NAPOLEON’S DOMESTIC POLICY

The Napoleonic Reforms

Aims

-To consolidate his position in France as the Emperor.

- To institute a benevolent despotism, meaning to have policies that benefit the people.

- The peace at Amiens with the British in 1802 gave Napoleon a breathing space to reorganize
France.

The Consulate, 1800

 After the success of the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire, the Directory was abolished and
Napoleon got in power

 His immediate task was to work out a new Constitution for France and for this reason; three
Consuls were to be appointed namely Napoleon, Sieyes and Roger Ducos

 Of these three, Napoleon was the First Consul and the most important one

 Napoleon as the first Council could appoint all the chief officials of the State, both the
military and the civil

 The first Council, Napoleon had also the right to make war and peace

 He alone could propose laws, which were to be drafted by a special Council of State and
then to be submitted to the Legislative Body which was to vote without discussion, H.L Peacock,
(page 56).

 Peacock also added that Bonaparte could appoint the local officials, who became completely
the servants of the government of Napoleon

 He also had the power to appoint prefects of the departments, sub-prefects of the
arrondissements and mayors of the commune, according to H.L Peacock, (page 56)

A close analysis of the Consulate reveals that Napoleon was an absolute ruler since all government
was centralized in Paris under the direct control of the First Consul, Napoleon .He had all the most
important powers and was in charge of almost everything in France thus making him a dictator. Of
course, he tried to be democratic by introducing a system of voting for some laws but this cannot
nullify his dictatorship since the voting was on list of candidates, already prepared by the
government, H.L Peacock, (page 56)

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. (HURUMEND)

 Napoleon was very successful in reorganizing the local government to such an extent that
his local government became the basis of Modern French system.
 According to Peacock (page 58), Napoleon’s reorganization of France had two main bases:
his belief in his destiny and in his right to rule absolutely and the “career open to talent”

 in the Career open to talent, Napoleon promoted men not because of their political
background but because of their talents and or ability.

 this principle made his local government to be viable

 in his local government, Napoleon kept the division of France into Departments but he
created a new sub-division, Arrondissement to replace the District

 the leading official in each division or subdivision was appointed directly or indirectly by the
central government

 local councils continued to be elected but their powers were largely advisory

The Concordat Treaty 1801

 -This was an agreement between Napoleon and the Catholics. Through this agreement

Napoleon hoped to reconcile with the church that had been alienated from the State.

D. Richards argues that Napoleon signed the Concordat so as to please the peasants and
to end religious conflicts.

 He also welcomed all those who supported him but his opponents were ruthlessly
suppressed

(Peacock page 58)

 The laws against the émigrés were slowly relaxed and all except unrepentant royalists were
allowed to return to France

 -During the revolutionary era under the agreement the Catholics religion was made the
official State religion that was grunted the control of education.

 -The Bishops were to appoint the Parish Clergy with the approval of the Government. In
return the church recognizes the sale of the church lands to the peasants.

 -Napoleon hoped that this arrangement would heal the breach with the Pope and

Priesthood caused by the CCC.

 Furthermore Napoleon viewed a church as a valuable and essential support to his power.

 -He also realized that the church had behind it a vast majority of the peasants whose loyalty
he needed most.

Under this treaty:

 Catholicism was recognized as the religion of France’s rulers and of the Majority of the
Frenchmen

 However, other religions were not forbidden

 The French state was to choose the bishops who will be installed by the Pope
 The state will also pay the clergy and control the Church.

 All the Church land confiscated at the revolution were not to be returned

 the Bishops were to be appointed by the First Consul but their investiture (installation) was
to be carried out by the Pope

 Church services would be supervised under police powers

 Sunday was recognised as a holy day

Strengths of this reform

 D. Richards argues that by signing the concordat with the Pope Napoleon was able to win
the hearts of the French peasants in two ways:

1. He restored their religion, Catholicism

2.he made them to keep the church land which they gained in the French revolution

 The concordat was also a success in the sense that Napoleon was able to restore the
position of the Pope which had been damaged during the days of the French revolution

 It was also a success especially in helping Napoleon to consolidate his position since he saw
religion as a cement of social order, (D Richards page 44)

 By declaring Catholicism the religion of the state rulers, Napoleon also won the hearts of the
French peasants and by allowing other religions to prevail he was able to achieve equality in France

 Overally, the Concordat was a success in the sense that it helped to restore social stability in
France

 By allowing some of the émigrés to return to France, Napoleon was able to consolidate his
position.

