Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy (2023) 25:2099–2122

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-023-02514-2(0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().
,- volV)

REVIEW

Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean

energy production
Manisha1 • Sumit Tiwari2 • Deepak Chhabra1 • Meena Kumari1 • Prabhakar Tiwari3 • Ravinder Kumar Sahdev1

Received: 14 November 2022 / Accepted: 22 March 2023 / Published online: 13 April 2023
 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
With the increase in population globally, a big problem has been raised, which is food supply. A remedy to this problem is
to use an ancient practice of sun drying to preserve harvests, vegetables, and fruits. Several types of dryers are being
developed for drying agricultural commodities. They do, however, demand much energy, which is typically obtained from
polluting fossil fuels. Producers, as well as researchers, are encouraged to look for alternate options because of envi-
ronmental issues and the risk of fossil fuel depletion. Continual solar energy can be helpful in drying applications because
it is widely available freely in most parts of the world. Solar dryers come in various sizes and designs, and they may be
used to dry a wide range of products. Farmers will find a variety of driers available to meet their demands. A thorough
examination of the various designs, methods of construction, and operating ideologies of the numerous sun-drying devices
mentioned previously is provided. This study emphasizes the hybrid photovoltaic thermal solar dryer because of its high
electrical and thermal efficiency, good mitigation of carbon dioxide levels, giving a good product with a high drying rate
and less payback time. The greenhouse solar dryer is found to be best adapted to the requirement in rural locations, where
there are more agricultural products accessible for drying and space is also readily available. The future scope and
recommendations section of this study will assist researchers in developing an efficient photovoltaic thermal solar dryer
collector system that is economical and has good electrical and thermal efficiency for large-scale applications.

& Ravinder Kumar Sahdev

ravindersahdev.uiet@mdurohtak.ac.in
1
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shiv Nadar
Institution of Eminence Deemed To be University,
Gautam Buddha Nagar, UP, India
3
Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology,
Gorakhpur, UP, India

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2100 Manisha et al.

Graphical abstract

Keywords Drying  Solar dryer technology  Photovoltaic thermal  Clean energy  Energy payback time 
CO2 emission

Abbreviations MSD Modified solar dryer (with phase change

PVTMMD Photovoltaic thermal mix mode dryer (WPCM) material)
(WGC) (with glass cover) PVTSD Photovoltaic thermal solar dryer
PVTMMD Photovoltaic thermal mix mode dryer HSD Hybrid solar dryer
(WOGC) (without glass cover) STPVTSSGD Semi transparent photovoltaic thermal
HAGSD Hybrid active greenhouse solar dryer with single slop greenhouse dryer
HAGD Hybrid active greenhouse dryer (with HPVTSD Hybrid photovoltaic solar dryer (force
(WETC) evacuated tube collector) (FC) convection)
HAGD Hybrid active greenhouse dryer (without HPVTSD Hybrid photovoltaic solar dryer
(WOETC) evacuated tube collector) HD Hybrid dryer
PVTGD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse dryer PVTCSD Photovoltaic thermal collector based
IFCD Indirect force convection dryer (MM) solar dryer (mix mode)
GSD (FCM) Greenhouse solar dryer (Force convec- PVTCSD Photovoltaic thermal collector based
tion mode) (IM) solar dryer (Indirect mode)
GSD (NCM) Greenhouse solar dryer (Natural convec- PVTCD Photovoltaic thermal collector based
tion mode) (WOF) dryer (without fin)
GSD Greenhouse solar dryer PVTCD (WF) Photovoltaic thermal collector based
HPVTGD Hybrid photovoltaic greenhouse dryer dryer (with fin)
PVTGD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse dryer SSGD Single slope greenhouse dryer
(CdTe) (Cadmium Telluride) IMPVTSD Indirect mode solar photovoltaic thermal
PVTGD (C-si) Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse dryer (FC) dryer (force convection)
(Crystalline silicon) PPVTCID Powdered photovoltaic thermal collector
MGD Modified greenhouse dryer with infrared convective Dryer

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Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production 2101

IFCSD Indirect forced convection solar dryer C Experimental constant

MMGD Mix-mode greenhouse dryer Ca Specific heat of drying air J/kg/K
PVTMMGD Photovoltaic thermal mix mode green- Cv Specific heat of humid air, J/kg oC
house dryer d Diameter of fan (m)
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar Gr Grashof number = bgX 3 q2v DT=l2v
dryer g Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
PVTCDF Photovoltaic double pass counter flow hc Convective heat transfer coefficient,
(FCD) (force convection dryer) W/m2 C
PVTCDF Photovoltaic double pass counter flow he Evaporative heat transfer coefficient,
(MMD) (mix mode dryer) W/m2 C
IFCSD Indirect force convection solar dryer hi Heat transfer coefficient (htc) inside
HPVT (FC) Hybrid photovoltaic (force convection) solar drying chamber (W/m2K)
HPVT (NC) Hybrid photovoltaic (natural convection) ho Heat transfer coefficient from top of
HSTD Hybrid solar tunnel dryer module to ambient (W/m2K)
SCD Solar conduction dryer h1 Heat transfer coefficient from wall of
STGD Solar tunnel greenhouse dryer dryer to ambient (W/m2K)
STGD Solar tunnel greenhouse dryer (with bio- I Solar radiation intensity on greenhouse,
(WBBH) mass backup heater) W/m2
DMSD (NC) Direct mode solar dryer (natural Ii Solar intensity on the wall of drying
convection) chamber (W/m2)
AD Air dryer Ieff Total radiation in the greenhouse
HGSD Hybrid greenhouse dryer chamber (W)
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar kg Thermal conductivity of glass of mod-
(FC) dryer (force convection) ule (W/mK)
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar Kg Thermal conductivity of glazing (W/
(NC) dryer (natural convection) mK)
NWGD (FC) North wall insulated greenhouse dryer Kv Thermal conductivity of humid air,
(force convection) W/m C
NWGD (NC) North wall insulated greenhouse dryer Lg Thickness of glass cover of module (m)
(natural convection) Lg Thickness of glazing (m)
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar n Experimental constant
(p-Si) dryer (p-type Silicon) N Number of observations in each set
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar N1 Fan speed (RPM)
(a-Si) dryer (amorphous silicon) Mao Mass flow rate of drying air at outlet of
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar dryer, kg/s
(C-Si) dryer (crystalline silicon) mev Moisture evaporated, kg
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar Mev Mass evaporated, kg
(mc-Si) dryer (multi crystalline silicon) Me Equilibrium moisture content of the
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar product (dry basis)
(nc-Si) dryer (nano crystalline silicon) Mi Initial moisture content of the product
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar (dry basis)
(CdTe) dryer (cadmium telluride) Mt Moisture content of the product at time t
PVTGSD Photovoltaic thermal greenhouse solar (dry basis)
(CIGS) dryer (copper indium gallium selenide) MR Moisture ratio
HGSD Hybrid greenhouse solar dryer ma Mass flow of drying air, kg/s
Nu Nusselt number = hc X=Kv
List of symbols Pfan Power of fan (W)
A Area of greenhouse (m2) Pr Prandtl number = lv Cv =Kv
At Area of tray, m2 Re Reynolds number = qv V X=lv
Am Area of module (m2) P(T) Partial vapour pressure at temperature
Ai Area of all side wall of dryer (m2) T, N/m2
a, b, c, d, g, h, Drying models constants
gc, k, k0

123
2102 Manisha et al.

