriented environment.
In addition, next generation emergency man-
agement meta-leaders must be able to advise and
advocate for risk sensitive community development
decisions about planning and zoning and other risk
94
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 94
reduction strategies49; raise awareness and focus
efforts on social vulnerabilities71; and make the
case for funding a robust emergency management
program.90 The emergency management community
spent decades in a reactive posture dealing with
legislators and funding agencies that only addressed
issues as a matter of retrospect.72,91-93 Next gen-
eration emergency management meta-leaders must
recognize and embrace the importance of their role
in leading holistic community efforts to reduce the
impacts of events and to create a more resilient
community.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TRAINING AND
EDUCATION OF META-LEADERS
In the above examination of the trends, drivers,
and challenges across the competencies, a number
of implications arise regarding the successful train-
ing and education of next generation emergency
management meta-leaders. Many of the implications
offered below traverse both the training and educa-
tion agenda, and some step into professional service.
It is noted that the list provided below is one that will
be worked on over the span of a career.
Next generation emergency management leaders
need:
A
nn broad-based emergency management
education that focuses both on building
the required next generation competency
base and the traits and skills necessary to
meta-leadership;
Extended
nn exposure working within, and
across, the community to understand its
nuances and complexities;
Training
nn and other engagements wherein
the wicked problems of emergency man-
agement practice and policy are discussed;
Exercises
nn that develop and strengthen
critical thinking, situational awareness,
problem-based learning capabilities, and
systems thinking;
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 Ongoing
nn engagement and leadership in
professional associations;
Purposeful
nn engagement with the K-12
school population focused on building a
more prepared and better informed citi-
zenry;
Participation
nn in the ongoing evaluation
of the types of capabilities, trainings, and
resources relevant to the practice of emer-
gency management;
Consistent
nn exposure to the emergency
management literature and advances in
the field and discipline;
Opportunities
nn to partner with academics
on topics and issues relevant to the emer-
gency management community;
Training
nn on advocacy for the field and
discipline;
Opportunities
nn to mentor up-and-coming
emergency management professionals;
and
Focused, regular interaction with partners
nn
and networks.
CONCLUSION
Next generation emergency management meta-
leaders will face events that are more dynamic,
more complex, and more challenging to prepare for,
respond to, recover from, and mitigate against. These
leaders will need extensive knowledge, skills, and
abilities to fulfill their mission “to promote safer,
less vulnerable communities with the capacity to
cope with hazards and disasters.”4 In examining the
next generation emergency management competen-
cies within the meta-leadership model, the extent to
which the dimensions of the person, the situation, and
connectivity will be critical to successful emergency
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 95
management practice are clear. As such, this leader-
ship ability must be taught, fostered, and mastered to
meet the challenges that will emerge in the practice
of emergency management over the decades to come.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A very brief overview of this article was presented orally on
September 15, 2016 at FEMA's Executive Academy on the National
Emergency Training Campus in Emmitsburg, Maryland.
Carol L. Cwiak, JD, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Emergency
Management, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota.
Ronald Campbell, CEM, MEP, Retired, Emergency Management
Coordinator, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Matthew G. Cassavechia, MPS, EFO, CEM, Director, Danbury Emergency
Medical Services, Danbury, Connecticut.
Chuck Haynes, MS, Director, York County Office of Emergency
Management, Rock Hill, South Carolina.
Lanita A. Lloyd, MS, CEM, Emergency Preparedness Manager, WellStar
Paulding Hospital, Hiram, Georgia.
Neil Brockway, BS, Regional Disaster Officer, American Red Cross,
Connecticut/Rhode Island, Farmington, Connecticut.
George O. Navarini, MA, CEM, Doctoral Student, Fire and Emergency
Management Administration, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
Oklahoma.
Byron E. Piatt, MPA, CEM, Emergency Manager, University of New
Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Mary Senger, BS, Emergency Manager, Burleigh County Emergency
Management, Bismarck, North Dakota.
REFERENCES
1. Feldmann-Jensen S, Jensen S, Maxwell-Smith S, et al.: The
Next Generation Emergency Management Core Competencies.
Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2016.