Weaknesses

 Arguably, the Concordat was just used as a tool by Napoleon to consolidate his position
because he knew very well that most of the French people were peasants and this is the reason why
he declared Catholicism the religion of the State

 The Concordat was also nothing but just a tool to consolidate his position as Napoleon saw
religion as “something useful in binding men together and keeping them satisfied…”( D. Richards
page 44)

 Also, the Concordat did not please everyone as one distinguished general was overheard
remarking “the only thing lacking at this ceremony is the million dead men who died to get rid of this
nonsense”. (D. Richards page 44.) This is a clear indication that the Concordat had its own loopholes
which made it to be criticized by other French people at its celebrations

Bank of France (1801)

 Napoleon created the Bank of France in order to maintain a stable currency based on gold.

 Through the creation of this Bank, Napoleon won the support of all business interests.
 The bank gave loans to industry and commerce. It also controlled taxation.

 Napoleon’s government through a series of decrees regulated almost the whole of national
life, art, the theatre, the press, commerce, industry and religion.

The Legion of Honour (1802)

 Under this reform, Napoleon made state positions open to all men of talent, however
humble their origins

 According to Peacock ( page 60), he believed in the power of ceremonies, forms and symbols
and this is why he initiated this reform

 He allowed the émigrés to return but he no longer permitted them to be considered as the
true nobility of France

 He then created a kind of nobility of talent by founding the Legion of Honour

 Members of the Legion of Honour were awarded for services in such matters as politics, civil
service, local government and the arts

 He developed the theme that “Men are led by toys” ( D. Richards page 42, H.L Peacock page
60)

 He created some new 3, 000 hereditary nobles, including 4 princes, 30 dukes and nearly 400
counts

Code Napoleon (1804)

 -This was a written classification and summary of the laws of France on topics such as rights
and duties, marriage, divorce, parentage, inheritance and property and a statement of the general
legal principles concerning them

 -Since in 1789 there was confusion on the laws of France and especially appointed lawyers

were tasked to codify the law.

 -Thus no French was in any doubt as to his or her position before the law. The rules were
made uniform and equal for all by the Code Napoleon.

 -Under family law the code aimed at strengthening the family as the foundation of the state.
(H.L Peacock page 59)

 The authority of the father was greatly increased.

 -the sons could not marry under the age of 25 without the consent of the father and in case
of the daughters the age was 21.

 The position of the wife was made inferior to that of the husband in the family.

 -In his private correspondence Napoleon I indicated his insensitivity to gender. He pointed
out that the women’s brain power was far inferior to that of the men and they were fitted for little
education. ( H.L Peacock page 59)
 -The code confirmed the legal equality of all male citizens. This helped to bring social
cohesion and enabled the French man and others to understand the main principles underlining the
laws.

 -The code brought toleration of all regions and a trial in public before the jury. The code was
very successful that it was adopted by many countries in Europe and South America

Strengths

 It managed to restore social order in France since the Code was crystal clear about the
responsibilities of the French people.

 It enabled Frenchmen to understand the main principles underlying the laws

 It confirmed the legal equality of all male citizens in France.

However

 The changes brought by the Code Napoleon were totally against the revolution since the
revolution wanted equality between men and women

 The code also gave more powers to men hence it looked down upon women

 In this Code, Napoleon proved that he was gender blind

 It was not fair because it allowed the Father to temporarily imprison his son-an idea that can
contradict with human rights and freedom.

Military Reforms

 -Napoleon I reorganized the French army that was expected to play a decisive role in the
Napoleonic wars.

 -He set up a semi-military squad called lycees. In this squad future soldiers were produced.
The aim was to produce absolutely loyal soldiers devoted to the State.