Qe Rate of heat utilized to evaporate gc Solar cell efficiency

moisture, J/m2 s gm Module efficiency
Tamb Ambient temperature, K V Wind velocity (m/s)
Tg Drying air temperature, K v1 Air velocity in drying chamber (m/s)
Tp Temperature of product surface, C Th Thermal
Te Temperature just above the product n Natural mode
surface, C f Forced mode
To Cell temperature for optimum cell effi- sg Transmittivity of module glass
ciency i.e. 25 C Sg1 Transmittivity of wall glass
Tc Cell temperature (C)
Tr Drying chamber temperature (C)
t Time, s
DT Effective temperature difference, C Introduction
Tgo Air temperature at greenhouse outlet, C
Tref Reference temperature, C A Photovoltaic thermal (PVT) dryer is a hybrid solar sys-
Ts Sun surface temperature = 6000 K tem technology that combines a Photovoltaic (PV) and
Ubcr Heat transfer coefficient from bottom of solar collector with a drying unit. Such a hybrid energy
module to drying chamber (W/m2K) system simultaneously produces thermal and electrical
Utca Heat transfer coefficient from top of energy. Using a drier compartment to release heat from
module to ambient air (W/m2K) rear PV cells with solar collectors and provide a significant
V Air velocity inside the greenhouse, m/s airflow temperature output, this system’s useful heat output
X Characteristic dimension, m can be used for drying activities, increasing power con-
Qth,th,ov Overall theoretical thermal energy (W/ version efficiency. The removal of moisture from a sub-
m2K) stance is referred to as drying. Food products have longer
Qth,exp,ov Overall experimental thermal energy storage life, reduce storage losses, and lower transportation
(W/m2K) costs (Leon et al. 2002; Manisha et al. 2022). In India, 70%
of the population relies on agriculture, with most farmers
Greek symbols
being poor and struggling to afford advanced facilities and
b Coefficient of volumetric expansion, 1/K
equipment. Open sun drying (OSD) has been practiced in
ac Absorptivity of solar cell
underdeveloped countries since ancient times. Figure 1
b0 Temperature dependent efficiency factor
depicts the operating concept of solar-powered open-air
bc Packing factor of module
drying.
c Relative humidity, %
The crop’s uneven surface is exposed to the short-wave
k Latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
radiation from the sun. Based on the color of the crop,
lv Dynamic viscosity of humid air, Ns/m2
some sun radiations are returned backward while the rest
qv Density of humid air, kg/m3
energy is collected by the ground. The temperature of the
g0 Standard efficiency at standard condition
crop rises as a result of the gathered radiation being

Fig. 1 a Operating principle of open sun drying and b open sun drying of agriculture produce

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Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production
Fig. 2 working concept of PVT greenhouse dryer
converted into thermal energy. Consequently, lengthy
wave radiation from the sun is dissipated from the crop’s
top to the surrounding air via damp air. Moisture is evap-
orated through drying losses, resulting in a dry crop. The
drying method entails (1) heat being transferred from the
surrounding environment to the dried crop’s surface,
transfer of heat in the material, and (2) mass migration
from the crop’s interior towards its exterior, along with the
flow of exterior wetness into the environment. The oper-
ating principle of the open drying method is shown in
Fig. 1a (Tiwari 2002). Due to exorbitant costs for most
farmers in underdeveloped nations, using fossil fuels to dry
agricultural products has not been practical (Okoro and
Madueme 2004). Traditional OSD, on the other side, is
widely practiced in remote areas of underdeveloped
nations. Based on numerous factors (such as rats, birds,
insects, rain, and bacteria), there is a significant loss in
OSD. The problem is exacerbated because of unexpected
rain or storm. Furthermore, OSD is associated with
excessive drying, inadequate drying, and contamination by
extraneous objects such as sand, bugs, and bacteria, along
with discoloration by Ultraviolet light. The OSD method’s
final product does not meet market criteria (Exell and
Kornsakoo 1978). Because of its numerous shortcomings,
it has been replaced by machinery-based dryers, which use
coal and oil to heat drying air and power to drive hot air all
over farm crops. However, it is neither practically nor
circumspectly viable to apply energy from the sun to high-
temperature drying systems without diminishing produc-
tivity and stability (Wittwer 1982).With the realization of
the shortcomings of open-air drying, a more scientific
approach is known as solar drying. There are many kinds of
solar dryers, including indirect, direct, mixed-mode, and
hybrid PV-T dryers. A novel technique, microwave drying,
reduces the drying time by increasing the power of the
microwave (Wulyapash et al. 2021). Depending on the
operational conditions, solar dryers can operate in ambient
or enforced modes. In terms of managing drying variables,
many researchers found that drying in forced mode is
2103
superior to drying in ambient mode (Barnwal and Tiwari
2008). Most of these PVT dryers has flat plate collectors or
a greenhouse effect. As a result, as compared to the pre-
vious method of drying (i.e., OSD), the new technique of
greenhouse drying could be used in underdeveloped
nations to reduce crop damage and improve quality sig-
nificantly (Yaldiz et al. 2001; Esper and Muhlbauer 1998;
Condori et al. 2001). A greenhouse is a structure with
transparent sides and roofing composed of glass, reinforced
plastic, and polyethylene film that are used to keep plants
growing in a controlled environment (Kumar and Tiwari
2006b). Figure 2 shows the PVT greenhouse dryer.
A climate is established inside the greenhouse in this
scenario as well. After reflection off the glass cover, radi-
ation from the sun strikes the transparent cover and is
transported inside the greenhouse. Furthermore, a portion
of the transmitted energy is refracted from the crop’s sur-
face in the form of short wavelengths, which are then
transferred to the surrounding through the transparent
cover. The rest portion is consumed by the crop’s surface.
The temperature of the crop rises as a result of solar
radiation absorption, and the crop begins to emit Green-
house dryers have different applications based on their
working and operation, like crop cultivation, solar energy
collector, and crop drying. Because the PVT solar dryer
system generates its power rather than relying on tradi-
tional sources, it is a clean and renewable technology that
reduces reliance on fossil fuels and so reduces global
warming concerns (Srivastava et al. 2022). A hybrid solar
energy system called a photovoltaic-thermal system uses
photovoltaic cells and a thermal collector to produce heat
and electricity concurrently. The PV cells collect sunlight
to turn it into power, which is how the system operates. The
heat from the sun is simultaneously collected by a heat
exchanger behind the photovoltaic cell and transferred to a
heat transfer fluid, which can then be used for a variety of
purposes, including space heating, home hot water, or
industrial process heat. The advantages of photovoltaic
thermal system includes, higher efficiency, lower cost as
per energy production, space saving, improved durability,
versatility etc.
A lot of research work has been done conceptually and
practically on PVT solar systems for drying purposes,
which are discussed in Table 1.
It is seen from Table 1, that various commodities were
dried by using different arrangements like PVT solar dryer
with ETC, integrated drying system, mathematical mod-
eling, and solar conduction dryer, etc., for getting good
final product, mitigation in CO2 level, good efficiency, and
less payback time.
To overcome the limitations of previously utilized dry-
ers, many authors have worked on various designs of PVT
solar dryers, as illustrated in Fig. 3, which shows the
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2104 Manisha et al.