Available at http://training.fema.gov/hiedu/emcompetencies.aspx.
Accessed August 1, 2016.
2. Marcus LJ, Dorn BC, Henderson J, et al.: Meta-Leadership: A
Framework for Building Leadership Effectiveness. Cambridge, MA:
National Preparedness Leadership Initiative, 2015.
3. Marcus LJ, Dorn BC, Henderson JM: Meta-leadership and
national emergency preparedness: A model to build government
connectivity. Biosecur Bioterror. 2006; 4(2): 128-134.
4. Blanchard BW, Canton LG, Cwiak CL, et al.: Principles of
Emergency Management. Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency
Management Agency, 2007. Available at http://training.fema.gov/
hiedu/emprinciples.aspx. Accessed August 1, 2016.
5. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: The
PISA 2003 Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science
and Problem Solving Knowledge and Skills. Paris, France: OECD
Publishing, 2004.
6. UNISDR: Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction: 2015-
2030. 2015. Available at http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/sen
dai-framework. Accessed August 1, 2016.
95
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 7. der Heide EA: The importance of evidence-based disaster plan-
ning. Ann Emerg Med. 2006; 47(1): 34-49.
8. Jensen J: The Argument for a Disciplinary Approach to
Emergency Management Higher Education. Emmitsburg, MD:
Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2010. Available at http://
training.fema.gov/hiedu/highpapers.aspx. Accessed August 1, 2016.
9. Cwiak C: Framing the future: What should emergency manage-
ment graduates know? J Homeland Secur Emerg Manage. 2011;
8(2): 1-14.
10. Training and Education Synergy Focus Group: Synergy Between
Training and Education: Advancing the Dialogue and the Efforts.
Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency,
2014. Available at http://training.fema.gov/hiedu/trainingeducato
nandsynergy.aspx. Accessed August 1, 2016.
11. Hurd PD: Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world.
Sci Educ. 1998; 82(3): 407-416.
12. Federal Emergency Management Agency: Crisis response
and disaster resilience 2030: Forging strategic action in an age of
uncertainty. 2012. Available at http://www.fema.gov/media-library-
data/20130726-1816-25045-5167/sfi_report_13.jan.2012_final.docx.
pdf. Accessed August 1, 2016.
13. Winship JM: Geographic Literacy and World Knowledge Among
Undergraduate College Students [thesis]. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia
Tech, 2004.
14. Bednarz RS, Bednarz SW: The importance of spatial thinking
in an uncertain world. In Geospatial Technologies and Homeland
Security. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Springer, 2008: 315-330.
15. UNISDR: Hyogo framework for action 2005-2015: Building the
resilience of nations and communities to disasters. 2005. Available at
https://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa. Accessed August 1, 2016.
16. Bosomworth K, Owen C, Curnin S: Addressing challenges for
future strategic-level emergency management: reframing, network-
ing, and capacity-building. Disasters. 2016 (in press).
17. Blaikie P, Cannon T, Davis I, et al.: At Risk: Natural Hazards,
People's Vulnerability and Disasters. New York: Routledge, 2014.
18. Jones JM: In US, confidence in police lowest in 22 years. Gallup.
June 19, 2015. Available at http://www.gallup.com/poll/183704/
confidence-police-lowest-years.aspx. Accessed August 1, 2016.
19. Bannister J, Kearns A: The function and foundations of urban
tolerance: Encountering and engaging with difference in the city.
Urban Stud. 2013: 0042098013477705.
20. Emrich CT, Cutter SL, Weschler PJ: GIS and emergency man-
agement. In The SAGE Handbook of GIS and Society. London:
Sage, 2011: 321-343.
21. Pine JC: Technology in Emergency Management. Vol 4. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley, 2007.
22. Rao RR, Eisenberg J, Schmitt T (eds.): Improving Disaster
Management: The Role of IT in Mitigation, Preparedness, Response,
and Recovery. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2007.
23. Reddick C: Information technology and emergency management:
Preparedness and planning in US states. Disasters. 2011; 35(1): 45-61.