 -The army was reorganized, reequipped and trained. In this way Napoleon I produced a
disciplined loyal, strong and professional army that was entirely devoted to him alone

Censorship and propaganda

 In 1800 Napoleon reduced the number of political journals published in Paris from 73 to 9

 No new political journals were to be produced

 Those left were forbidden to discuss controversial subjects

 Their editors were forced to rely for news on articles published in Le Moniteur, which were
written by Napoleon or his ministers

 In 1809 censors were assigned to each newspaper

 In 1810 provincial papers were reduced to one per department

 By 1811 there were only 4 Parisian papers and these were constantly under police
supervision

 Up to 1810 all books, plays, lectures and posters that appeared in Paris were sent to
Napoleon

 Publishers were supposed to send two copies to the police headquarters before publication

 In 1810 more than half the printing presses in Paris were shut down

 Publishers were forced to

(i) take out a licence and

(ii) (ii) swear an oath of loyalty to the government.

 Booksellers were strictly controlled and severely punished, even death – if found to be
selling subservient material

 Some authors were sent into exile for criticising the government

 Many theatres were closed

 However sculptors, architects and artists were used by Napoleon for propaganda and
portraying him in a positive way.

 David and Ingres were employed by Napoleon as State propagandists, showing Napoleon as
a romantic hero-figure.

(Here Napoleon showed all his dictatorial tendencies. He showed that his reforms were mainly
aimed at consolidating his position. It also shows that his policies in France were retrogressive)

How successful was Napoleon in enforcing centralised control of France?

A police state was established

 Prefects were the key to the administration in the provinces. Apart from their duties of
enforcing an efficient system of tax collection and conscription, they were the eyes, ears and voice of
the central government [Napoleon].

 Prefects reported on opposition to Napoleon and kept a tight grip on public opinion through
censorship and propaganda.

 Prefects’ duties included the following. To

 enforce conscription and pursue deserters

 supervise the collection of taxes

 ensure smooth running of the local administration, check the work of sub-prefects and
magistrates, and appoint mayors and town councils

 obtain information about the department, particularly if there was discontent among the
people

 spy on people who might be politically dangerous and submit reports about them
 spread propaganda issued by Napoleon and help his ministries

 help increase commerce and trade

 The prefects were expected to carry out their duties to the letter.

 Napoleon personally appointed the prefects and advanced men of talent who had proved
themselves capable administrators. It was also a good way of healing the divisions.

 According to D. G. Wright, prefects were ‘from all shades of political spectrum’ – the pre-
1789 nobility, middle class or the military

 Napoleon also relied on the police.

 Under Joseph Fouche, the police had a lot of powers

The police:

 spied on individuals

 searched for deserters

 supervised prisons

 acted as censors

 provided constant intelligence about the public

 Militant Jacobin and royalist elements had no opportunity to cause any trouble

 Fouche sent daily reports directly to Napoleon

 Napoleon had his own spies too.

 Special new courts were set up.

 Military courts dealt with terrorists

 In 1810 the government re-introduced imprisonment without trial.

 The government also regularly used house arrests.

 Opposition was silenced.

 In 1815 only 2 500 people were in prison for political offences.

 There were also legal reforms. Although judges were appointed for life they were closely
supervised.

 The Code Napoleon was also more repressive and less liberal.

 There was no equality for women who were seen as ‘less equal’ than men.

 Workers needed a livret to obtain work; this enabled the police to supervise workers closely.

 Commercial, Criminal and Penal codes were codified in the Code Napoleon.
 Napoleon knew his main supporters were property-owners. This was acknowledged by the
codes that legally and finally transferred property titles to those who had bought ‘biens nationaux’.

 The Penal codes returned the pre-Revolutionary days of hard labour and harsh punishment.
The message was that the liberal days of Revolution were over.

 Strict censorship ensured that papers, books, theatres, artists etc. were tightly controlled

 The government made sure that only its version of the news was published. The official
bulletins written by Napoleon and his ministers came out in Le Moniteur. At the time of the
Directory there were 73 political journals but they were later reduced to nine. By 1809 each
newspaper had its own censor.

 Ministers were not required to think for themselves either.

 Opposition was limited due to:

• patronage

• honours

• police control

• packing government organs with supporters

• spying

Only two problems remained:

1. by 1813 desertions and avoidance of conscription were high

2. gangs of vagabonds terrorised rural areas during periods of economic depression

Education

 -Napoleon I introduced measures that provided each French man with an equal opportunity
to get educated. Elementary schools were placed in the church.