Table 1 Previous work carried out on PVT solar drying system

S. References Drying product Remarks
no.

1 Singh and Gaur Tomato, bottle ground, PVT dryer with evacuated tube collector (ETC) reduced drying time, diminished CO2, and
(2021) ginger brought down payback time for tomato, bottle ground, and ginger in comparison with
conventional dryer without (ETC)
2 Kushwah et al. Garlic HE-ETADS (Heat exchanger-evacuated tube-aided drying system) gave higher evaporation
(2021) rate, and modest food production enterprises and producers in remote areas will see
increased profits
3 Tiwari et al. Bitter ground flaks Solar dryer with semi-transparent photovoltaic thermal roof using mathematical modeling
(2020) and artificial neural network (ANN) gave fast drying rate, excellent from the financial
standpoint, and reduced payback time
4 Sevik et al. (2019) Mint and apple The influence of using infrared radiation on drying when solar radiation is insufficient
5 Eltawil et al. Peppermint The quality of peppermint after drying in a tunnel-type solar dryer with a black curtain is
(2018) superior to the open sun and is a valuable technique for rural areas
6 Borah et al. (2017) Ginger and turmeric Experimental evaluations of character and tone qualities revealed that spices dehydrated in
an integrated drying system had the best quality characteristics of the four techniques
tested
7 Tiwari et al. Grape The proposed PVT GSD (greenhouse solar dryer) in mix mode correlated well with
(2016) theoretical and experimental values
8 Borha et al. (2015) Whole and sliced Drying sliced rhizomes with solar conduction dryer (SCD) demonstrated a superior drying
turmeric rhizomes rate than drying whole rhizomes
9 Dhanushkodi et al. Cashew nut Biomass dryer was created to be a viable alternative to electric and conventional dryers
(2015a; b)
10 Eke (2013) Tomato, okra and Natural convection direct mode solar dryer resulting in 50% reduction in evaporation time
carrot when contrasted to open sun drying on the given commodity
11 Mortezapour et al. Saffron Using a heat pump-aided PVT solar dryer reduced drying time, save energy, and increased
(2012) solar collector electrical efficiency
12 Nayak et al. (2011) Mint The proposed Photovoltaic thermal (PVT) ultraviolet (UV) stabilized polyethylene
greenhouse dryer with low cost gave good final product, 34.2% dryer efficiency, and
140.97 ton CO2 reduction
13 Fudholi et al. Agricultural and Water-based collectors could also be used in conjunction with a water-to-air heat
(2010) marine exchanger
14 Bala et al. (2009) Mushroom The proposed tunnel-type solar dryer with simple construction and independent of
electrical energy gave less reduction in drying time
15 Janjai et al. (2008) Herbs and spices In comparison with an open drying system, roof incorporated solar dryer gave less drying
period and improved the quality of the resultant product
16 Sevda and Rathore Di-basic calcium A no-load and full-load test was used to evaluate the performance of a semi-cylindrical
(2007) phosphate poly house dryer while drying Di-basic Calcium Phosphate
17 Walde et al. (2006) Mushroom Four different drying techniques were used and found that fluidized bed drying is better for
dehydrating mushrooms

topology of solar dryers and drying modes (Ekechukwu
1999; Sharma et al. 2009). This topology classifies dryers
as indirect or direct, with a subcategory of constant func-
tioning. There are two main methods.
1. Active dryer.
2. Passive dryers.
The active dryer is a hybrid solar dryer and a passive
dryer often known as a natural circulation dryer. Based on
their heating mechanism and heat usage, solar dryers may
be divided into three groups (Belessiotis and Delyannis
2011; Sharma et al. 2023) which are discussed in Table 2
which illustrates the different types of dryers based on their
heating mode with operating principle, advantages, and
limitations.
Theoretical considerations for the PVT
drying system analysis
Heat and mass transfer analysis
Several authors have performed heat and mass transfer
analyses for the purpose of drying systems under forced

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Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production 2105

Fig. 3 Topology of solar dryer

and drying mode Solar dryer

Convenonal Dryer Solar energy dryer

Bulk and storage Batch and connuous Natural dryer Solar energy dryer
Dryer flow dryer

Passive
Crop dried Acve dryer dryer
In-situ

Mixed Integral
Drying on Distributed
Drying on Ground mode type
trays type dryers
mats concrete and dryers dryers
floor

Horizontal Vercal or inclined Cabinet Greenhouse

trays racks type dryers dryers

and natural convection modes. Equations 1 and 2 can be 2. No temperature stratification in a drying chamber
used to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient 3. Quasi-steady state.
(hc), (Jain and Tiwari 2004; Kumar et al. 2011, 2019;
Tiwari 2020) as:
Energy balance equation (EBE) for PV
hc X
Nu ¼ ¼ C ðGr PrÞn For natural convection ð1Þ
Kv EBE for PV module (Tiwari and Tiwari 2016b):
hc X The solar energy available on the solar cell = heat loss
Nu ¼ ¼ C ðRe PrÞn For forced convection ð2Þ from cell to ambient from the top of the PV module ? heat
Kv
loss from cell to ambient from the bottom of the PV
Equation 3 represents the rate at which heat is used to module ? total electrical energy produced from PV
evaporate moisture (Kumar and Tiwari 2006a; Kumar et al. module
2021)
ac sg bc It Am ¼ Utca ðTc  Ta ÞAm þ Ubcr ðTc  Tr ÞAm
0:016hc
Q_e ¼     ð3Þ þ sg bc gc It Am ð5Þ
P Tp  cPðTe Þ  
ac sg bc It  sg bc gc It þ Ubcr Tr þ Utca Ta
The evaporative heat transfer coefficient is shown in Tc ¼ ð6Þ
Utca þ Ubcr
Eq. (4) (Kumar et al. 2012; Sahdev et al. 2018b; Sansani-
wal et al. 2022) EBE for the drying room (Tiwari and Tiwari 2016b).
    Solar energy coming from non-packing area of the PV
P Tp  c  P ð T e Þ
he ¼ 0:016  hc  ð4Þ module to drying room ? solar energy coming from side
Tp  Te walls of dryer to drying room ? convective heat loss from
cell to room = Heat stored in the room air ? Heat lost
Thermal modelling for PVT dryer from room to ambient through fan ? Heat loss from room
to ambient through all glass walls
X
Without load s2g sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm It þ sg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ Ubcr ðTc  Tr ÞAm
dtr  X
The assumptions are taken as follows. ¼ Ma Ca þ m_ f cf þ ðUAÞ ðTr  Ta Þ
dt
1. Glass, metal, and solar cells have negligible heat ð7Þ
capacity

123
2106 Manisha et al.