24. Crowe A: The social media manifesto: A comprehensive review
of the impact of social media on emergency management. J
Business Continuity Emerg Plann. 2011; 5(1): 409-420.
25. Churchill RP: Drone warfare: Ethical and psychological issues.
Int J Technoethics. 2015; 6(2): 31-46.
26. Halder B: Approaches of humanitarian crisis management-
associated risks with the ICT-based crowdsourcing paradigm. Social
Science Research Network. 2015. Available at http://papers.ssrn.
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2568233. Accessed August 1, 2016.
27. Harknett RJ, Stever JA: The cybersecurity triad: Government,
private sector partners, and the engaged cybersecurity citizen. J
Homeland Secur Emerg Manage. 2009; 6(1): 1-14.
96
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 96
28. Hunt M, Pringle J, Christen M, et al.: Ethics of emergent infor-
mation and communication technology applications in humanitar-
ian medical assistance. Int Health. 2016; 8(4): 239-245.
29. Ezequiel CA, Cua M, Libatique NC, et al.: UAV aerial imaging appli-
cations for post-disaster assessment, environmental management and
infrastructure development. In Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS),
2014 International Conference. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2014: 274-283.
30. Quaritsch M, Kruggl K, Wischounig-Strucl D, et al.: Networked
UAVs as aerial sensor network for disaster management applica-
tions. Elektrotechnik Informationstechnik. 2010; 127(3): 56-63.
31. Gelenbe E, Wu FJ: Future research on cyber-physical emer-
gency management systems. Future Internet. 2013; 5(3): 336-354.
32. Loukas G, Gan D, Vuong T: A review of cyber threats and
defence approaches in emergency management. Future Internet.
2013; 5(2): 205-236.
33. Ten C, Manimaran G, Liu CC: Cybersecurity for critical infra-
structures: Attack and defense modeling. IEEE Trans Syst Man
Cybernet-Part A: Syst Humans. 2010; 40(4): 853-865.
34. Walker J, Williams BJ, Skelton GW: Cyber security for emergency
management. In Technologies for Homeland Security (HST), 2010
IEEE International Conference. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2010: 476-480.
35. Cavelty MD: Cyber-Security and Threat Politics: US Efforts to
Secure the Information Age. New York: Routledge, 2007.
36. Tisdale SM: Cybersecurity: Challenges from a systems, com-
plexity, knowledge management and business intelligence perspec-
tive. Issues Inform Syst. 2015; 16(3): 191-198.
37. Snowden DJ, Boone ME: A leader's framework for decision mak-
ing. Harv. Bus. Rev. 2007; 85(11): 68–76.
38. Comfort LK: Self-organization in complex systems. J Public
Admin Res Theory: J-Part. 1994; 4(3): 393-410.
39. Comfort LK, Dunn M, Johnson D, et al.: Coordination in com-
plex systems: Increasing efficiency in disaster mitigation and
response. Int J Emerg Manage. 2004; 2(1-2): 62-80.
40. Reijers HA, Jansen-Vullers MH, Zur Muehlen M, et al.:
Workflow management systems + swarm intelligence = dynamic
task assignment for emergency management applications. In
International Conference on Business Process Management. Berlin,
Germany: Springer, 2007: 125-140.
41. Kapucu N: Interorganizational coordination in dynamic context:
Networks in emergency response management. Connections. 2005;
26(2), 33-48.
42. Bigley GA, Roberts KH: The incident command system: High-
reliability organizing for complex and volatile task environments.
Acad Manage J. 2001; 44(6): 1281-1299.
43. Fraser SW, Greenhalgh T: Coping with complexity: Educating
for capability. Br Med J. 2001; 323(7316): 799-803.
44. Dalcher D: Why the pilot cannot be blamed: A cautionary note
about excessive reliance on technology. Int J Risk Assess Manage.
2007; 7(3): 350-366.
45. Collier S, Lakoff A: The vulnerability of vital systems: How
‘critical infrastructure’ became a security problem. In The Politics
of Securing the Homeland: Critical Infrastructure, Risk and
Securitisation. New York: Routledge, 2008: 40-62.