 He introduced “lycees”- schools entirely controlled by the government

 -The Grant Master of the University of France was put in charge of all secondary education in
France. Much emphasis was put on Maths and Science.

 -The University was founded under the Grant Master with branches throughout the French
districts.

 -Technical schools were also established and this benefited the French people

 Subjects considered as dangerous such as History, Economics and Philosophy were banned.

 Much emphasis was placed on male education and he did not even cater for girl education
as he said “I don’t think we need trouble ourselves with any plan of instruction for young females,
public education is not for them because they are never called upon to act in public. Manners are all
in all to them and marriage is all they look to” D. Richards (page 43).

 -what he meant here was simply clear, he did not see it wise for girls to be educated but
rather he suggested that they should be taught some basic skills such as cooking with their mothers
at home.
 -however this shows that Napoleon was gender blind in his reforms since he left the girls out

 -also the banning of History and Philosophy is a clear indication of his dictatorial tendencies
since he knew that these subjects will open the minds of the French people and they will make them
revolt against him

 -in line with this, H.L Peacock argues that Napoleon’s education system was mainly aimed at
producing citizens who were absolutely and uncritically loyal to the government and this is the
reason why History and Philosophy were banned ( H.L Peacock page 60)

Careers Open to Talent

 -This was a revolutionary idea. Napoleon appointed and promoted men to high offices in the
State on merit or talent irregardless of one’s origin or social class.

 -For example many of Napoleon’s Generals were men of lowly birth e. g Murat who was
given charge of the Cisalphine Republic was the son of an innkeeper.

 -The principle of the career opened to talent undoubtedly accounts for much of the strength
of France at this time.

Public Works

 Napoleon also introduced great schemes of work in France which permanently beautified
and enriched France

 He initiated infrastructural development in France canals and ports were greatly improved
and aided the expansion of industry

 Marshes were drained while sea ports were enlarged and fortified

 Museums were founded and the Louvre completed and filled with the priceless treasures
stolen from Italy

 Palaces like Fontainebleau were restored

These public works did not only beautify and enrich France but they also created employment to the
local people hence Napoleon was very successful in public works.

Economic Reforms

Napoleon I aimed at promoting economic stability in France. He:

 Established many technical schools with the aim of improving the French industrial
processes and discovering new ones.

 increased domestic production by imposing high tariffs on imports and by encouraging new
inventions

 Promoted business interests by stabilizing the value of the French currency basing on Gold
and setting up the bank of France to aid industrial development.

 All the underutilized agricultural land was reclaimed, irrigation was introduced.

 Peasants were allowed to retain land gained during the Revolution

These economic reforms boosted the French economy hence it can be noted that Napoleon also
scored some notable successes in his economic reforms

Tax collection

 There were only a few francs available in the treasury in November 1799

 Napoleon used the ‘career open to talent’ approach to deal with the financial system

 He appointed a number of able and efficient ministers to undertake the task

 Gaudin was appointed minister of Finance from 1799 to 1814 whilst Barbe-Marbois was at
the Treasury (1801-1806). Both these men brought stability to the state finances. Some of their
early reforms were:

• a clear separation of roles between the Ministry of Finance and the Treasury. The Ministry
of Finance oversaw the collection of taxes and revenues whilst the Treasury dealt with government
expenditure

• the reorganisation of both the direct and indirect tax collection

• first steps in establishing a public banking system

 Gaudin centralised the assessment and collection of direct taxation

 A detailed tax register was drawn up

 Although the system was reformed the amount raised was about 29% of government
revenue

 There was increase in indirect taxation.

 The Convention had many of these forms of indirect taxes. First the Directory had
reintroduced indirect taxes on certain goods.

 A central exercise office was introduced in 1804: goods taxed indirectly included tobacco,
alcohol, items made from gold and silver, playing cards and public transport.

 In 1806 salt was added to the list; this reminded people the hated gabelle of the ancien
regime.

 Between 1806 and 1812 revenue from indirect taxation increased by 400%; by 1813 indirect
taxation accounted for 25% of the government revenue.