Table 2 Previous work on solar dryers

Name of dryer Definition Advantages Limitations Figure References
Active dryer/passive dryer

Direct solar dryer This is a basic sort (1) Because the (1) Time- Belessiotis
of drier in which object is consuming and
the material to covered with a method Delyannis
be dried is transparent (2011)
contained in a cover, there is
transparent less chance of
enclosure. Heat contamination
is produced by (2) The final
absorbing solar object quality
energy on the is superior to
product and the drying in the
drying open sun
chamber’s inside
surface. For
20–30 days, the
material is kept
in a drying
chamber

Indirect dryer The free air of the (1) This method (1) Needs a Belessiotis
surroundings prevents higher initial and
gets heated in a contamination investment Delyannis
flat plate of the finished (2) Requires (2011)
collector or object maintenance
concentrated (2) Efficient after a
collector. Then, than the certain
the hot air is conventional amount of
circulated type time
throughout the
(3) Preserve
crop’s cabin.
object quality
And hence,
by avoiding
moisture is lost
direct access
from the crop
to sun
due to the
radiation
diffusion
convection (4) Some
process products
require less
time to dry
(5) The final
conditions of
the object are
not affected by
natural
phenomena

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Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production 2107

Table 2 (continued)
Name of dryer Definition Advantages Limitations Figure References
Active dryer/passive dryer

Mixed-mode solar dryer The MMSD (1) Drying at a (1) The quality Norton
(MMSD) combines both rapid rate of dried (2012)
direct and while grain
indirect dryers in maintaining a obtained
which the crop is safe moisture around a
exposed to open level in the year is lower
sun, and hot air object than that
(heated in a (2) The drying obtained
collector having time is less using an
a glass cover compared with indirect
over it) is blown other drying dryer
over it methods (2) The cost of
ongoing
maintenance
(3) The
required
capital cost
is higher

For natural mode, m_ f cf ¼ 0:33NV:Let,P Solution of Eq. (9)

For natural mode L ¼ ð0:33NV þ ðUAÞÞ, forced f ðtÞ
 P  Tr ¼ ð1  eat Þ þ Tro eat ð10Þ
mode L ¼ M_ f Cf þ ðUAÞ : a
Method 1
By comparing Eqs. (8) and (9)
From Eqs. (6) and (7)
X 1  2
2
sg sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm It þ sg1 ðIi Ai Þ f ðtÞ ¼ s sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm þ PFðasÞeff Am It
Ma Ca Xg
þ PF ðasÞeff Am It  Utra Am ðTr  Ta Þ ð8Þ þ sg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ Ta ðL þ Utra Am Þ
dTr 1
¼ Ma Ca þ Lð T r  Ta Þ a¼ ðL þ Utra Am Þ
dt Ma Ca
where, From Eq. (10) the solution of Eq. (8)
PF ¼
Ubcr
; Utra ¼
Utca
; ðasÞeff 1  2
Tr ¼ sg sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm þ PFðasÞeff Am It
Utca þ Ubcr  Utca þ Ubcr Ma Ca
¼ ac sg bc  sg bc gc X ð1  eat Þ
þsg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ Ta ðL þ Utra Am Þ þ Tro eat
First order standard equation a
dTr ð11Þ
þ aTr ¼ f ðtÞ ð9Þ
dt

123
2108 Manisha et al.

Equation 11 gives the drying room temperature (Tr) by Ubcr ðasÞeff

PF ¼ ; Utra
assuming solar cell efficiency. Tc can be evaluated after Utca þ Ubcr  sg bc b0 g0 It
putting the value of Tr from Eq. (6). If Tc differs from Utca
¼ ;L
assumed value, then different value of efficiency (cell) can U
 tca þ U bcr  sg bc b0 g0 It
X
be considered. The practice will go on until desired value ¼ 0:33NV þ ðUAÞ
of Tc and Tr not attained. The discussed method called as
iterative method. ðasÞeff ¼ ac sg bc  sg bc g0 þ sg bc b0 g0  sg bc b0 g0 T0
Method 2
Equation (15) can be compared by Eq. (9)
The procedure up until Eq. (11) is the same as method 1.
In addition, the efficiency of solar cells is temperature 1  2
f ðtÞ ¼ s sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm þ PF ðasÞeff Am It
dependent and can be evaluated as (Evans 1981) Ma Ca Xg
þ sg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ Ta ðL þ Utra Am Þ
gc ¼ go  ð1  bo  ðTc  To ÞÞ ð12Þ
1
From Eqs. (7), (13) and (14) a¼ ðL þ Utra Am Þ
Ma Ca

0 00 
1 11
ac sg bc It  sg bc gc It
B BB 0 0  1 1 C CC
B BB s2g sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm þ PFac sg bc Þeff Am It at C CC
B BB B 1 B C ð1  e Þ C C CC
B BB þUbcr @ @ X A at
þ Tro e A þ Utca Ta C C CC
B BB M C a CC
B BB a a
þsg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ Ta ðL þ Utra Am Þ C CC
B BB C CC
g0 B1  b0 BB U þU C  T 0 CC
B BB tca bcr C CC
B BB C CC
B BB C CC
B BB C CC
B BB C CC
@ @@ A AA

gc ¼   at
g b sg bc It Ubcr ð1e Þ
1  UotcaoþU bcr
1 þ Ma Ca PF a Am
ð13Þ

After cell efficiency calculation, one can evaluate Tr Solution of Eq. (15) is,
from Eq. (11) and Tc from Eq. (6). 0 1
Ubcr ðasÞeff
Method 3 B s2g sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm þ ðasÞeff Am It C
1 B Utca þ Ubcr  sg bc b0 g0 It C
Till Eq. (9) process is similar as method 1, and 2. From Tr ¼ B C
Ma Ca @ X Utca A
Eqs. (6), and (12) þsg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ Ta L þ Am
  Utca þ Ubcr  sg bc b0 g0 It

ac sg bc  sg bc g0 þ sg bc b0 g0 Tc  sg bc b0 g0 T0 It þ Ubcr Tr þ Utca Ta 1
Tc ¼ 1  eMa Ca ðLþUtra Am Þt 1
Utca þ Ubcr  þ Tro eMa Ca ðLþUtra Am Þt
1
ð L þ U A Þ
ð14Þ Ma Ca tra m

X ð16Þ
s2g sg1 ð1  bc ÞAm It þ sg1 ðIi Ai Þ þ PF ðasÞeff Am It  Utra Am ðTr  T Þa
dTr The Tr evaluated from Eq. (16). Further, Tc can be
¼ Ma Ca þ LðTr  Ta Þ
dt determined considering Tr from Eq. (6). With help of Tc,
ð15Þ cell efficiency can be found from Eq. 12.
where,
Empirical models for drying system