46. Rinaldi SM, Peerenboom JP, Kelly TK: Identifying, understand-
ing, and analyzing critical infrastructure interdependencies. IEEE
Control Syst. 2001; 21(6): 11-25.
47. Young OR, Berkhout F, Gallopin GC, et al.: The globalization of
socio-ecological systems: An agenda for scientific research. Global
Environ Change. 2006; 16(3): 304-316.
48. Beck U: Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. Vol 17.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992.
49. Mileti D: Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards
in the United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1999.
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
26/04/17 5:11 PM
 50. Beck U: Living in the world risk society: A Hobhouse memorial
public lecture given on Wednesday, 15 February, 2006 at the London
School of Economics. Econ Soc. 2006; 35(3): 329-345.
51. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD): Future Global Shocks: Improving Risk Governance. Paris,
France: OECD Publishing, 2011.
52. Fisher L: Preparing for Future Catastrophes, Concept Note.
Lausanne, Switzerland: International Risk Governance Council, 2013.
53. International Risk Governance Council (IRGC): Guidelines for
Emerging Risk Governance—Appendix. Lausanne, Switzerland:
International Risk Governance Council, 2015.
54. International Risk Governance Council (IRGC): Guidelines for
Emerging Risk Governance. Lausanne, Switzerland: International
Risk Governance Council, 2015.
55. Howes M, Tangney P, Reis K, et al.: Towards networked gov-
ernance: Improving interagency communication and collaboration
for disaster risk management and climate change adaptation in
Australia. J Environ Plann Manage. 2015; 58(5): 757-776.
56. Federal Emergency Management Agency: A whole community
approach to emergency management: Principles, themes, and
pathways for action. 2011. Available at https://www.fema.gov/
media-library-data/20130726-1813-25045-0649/whole_community_
dec2011__2_.pdf. Accessed August 1, 2016.
57. Federal Emergency Management Agency: National response
framework, third edition. 2016. Available at https://www.fema.gov/
media-library/assets/documents/117791. Accessed August 1, 2016.
58. Bloom BS: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classifi-
cation of Educational Goals. Harlow, England: Longman Group, 1956.
59. Anderson LW, Krathwohl DR, Airasian PW, et al.: A Taxonomy
for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Routledge, 2001.
60. Kiltz L: Developing critical thinking skills in homeland security
and emergency management courses. J Homeland Secur Emerg
Manage. 2009; 6(1): 1-23.
61. Collins ML, Peerbolte SL: Public administration emergency
management pedagogy: Cultivating the habit of critical thinking. J
Public Affairs Educ. 2012; 18(2): 315-326.
62. Comfort LK: Crisis management in hindsight: Cognition, com-
munication, coordination, and control. Public Admin Rev. 2007;
67(S1): 189-197.
63. Leigh M: Critical thinking in crisis management. Emergency
Planning College Occasional Paper Number 15. 2015. Easingwold,
UK: EPC.
64. McFarlane R, Leigh M: Information management and shared
situational awareness. Emergency Planning College Occasional
Paper Number 12. 2014. Easingwold, UK: EPC.
65. Frankel MS: Professional codes: Why, how, and with what
impact? J Business Ethics. 1989; 8(2-3): 109-115.
66. Nicholson WC: Obtaining competent legal advice: Challenges
for emergency managers and attorneys. Cal. WL Rev. 2009; 46: 343.
67. Cwiak C: Next steps in emergency management's profession-
alization process: Who will be the gatekeeper of the profession of
emergency management? In Challenges of Emergency Management
in Higher Education: Planning and Strategies. Fairfax, VA: Public
Entity Risk Institute, 2011: 9-18.
68. Birkmann J: Measuring vulnerability to promote disaster-
resilient societies: Conceptual frameworks and definitions. In
Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster
Resilient Societies. Vol 1. New Delhi, India: TERI Press, 2006: 9-54.
69. Cutter S, Boruff BJ, Shirley WL: Social vulnerability to environ-
mental hazards. In Hazards, Vulnerability, and Social Justice. New
York: Routledge, 2006: 115-132.
70. Enarson E, Morrow B: The Gendered Terrain of Disaster. New
York: Praeger, 1998.