Analysis of Napoleonic Reforms

 -The reforms of Napoleon were characterized by a mixture of Revolutionary ideas,

Napoleonic and ancient regime ideas.

Revolutionary

 -There was political participation and representation through elections legislative council
and completion of the codification of the law started by the Revolution.
 -There was guarantee of rights and equality

 -Equal opportunities to men were granted in education.

 -Revolutionary methods of retraining, recruitment and reequipping were adopted in the

military reforms.

 -Stabilizing the French economy.

Ancient Regime

 -Centralization of power by Napoleon just like Louis XVI of the ancient regime

 -The adoption of letters de caches and press censorship of the ancient regime

 -The adoption of the ancient regime system of reward the Legion of Honour.

 -The revival of the old State church alliance through Concordat Treaty.

Napoleonic Ideas

 -Appointments of prefects, sub-prefects and mayors in charge of Government departments

and communes respectively in administration.

 -Gender insensitivity in the code Napoleon and in education

 -Establishment of University technical education, emphasis on Maths and Science, the

banning of history, philosophy and economics

 -The creation of a professional army loyal to Napoleon himself.

 -The establishment of infrastructure, bank of France, new currency, industrial reforms and
schools.

Motive of the Reforms

1 Consolidate his position as Emperor

 -Efficiency and order in administration enhanced his Popularity

 -Centralization enhanced his popularity

 -Checking opposition through press censorship and letters de caches enhanced his
popularity

 -The Legion of honour enhanced his popularity among the new type of nobility.

 -The concordat won Napoleon support and popularity with the Pope and church followers.

 -Code Napoleon enhanced the authority of males by implicating the emperors authority. It
also enhanced his popularity.

 -Militarily reforms strengthened his position through creation of army loyal to him alone.

 -Education reforms giving equal access opportunity enhanced his popularity.

 -The careers open to talent that brought equality in making appointments enhanced his
popularity

 -Economic reforms that stabilizing the economy won him popularity especially among
business class

Benevolence (acts of generosity)

 The reforms were meant to benefit the people through efficiency and order in
administration. Political participation and representation through elections, legislative assembly
local government, letters de caches, press censorship and centralization brought law and order

 in France. Under the Legion of Honour, efficient officials were rewarded hence promoting
efficiency

 The careers open to talent gave the French man equal opportunities in terms of
appointments.

 The Concordat Treaty reconciled the State and the church after a long period of hostile and
strained relations.

 Educational reforms gave French man an equal access to education.

 Codified law that granted rights and equality was accessible to all French man.

 Military reforms created a professional army for defensive and offensive purposes.
Economic reforms stabilized the French economy

 N.B Napoleon was a dictator

 -centralization

 -legislative council a rubber stamping board

 -suppressed liberty

 -adoption of Legion of Honour to back France to the ancient regime reminded the people

 of a new type of Nobility.

 -adoption of Legion of Honour to back France to the ancient regime reminded people of a
new type of Nobility.

 -The education policy and Code Napoleon showed Napoleon’s gender insensitivity.

 -The army was loyal to him.

 -He was benevolent.

 -He used his dictatorial powers for the benefit of the people (see previous notes)
NAPOLEON’S DOMESTIC POLICY

The Napoleonic Reforms

Aims

-To consolidate his position in France as the Emperor.

- To institute a benevolent despotism, meaning to have policies that benefit the people.

- The peace at Amiens with the British in 1802 gave Napoleon a breathing space to reorganize
France.

The Consulate, 1800

 After the success of the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire, the Directory was abolished and
Napoleon got in power

 His immediate task was to work out a new Constitution for France and for this reason; three
Consuls were to be appointed namely Napoleon, Sieyes and Roger Ducos

 Of these three, Napoleon was the First Consul and the most important one

 Napoleon as the first Council could appoint all the chief officials of the State, both the
military and the civil

 The first Council, Napoleon had also the right to make war and peace

 He alone could propose laws, which were to be drafted by a special Council of State and
then to be submitted to the Legislative Body which was to vote without discussion, H.L Peacock,
(page 56).