The mathematical modelling of the dehydration process is

of great assistance in the process of designing and opti-
mizing the dryers. Table 3 provides a summary of the
various mathematical models that have been proposed by

123
Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production 2109

various authors in order to evaluate the effectiveness of Exergy analysis

products that have been dried in greenhouses.
The moisture ratio (dry basis) of the product is evaluated The exergy that is input into the PVT dryer comes from
as (Sahdev et al. 2018a) solar radiation. This is referred to as the conversion of
Mt  Me radiation into work. It is possible to determine exergy
MR ¼ ð17Þ efficiency using the following criteria (Patela 2003; Tiwari
Mi  Me
and Mishra 2012):
Exout
Energy and exergy analysis of drying system gsolar ¼  100 ð21Þ
Exin
Nayak and Tiwari (2008) conducted the energy and exergy where,
analysis of a photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) integrated " #
X 4 Tamb 1 Tamb 4
greenhouse drying system. They found that it is always Exin ¼ ð I  AÞ  1  þ
worth removing the maximum amount of moisture from 3 Tsun 3 Tsun
the products up to its safe level while using the least ð22Þ
amount of energy possible. It was discovered that the PV/T
integrated greenhouse had an exergy efficiency of 4%. In and exergy output is given by (Sahdev et al. 2018b)
 
their study from 2009, Ozgener and Ozgener (2009) looked   Tgo þ 273
into the drying capabilities of a solar greenhouse that was Exout ¼ Mao Ca Tgo  Tref  ðTamb þ 273Þ ln
Tref þ 273
heated passively. Exergy efficiencies were computed as a
ð23Þ
function of the amount of time spent drying and the tem-
perature of the air used in the drying process. It was
reported that the drying process had an average exergy PVT dryer performance
efficiency of between 63 and 73%. In times of low solar
energy gain, the solar heated PVT dryer was suggested as a The performance of PVT drying system can be measured in
viable option for pre-drying. terms of their efficiency factors. The ratio of the amount of
energy required to evaporate the moisture from the product
Energy analysis to the amount of energy that is supplied to the greenhouse
dryer as a result of solar radiations is used to determine
Energy efficiency can be determined using the following how effective the greenhouse dryer is at drying the product.
equation as: (Kumar et al. 2022) It is showed in Eq. (24) (Ayyappan et al. 2016; Boonyasri
Eout et al. 2011; Nayak et al. 2011).
gEnergy ¼  100 ð18Þ
Ein mev k
g¼  100 ð24Þ
where, IA
Energy input (Panwar 2014)
X Economic analysis
Ein ¼ I  A ðW Þ ð19Þ

Energy output (Kumar et al. 2022a; Panwar et al. 2013) The annualized cost method is used to evaluate the cost of
  drying the product. This allows for a comparison of the cost
Eout ¼ Ma Ca Tg  Tamb ðW Þ ð20Þ
of drying one kilogram of groundnuts using the natural,
forced and electrical drying modes. One is able to calculate

Table 3 Suggested and implemented Models

S. no Model name Model Drying product Reference

1 Two term MR ¼ a exp ðk0 tÞ þ b exp ðk tÞ Sultana grapes Yaldiz et al. (2001)
2 Logarithmic MR ¼ a exp ðk tÞ þ c Red pepper Fadhel et al. (2014)
3 Verma et al MR ¼ exp ðktÞ þ ð1  aÞ expðgc tÞ Kasuri Methi (Fenugreek) leaves Panwar (2014)
4 Prakash and Kumar MR ¼ at3 þ bt2 þ ct þ d Tomato flakes Prakash and Kumar (2013)

123
2110 Manisha et al.

the dryer’s annual cost using the annualized cost formula component (Tiwari and Tiwari 2016b; Saini et al. 2017;
(Kumar et al. 2021a) Tiwari et al. 2021):
Ca ¼ Cac  Vas þ Cm þ Crf þ Cre ð25Þ Ee ðkWhÞ
EPBT ¼ ð33Þ
Annual Energy Output ðEout ; kWh/YearÞ
In Eq. (25), Cac = annualized capital cost is given as:
Cac ¼ Ccc Fc ð26Þ
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission, net CO2
where Fc = capital recovery factor and is determined as mitigation, and Carbon credit
ið1 þ iÞs
Fc ¼ ð27Þ The mean emission of CO2 from coal for electricity gen-
ð1 þ iÞs 1
eration is 0.98 kg of CO2 per kW (Tiwari and Tiwari
In Eq. (13), Cm = annualized maintenance cost (Rs.), 2016b):
i = rate of interest (4%).
Vas = annualized salvage value (Rs.) and calculated as, CO2 emission per year ð365 daysÞ
Ee 1 1
Vas ¼ Vs Fs ð28Þ ¼    0:98 kg ð34Þ
L 1  La 1  L t
where Vs , the salvage value (Rs.) and Fs = salvage fund where L = life of greenhouse dryer, Ee = embodied energy,
factor, and La = losses in domestic, Lt = transmission losses,
i appliances/equipments (Saini et al. 2017):
Fs ¼ ð29Þ If Lt = 0.40, and La = 20% due to old appliances,
ð1 þ iÞs 1
Eq. (34) becomes
In Eq. (25), Cre is the electricity cost (annual) for
Ee 1 1
electric fan under forced condition, (Sreekumar 2010) Annual emission of CO2 ¼  
  L 1  0:20 1  0:40
m1 Lw Ce  0:98 kg
Crf ¼ My  ð30Þ
100 ge  3600 Ee
CO2 emission per year ¼  2:042 kg ð35Þ
where.m1 = Water moisture content (db), Lw = latent heat L
of water (kJ/kg), ge = efficiency of electric dryer Total mitigation of CO2 over the lifespan of the green-
(%),Ce = Cost per kWh of electricity energy, My = Quan- house dryer.
tity of groundnut dried per year and is given by the = Total mitigation of CO2 –total emission of CO2
Eq. (31) as:
1 1
Md D ¼ ðEaout  L  Ee Þ    0:98 kg
My ¼ ð31Þ 1  L a 1  Lt
Db
¼ ðEaout  L  Ee Þ  2:04 kg ð36Þ
where Md = Mass of dry groundnut removed, D = number
where L = Number of years (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 years).
of days of dryer in use in one year, and Db = Drying days
Eaout = Annual Total energy output (365 days) in kWh
per batch.
per year.
Carbon emission exported at ten US dollars per tones of
Cost of drying per kg of dried commodity
CO2 mitigation, then the carbon credit earned (CCE) for
greenhouse dryer = net mitigation of CO2  $ 10.
The cost of drying commodity is calculated as,
Ca Specific energy consumption
Cs ¼ ð32Þ
My
The specific energy consumption (SEC) may be defined as
the energy required to remove one kg of water from the
Embodied energy (Ee ), and Energy payback time
drying commodity sample and is calculated using the
(EPBT * )
equation as (Kumar et al. 2021)
The term ‘‘embodied energy’’ describes the total amount of Ete
SEC ¼ ð37Þ
energy that goes into the production of a PVT dryer. The mevap
purpose of this investigation is to compile a list of all of the where mevap is the mass of water removed in kg and
sources of energy that went into the production of a given determined as (Sahdev et al. 2016)