Journal of Emergency Management
Vol. 15, No. 2, March/April 2017
02_JEM_Cwiak2_160028.indd 97
71. Phillips B, Thomas DS, Fothergill A, et al.: Social Vulnerability
to Disasters. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2010.
72. Rubin CB (ed.): Emergency Management: The American
Experience 1900-2010. New York: CRC Press, 2012.
73. Kramer R: Leading change through action learning. Public
Manager. 2007; 36(3): 38-44.
74. Von Stumm S, #Hell B, Chamorro-Premuzic T: The hungry mind
intellectual curiosity is the third pillar of academic performance.
Perspectives Psychol Sci. 2011; 6(6): 574-588.
75. Cwiak CL: Professionalization: An academic's perspective. In
Trainor JE, Subbio T (eds.): Critical Issues in Disaster Science and
Management: A Dialogue Between Researchers and Practitioners.
Emmitsburg, MD: FEMA Higher Education Program, 2014: 392-404.
76. Springer CG: Emergency managers as change agents. 2009.
Available at http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1345&context=sea_fac_articles. Accessed August 1, 2016.
77. Urby H, McEntire DA: Emergency managers as change agents:
Recognizing the value of management, leadership, and strategic
management in the disaster profession. J Emerg Manage. 2014;
13(1): 37-51.
78. Cwiak CL, Goss KC: Professionalization: Bridging the divide. In
Trainor JE, Subbio T (eds.): Critical Issues in Disaster Science and
Management: A Dialogue Between Researchers and Practitioners.
Emmitsburg, MD: FEMA Higher Education Program, 2014: 415-425.
79. Federal Emergency Management Agency: Are you ready? An in-
depth guide to citizen preparedness. Available at https://www.fema.
gov/pdf/areyouready/areyouready_full.pdf. Accessed August 1, 2016.
80. Zogby J: Americans neither worried nor prepared in case of a
disaster. Forbes. May 2016. Available at http://www.forbes.com/sites/
johnzogby/2013/05/16/americans-neither-worried-nor-prepared-
in-case-of-a-disaster-sunyit-zogby-analytics-poll/#3fd9fdde7cf6.
Accessed August 1, 2016.
81. Helsloot I, Ruitenberg A: Citizen response to disasters: A survey
of literature and some practical implications. J Contingencies Crisis
Manage. 2004; 12(3): 98-111.
82. Ho MC, Shaw D, Lin S, et al.: How do disaster characteristics
influence risk perception? Risk Anal. 2008; 28(3): 635-643.
83. Wood MM, Mileti DS, Kano M, et al.: Communicating action-
able risk for terrorism and other hazards. Risk Anal. 2012; 32(4):
601-615.
84. Waugh WL, Streib G: Collaboration and leadership for effective
emergency management. Public Admin Rev. 2006; 66(S1): 131-140.
85. Kapucu N, Arslan T, Demiroz F: Collaborative emergency man-
agement and national emergency management network. Disaster
Prev Manage. 2010; 19(4): 452-468.
86. Lavell A, Maskrey A: The future of disaster risk management.
Environ Hazards. 2014; 13(4): 267-280.
87. Murphy BL: Locating social capital in resilient community-level
emergency management. Nat Hazards. 2007; 41(2): 297-315.
88. Dynes RR, Quarantelli EL: The Absence of Community Conflict
in the Early Phases of Natural Disasters. Newark, Delaware:
Disaster Research Center, 1971.
89. Drabek TE, McEntire DA: Emergent phenomena and the sociol-
ogy of disaster: Lessons, trends and opportunities from the research
literature. Disaster Prev Manage. 2003; 12(2): 97-112.
90. Canton LG: Emergency Management: Concepts and Strategies
for Effective Programs. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
91. Petak WJ: Emergency management: A challenge for public
administration. Public Admin Rev. 1985; 45: 3-7.
92. Sylves R: Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management
and Homeland Security. Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press, 2014.
93. Waugh WL Jr, Liu CY: Disasters, the whole community, and
development as capacity building. In Disaster and Development.
New York: Springer International Publishing, 2014: 167-179.
97
26/04/17 5:11 PM