 Peacock also added that Bonaparte could appoint the local officials, who became completely
the servants of the government of Napoleon

 He also had the power to appoint prefects of the departments, sub-prefects of the
arrondissements and mayors of the commune, according to H.L Peacock, (page 56)

A close analysis of the Consulate reveals that Napoleon was an absolute ruler since all government
was centralized in Paris under the direct control of the First Consul, Napoleon .He had all the most
important powers and was in charge of almost everything in France thus making him a dictator. Of
course, he tried to be democratic by introducing a system of voting for some laws but this cannot
nullify his dictatorship since the voting was on list of candidates, already prepared by the
government, H.L Peacock, (page 56)
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. (HURUMEND)

 Napoleon was very successful in reorganizing the local government to such an extent that
his local government became the basis of Modern French system.

 According to Peacock (page 58), Napoleon’s reorganization of France had two main bases:
his belief in his destiny and in his right to rule absolutely and the “career open to talent”

 in the Career open to talent, Napoleon promoted men not because of their political
background but because of their talents and or ability.

 this principle made his local government to be viable

 in his local government, Napoleon kept the division of France into Departments but he
created a new sub-division, Arrondissement to replace the District

 the leading official in each division or subdivision was appointed directly or indirectly by the
central government

 local councils continued to be elected but their powers were largely advisory

The Concordat Treaty 1801

 -This was an agreement between Napoleon and the Catholics. Through this agreement

Napoleon hoped to reconcile with the church that had been alienated from the State.

D. Richards argues that Napoleon signed the Concordat so as to please the peasants and
to end religious conflicts.

 He also welcomed all those who supported him but his opponents were ruthlessly
suppressed

(Peacock page 58)

 The laws against the émigrés were slowly relaxed and all except unrepentant royalists were
allowed to return to France

 -During the revolutionary era under the agreement the Catholics religion was made the
official State religion that was grunted the control of education.

 -The Bishops were to appoint the Parish Clergy with the approval of the Government. In
return the church recognizes the sale of the church lands to the peasants.

 -Napoleon hoped that this arrangement would heal the breach with the Pope and

Priesthood caused by the CCC.

 Furthermore Napoleon viewed a church as a valuable and essential support to his power.
 -He also realized that the church had behind it a vast majority of the peasants whose loyalty
he needed most.

Under this treaty:

 Catholicism was recognized as the religion of France’s rulers and of the Majority of the
Frenchmen

 However, other religions were not forbidden

 The French state was to choose the bishops who will be installed by the Pope

 The state will also pay the clergy and control the Church.

 All the Church land confiscated at the revolution were not to be returned

 the Bishops were to be appointed by the First Consul but their investiture (installation) was
to be carried out by the Pope

 Church services would be supervised under police powers

 Sunday was recognised as a holy day

Strengths of this reform

 D. Richards argues that by signing the concordat with the Pope Napoleon was able to win
the hearts of the French peasants in two ways:

1. He restored their religion, Catholicism

2.he made them to keep the church land which they gained in the French revolution

 The concordat was also a success in the sense that Napoleon was able to restore the
position of the Pope which had been damaged during the days of the French revolution

 It was also a success especially in helping Napoleon to consolidate his position since he saw
religion as a cement of social order, (D Richards page 44)

 By declaring Catholicism the religion of the state rulers, Napoleon also won the hearts of the
French peasants and by allowing other religions to prevail he was able to achieve equality in France

 Overally, the Concordat was a success in the sense that it helped to restore social stability in
France

 By allowing some of the émigrés to return to France, Napoleon was able to consolidate his
position.

Weaknesses

 Arguably, the Concordat was just used as a tool by Napoleon to consolidate his position
because he knew very well that most of the French people were peasants and this is the reason why
he declared Catholicism the religion of the State

 The Concordat was also nothing but just a tool to consolidate his position as Napoleon saw
religion as “something useful in binding men together and keeping them satisfied…”( D. Richards
page 44)
 Also, the Concordat did not please everyone as one distinguished general was overheard
remarking “the only thing lacking at this ceremony is the million dead men who died to get rid of this
nonsense”. (D. Richards page 44.) This is a clear indication that the Concordat had its own loopholes
which made it to be criticized by other French people at its celebrations

Bank of France (1801)

 Napoleon created the Bank of France in order to maintain a stable currency based on gold.