123
Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production
 
W 0 Y i  Yf
mevap ¼ ð38Þ
100  Yf
where, W0 is the initial weight of sample (kg), Yi is the
initial moisture content (% d.b.) at time.t = 0, and Yf is the
final moisture content (% d. b.)
Specific moisture extraction rate (SMER)
The SMER shows the ratio between the amount of evap-
orated water and the total energy supply (Sözen et al.
2020). A high SMER would indicate an efficient drying
process with low energy losses.
1 mevap
SMER ¼ ¼ ð39Þ
SEC Ete
The studies for miscellaneous solar dryers are classified
in a variety of ways based on the following design and
operation characteristics such as batch or continuous and
are summarized in Table 4.
Results and discussion
The embodied energy is a significant factor to consider in
accessing the life cycle of a dryer and directly relates to the
sustainability of the dryer environment. Figure 4 shows the
bar chart having embodied energy with respect to types of
dryers. According to the bar chart, GSD required maximum
and minimum embodied energy i.e., 18,302 kWh and
197.32 KWh, respectively. From the literature, it was
found that the structure of GSD is very heavy so that it is
showing large embodied energy which might not good for
environmental point of view. One can reduce this embod-
ied energy by the use of locally available materials, which
have less embodied energy namely, wood, iron with zinc
coating, biodegradable plastics, structures made by rice
husk, stubble (parali), etc.
Figure 5 shows the comparison between different types
of dryers in terms of energy payback time (EPBT). The
Photovoltaic thermal Greenhouse solar dryer (Copper
Indium Gallium Selenide) (GSD (CIGS)) showed mini-
mum EPBT i.e., 0.39 years and maximum EPBT found to
be for hybrid active greenhouse dryer (without evacuated
tube collector) (HAGSD (WOETC)) i.e., 10.17 years. The
above calculations have been done based on embodied
energy and given encouraging information about the
structure/materials used for different dryers. As per defi-
nition EPBT also, is a function of embodied energy.
Therefore, EPBT can be reduced using low embodied
energy material.
Figure 6 shows the CO2 mitigation in tonnes with
respect to types of dryers and found maximum and
2111
minimum CO2 mitigation in the case of HAGD (WOETC)
i.e., Hybrid active greenhouse dryer (without evacuated
tube collector) (HAGD (WOETC)) and modified solar
dryer (phase change material) (MSD (PCM)) i.e., 734.47
and 4.14 tonnes, respectively.
Figure 7 shows the variation of maximum and minimum
moisture content in the crop. Different authors have carried
out experiments with various crops having different
moisture contents. Therefore, every crop requires different
attention to get the desired quality. From the previous
experiments, very interesting physics has been found.
Some authors are claiming that if crop temperature is more,
then we will get more evaporation, and some concentrate
on maintaining the relative humidity inside the drying
chamber. From Eq. 4, it can be seen that both parameters
are important. In addition, if we have to decide between
two parameters discussed above then the variation of
humidity in place of high temperature may give better
quality-dried products especially in the case of tempera-
ture-sensitive crops.
Figure 8 shows the mean exergy of the dryer which
represent the available energy for work. From the bar chart,
minimum and maximum value of exergy were found to be
from PVTGD (FC) and HSD i.e., 4.1 and 71.7, respec-
tively. If the mean exergy is more, that means fewer losses
from the side walls/ground of dryer. Therefore, better
insulation may increase the exergy of the dryer, which
further leads to faster drying.
Figure 9 shows the drying cost on dollar per kg basis. It
can be seen from the graph that the photovoltaic thermal
mix mode dryer (PVTMMD) is the most economical dryer
giving drying at the cost of $0.36/kg. Semitransparent
photovoltaic thermal with single slope greenhouse dryer
(STPVTSSGD) found be most uneconomical dryer because
of highest drying cost, i.e., $6.6/kg. The variation in drying
cost is dependent not only on the type of dryer employed
but also on the crop utilized. Every crop has different pore
size and surface properties so it has a different diffusion
rate and hence affect the cost of drying.
For environmental economics, one has to analyze the
carbon credit earned (CCE). A high CCE rating indicates
that the system is more environmentally friendly. From
Fig. 10, it can be seen that minimum and maximum carbon
credit earned through IFCD and PVTGD (c-Si) i.e., $ 30.10
and $ 2199.30, respectively. In general, it is seen PVT
dryers have more carbon credit earned compared to con-
ventional dryers due to photovoltaic used. Hence, PVT
solar dryers are recommended.
A comparison of the obtained SEC values in various
researchers’ investigations as shown in Table 4. From the
Table, it can be seen that SEC values are varying between
1.33 to 340.97 kWh/kg for various drying systems. The
minimum value SEC shows better performance of dryer.
123
 Table 4 Solar dryers with operation principle, advantages and limitations
2112

Type Dryer Definition Advantages Disadvantages Figure/reference

123
Batch Tray A chamber that is insulated where trays (loaded (1) It is used to (1) Time-consuming
dryer with the product to be dried) are arranged in dry wide (2) High Operating costs
trolleys in one row. Over the racks, hot air variety of
travels through the tube products

Misha et al. (2013)

Pan dryer The atmospheric pan drier features a jacketed (1) Maximize (1) limited to small batches
round pan in which a slowly rotating stirrer or heat surface
mill is operated from underneath. The slow- area
moving stirrer exposes new surfaces, increasing
the rate of evaporation and, as a result, the pace
of drying

Wang et al. (2020)

Agitated The dryer is essentially a jacketed cylindrical (1) Available (1) Low efficiency
vacuum vessel with a jacketed jacket that allows hot in different (2) High operating and maintenance cost
dryer water, steam, or any suitable thermal fluid to size
(3) Skilled labor required
flow through it for heating. The shell has two (2) High
doors, one at the top for loading feed material removal rate
and the other at the bottom for discharging of moisture

Wang et al. (2020)

Manisha et al.
 Table 4 (continued)
Type Dryer Definition Advantages Disadvantages Figure/reference

Continuous Rotary It is essentially a cylinder that is sloped towards (1) High (1) Due to the huge gas volumes and high gas
dryer the horizontal and can be turned, or it can be capacity and velocities that are normally required, excessive
stationary with an agitator within that rotates simple in entrainment losses in the existing gas stream
slowly. In either case, the wet material is put in operation are likely, especially if the material comprises
at the higher end and the rotation, or agitation, (2) extremely small particles
moves it down to the lower end, where it is Economical
ejected
(3) less
sensitive to
product size

Bhandari (2015)
Drum In a drying operation, a thin layer of dissolved (1) Low (1) Not suitable for all type of product
dryer solid, or puree material is placed to the outside operation (2) Change in color and taste due to direct contact
surface of spinning drums that are heated and with high temperature surface
internally by steam maintenance
cost
(2) clean and
hygienic
(3) high
energy
efficiency
Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production
2113

123
 Table 4 (continued)
2114

Type Dryer Definition Advantages Disadvantages Figure/reference

Tang et al. (2003)

123
Flash A basic pneumatic flash drying device that dries (1) Small area (1) A gas cleaning system with a high efficiency
dryer particle solids in a hot gas stream while required for is required
transporting them installation (2) It is impossible to dry aggregated materials
(2) Low (3) Risk of fire and explosion
maintenance
and
operation
cost
(3) Easy to
control

Levy and Borde (2014)

Fluidised A fluidized bed dryer made up of steel material (1) Rapid and (1) Dry limited range of product
bed The drying gas is pushed through the solids bed at uniform heat (2) Processing needle or platelet-shaped particles
dryer a high enough velocity to keep the bed fluidized transfer is tough
in this type of dryer (2) Good
control on
drying
condition
(3) Fast drying
rate

Chua and Chou (2005)

Noval Micro Heat is generated in microwave drying by directly (1) High (1) Initial cost is high
wave converting electromagnetic energy to kinetic drying rate (2) Texture may be different
dryer molecular energy, resulting in heat being (2) Low (3) specific size and shape product is required for
generated deep within the material to be dried operating good drying
cost
(3) Less
energy
consumption
(4) Short
drying time

(Orset et al. 2007; Darvishi et al. 2013)

Manisha et al.
Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production 2115

Fig. 4 Embodied energy with

respect to types of dryers (Ekka
and Palanisamy 2021;
Kondareddy et al. 2021; Singh
and Gaur 2021, 2022; Gupta
et al. 2021a; Mishra et al. 2021;
Chauhan et al. 2018; Ayyappana
2018; Saini et al. 2017; Tiwari
and Tiwari 2016a; Nayak et al.
2014)

Fig. 5 Energy payback time

(EPBT) with respect to types of
dryers (Ekka and Palanisamy
2021; Kondareddy et al. 2021;
Singh and Gaur 2021, 2022;
Gupta et al. 2021a, b; Mishra
et al. 2021; Hao et al. 2020;
Tiwari 2020; Vijayan et al.
2020; Poonia et al. 2019;
Eltawil et al. 2018; Poonia et al.
2018; Chauhan et al. 2018;
Ayyappan 2018; Saini et al.
2017; Dhanushkodi et al. 2015b;
Nayak et al. 2014; Prakash and
Kumar 2014)

Fig. 6 CO2 mitigation with

respect to types of dryers (Ekka
and Palanisamy 2021;
Kondareddy et al. 2021; Singh
and Gaur 2021, 2022; Gupta
et al. 2021a, 2022; Mishra et al.
2021; Vijayan et al. 2020;
Chauhan et al. 2018; Ayyappan
2018; Tiwari and Tiwari 2016a)

123
2116 Manisha et al.

Fig. 7 Variation of maximum

and minimum moisture content
with respect to types of dryer
(Gupta et al. 2021a; Ekka and
Palanisamy 2021; Kondareddy
et al. 2021; Singh and Gaur
2021; Veeramanipriya and
Sundari 2021; Mishra et al.
2021; Jadallah et al. 2020; Hao
et al. 2020; Vijayan et al. 2020;
Poonia et al. 2019; Eltawil et al.
2018; Poonia et al. 2018;
Ayyappan 2018; Ziaforoughi
and esfahani 2016; Borah et al.
2015; Nayak et al. 2014; Arun
et al. 2014; Prakash and Kumar
2014; Eke 2013; Stalin et al.
2013)

Fig. 8 Variation of mean exergy

with respect to types of dryer
(Gupta et al. 2022; Çiftçi et al.
2021; Kondareddy et al. 2021;
Selimefendigil et al. 2022a;
Gupta et al. 2021a; Mishra et al.
2021; Arslan and Aktaş 2020;
Hao et al. 2020; Vijayan et al.
2020; Şevik et al. 2019; Tiwari
and Tiwari 2017; Tiwari and
Tiwari 2016a; Nayak et al.
2014)

Fig. 9 Variation of drying cost

with respect to types of dryer
(Singh and Gaur 2021, 2022;
Ekka and Palanisamy 2021;
Kondareddy et al. 2021;; Gupta
2021a; Mishra et al. 2021; Hao
et al. 2020; Tiwari 2020; Poonia
et al. 2019; Poonia et al. 2018;
Ayyappan 2018; Dhanushkodi
et al. 2015b)

123
Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production
For PVT dryer, it was found to be 2.17–2.97 kWh/kg which
is better than most of the non-PVT dryers (Table 5).
Further, a comparison of the obtained for specific
moisture extraction rate (SMER) values in various
researchers’ investigations as shown in Table 6. From the
Table, it can be seen that SMER values are varying
between 0.35 and 1.37 kg/kWh for various drying systems.
The maximum value SMER shows better performance of
dryer. For PVT dryer, it was found to be 0.89–1.31 kg/
kWh, which is comparable to the non-PVT dryers.
Barriers and challenges
Solar drying is one of the cheapest method for drying. With
addition of photovoltaic not only increases the drying rate
due to operation in forced mode but also, gives option to
store electrical energy for small household application.
Still lot of challenges are associated with the drying are as
follows:
• Uncertainty of weather condition specially, in winter
and rainy seasons
• Initial cost of PVT dryer is more that may be a
constraint for small-scale farmers.
• Adoptability is one of the prime concerns. People
prefers automatic machines for drying in place of solar
drying which requires lot of effort in handling the crop.
• Lack of marketing/awareness about solar dryer. People
have to understand there is no other option to protect
the environment unless promoting use of clean and
renewable energy.
Future research directions
Some research directions for future work, which may
enhance the drying productivity and extra income to the
farmers of developing countries, are as follows:
Fig. 10 Variation of mean
carbon credit earned with
respect to types of dryer (Singh
and Gaur 2021, 2022; Ekka and
Palanisamy 2021; Mishra et al.
2021; Vijayan et al. 2020;
Chauhan et al. 2018; Ayyappan
2018; Nayak et al. 2014;
Prakash and Kumar 2014)
2117
• Nanofluids have unstable behavior that also influences
the efficiency of the system. A few researches have
been done, hence recommended for future
investigation.
• The impact of optical characteristics on energy effi-
ciency. There is great scope of research work.
• In case of evacuated tube solar collector, evacuated
tubes are made up of glass. The strength of this glass is
low. So, a great field for researcher to find out more
reliable and strengthen material.
• More work on developing effective and economical
PCMs with less decaying effects for solar thermal
energy storage systems is needed.
• More research work is needed to develop an econom-
ical, highly efficient, ecofriendly, less payback time for
large scale applications.
Conclusion
A comprehensive analysis of the numerous design ideas,
structural details, and working mechanism of a variety of
practical hybrid PVT solar dryer systems have been dis-
cussed. Open sun, direct, indirect, and mixed-mode solar
dryers are among the various types of solar dryer systems
available for drying applications. In addition, certain sim-
ple-to-fabricate and simple-to-operate dryers are shown in
this work, which can be used in local firms or remote area
farming. Economical food drying methods can easily be
implemented in a remote area to minimize decay, increase
goods quality after drying and improve general sanitation.
The ultimate goal of using these proper drying methods is
to greatly increase crop profits and earnings for farmers.
Hybrid PVT greenhouse drying is a suitable alternative for
rural areas where power connectivity is constrained. This
review also focused on the novel techniques of hybrid PVT
123
2118 Manisha et al.

Table 5 SEC values for different types of dryers

S. Dryer Drying Air Temperature SEC (kWh/ Author/year
no product velocity (C) kg)
(m/s)

1 Hot air (HA) Pistacia 0.5–1.5 40–70 48.37–120.46 Kaveh et al.

2 Hot air-infrared (HA-IR) atlantica 37.79–175.52 (2020)
3 Hot air-microwave 6.01–28.32
4 Continuous multistage conveyor (CMS) 74.51–340.97
5 Hot air-solar 28.27–111.18
6 Solar air heater with tubular and aluminum wool Onion – 26.5–27.2 1.39–1.82 Sözen et al.
7 Solar air heater with tubular Onion – 27.5–28.8 1.94–2.25 (2021)
8 Even-span greenhouse dryer Mint leaves – 42.97–43.82 2.51–2.61 Selimefendigil
9 Even-span greenhouse dryer/Triple flow solar air 55.46 2.18 et al. (2022c)
collector
10 Even-span greenhouse dryer/Triple flow solar air 57.50 2.11
collector with nano enhanced black paint
11 Greenhouse dryer with latent heat storage unit (GD- Onion – 40.2–42.2 1.47–1.86 Selimefendigil
LHTSU) et al. (2022b)
12 Greenhouse dryer with nano-enhanced latent heat storage 41.6–43.9 1.33–1.60
unit (GD-NeLHTSU)
13 Single slop greenhouse dryer (SSGD) Granny – 41.4–42.4 2.71–2.78 Selimefendigil
14 Single slop greenhouse dryer with north wall smith 45 2.54 et al. (2022a)
modification (SSGD-NW) apples
15 Single slop greenhouse dryer with Nano enhanced north 46.7 2.34
wall modification (SSGD-NeNW)
16 Grooved hybrid PVT-air collector Red onion – 20.6–25.4 2.17–2.97 Tuncer et al.
(2023)
17 Square-spiral finned quadruple flow solar collector Lavender – 25.8–28 3.10–4.27 Khanlari et al.
(2021)

solar dryer with flat plate collector, evacuated tube col-
lector, parabolic trough collector, concentrating collector
using PCM, double PCM, and nanofluids as working fluids.
These arrangements give high efficiency. Thermal energy
storage is possible, and conversion of waste into other form
of energy. A major drawback of these technologies is their
high cost for common people and farmers to adopt. Finally,
it can be concluded that several experts throughout the
world have conducted substantial research on various
upgrade strategies for hybrid PVT solar dryer systems.
In addition to the conclusion, some major points are also
to be remembered to strengthen the significance and out-
come of the present work with the previous work are
highlighted as:
• The maximum and minimum embodied energy was
reported to be 18,302 kWh and 197.32 KWh for heavy
structure and light structure respectively. For the
environmental point of view, less embodied energy
materials/mostly locally available material (namely,
wood, iron with zinc coating, biodegradable plastics,
structures made by rice husk, stubble, etc.) has been
recommended.
• The energy payback time is always recommended to be
lowest. The EPBT can be reduced using low embodied
energy material.
• The CO2 mitigation in tonnes with respect to types of
dryers and found maximum and minimum CO2 miti-
gation in the case of HAGD (WOETC) i.e., Hybrid
active greenhouse dryer (without evacuated tube col-
lector) (HAGD (WOETC)) and modified solar dryer
(phase change material) (MSD (PCM)) i.e., 734.47 and
4.14 tonnes, respectively.
• The better insulation of heat is also recommended
which can increase the exergy of the dryer, and hence
leads to faster drying
• The photovoltaic thermal mix mode dryer (PVTMMD)
is the most economical with drying cost of $0.36/kg.
• For PVT dryer, SEC and SMER were found to be
2.17–2.97 kWh/kg and 0.89–1.31 kg/kWh respectively,
which is comparable to the non-PVT dryers, which
means with the use of PVT dryer one need not to
compromise with SEC and SMER.

123
Recent developments on photovoltaic thermal drying systems: a clean energy production 2119

Table 6 Specific moisture extraction rate (SMER) for different dryer

S.no Dryer Drying Temperature SMER (kg/ Author/year
product kWh)

1 Even-span greenhouse dryer Mint leaves 42.97–43.82 0.66–0.71 Selimefendigil et al.

2 Even-span greenhouse dryer/triple flow solar air collector 55.46 0.90 (2022c)
3 Even-span greenhouse dryer/triple flow solar air collector with 57.50 1.11
nano enhanced black paint
4 Greenhouse dryer with latent heat storage unit (GD-LHTSU) Onion 40.2–42.2 0.83–1.01 Selimefendigil et al.
5 Greenhouse dryer with nano-enhanced latent heat storage unit 41.6–43.9 1.20–1.37 (2022b)
(GD-NeLHTSU)
6 Single slop greenhouse dryer (SSGD) Granny smith 41.4–42.4 0.58–0.64 Selimefendigil et al.
7 Single slop greenhouse dryer with north wall modification (SSGD- apples 45 0.75 (2022a)
NW)
8 Single slop greenhouse dryer with neno enhanced north wall 46.7 0.90
modification (SSGD-NeNW)
9 Grooved hybrid PVT-air collector Red onion 20.6–25.4 0.89–1.31 Tuncer et al. (2023)
10 Compact indirect solar dehumidification system (CSDS) Apple slices 26.7–27.5 0.47–0.62 Afshari et al. (2021)
11 Compact indirect solar dehumidification system with baffles 0.55–0.69
(CSDS)
12 Square-spiral finned quadruple flow solar collector Lavender 25.8–28 0.35–0.66 Khanlari et al.
(2021)

For environmental economics, carbon credit earned previous versions of the manuscript. RKS and ST supervised the
(CCE) should be high which indicates the system to be research. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.’’
more environmentally friendly. Funding This research did not receive any specific Grant from
funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Appendix 1 Data availability Enquiries about data availability should be directed

to the authors.

Formulae used to calculate different heat transfer coeffi-

Declarations
cient used in thermal analysis are as follows.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.

M_ f ¼ qAc v1
2 3
p d N1
v1 ¼ 460A c

ho ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8v ho ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8v

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