 Through the creation of this Bank, Napoleon won the support of all business interests.

 The bank gave loans to industry and commerce. It also controlled taxation.

 Napoleon’s government through a series of decrees regulated almost the whole of national
life, art, the theatre, the press, commerce, industry and religion.

The Legion of Honour (1802)

 Under this reform, Napoleon made state positions open to all men of talent, however
humble their origins

 According to Peacock ( page 60), he believed in the power of ceremonies, forms and symbols
and this is why he initiated this reform

 He allowed the émigrés to return but he no longer permitted them to be considered as the
true nobility of France

 He then created a kind of nobility of talent by founding the Legion of Honour

 Members of the Legion of Honour were awarded for services in such matters as politics, civil
service, local government and the arts

 He developed the theme that “Men are led by toys” ( D. Richards page 42, H.L Peacock page
60)

 He created some new 3, 000 hereditary nobles, including 4 princes, 30 dukes and nearly 400
counts

Code Napoleon (1804)

 -This was a written classification and summary of the laws of France on topics such as rights
and duties, marriage, divorce, parentage, inheritance and property and a statement of the general
legal principles concerning them

 -Since in 1789 there was confusion on the laws of France and especially appointed lawyers

were tasked to codify the law.

 -Thus no French was in any doubt as to his or her position before the law. The rules were
made uniform and equal for all by the Code Napoleon.

 -Under family law the code aimed at strengthening the family as the foundation of the state.
(H.L Peacock page 59)

 The authority of the father was greatly increased.

 -the sons could not marry under the age of 25 without the consent of the father and in case
of the daughters the age was 21.

 The position of the wife was made inferior to that of the husband in the family.

 -In his private correspondence Napoleon I indicated his insensitivity to gender. He pointed
out that the women’s brain power was far inferior to that of the men and they were fitted for little
education. ( H.L Peacock page 59)

 -The code confirmed the legal equality of all male citizens. This helped to bring social
cohesion and enabled the French man and others to understand the main principles underlining the
laws.

 -The code brought toleration of all regions and a trial in public before the jury. The code was
very successful that it was adopted by many countries in Europe and South America

Strengths

 It managed to restore social order in France since the Code was crystal clear about the
responsibilities of the French people.

 It enabled Frenchmen to understand the main principles underlying the laws

 It confirmed the legal equality of all male citizens in France.

However

 The changes brought by the Code Napoleon were totally against the revolution since the
revolution wanted equality between men and women

 The code also gave more powers to men hence it looked down upon women

 In this Code, Napoleon proved that he was gender blind

 It was not fair because it allowed the Father to temporarily imprison his son-an idea that can
contradict with human rights and freedom.

Military Reforms

 -Napoleon I reorganized the French army that was expected to play a decisive role in the
Napoleonic wars.

 -He set up a semi-military squad called lycees. In this squad future soldiers were produced.
The aim was to produce absolutely loyal soldiers devoted to the State.

 -The army was reorganized, reequipped and trained. In this way Napoleon I produced a
disciplined loyal, strong and professional army that was entirely devoted to him alone

Censorship and propaganda

 In 1800 Napoleon reduced the number of political journals published in Paris from 73 to 9

 No new political journals were to be produced

 Those left were forbidden to discuss controversial subjects

 Their editors were forced to rely for news on articles published in Le Moniteur, which were
written by Napoleon or his ministers

 In 1809 censors were assigned to each newspaper

 In 1810 provincial papers were reduced to one per department

 By 1811 there were only 4 Parisian papers and these were constantly under police
supervision

 Up to 1810 all books, plays, lectures and posters that appeared in Paris were sent to
Napoleon

 Publishers were supposed to send two copies to the police headquarters before publication

 In 1810 more than half the printing presses in Paris were shut down

 Publishers were forced to

(i) take out a licence and

(ii) (ii) swear an oath of loyalty to the government.

 Booksellers were strictly controlled and severely punished, even death – if found to be
selling subservient material

 Some authors were sent into exile for criticising the government

 Many theatres were closed

 However sculptors, architects and artists were used by Napoleon for propaganda and
portraying him in a positive way.

 David and Ingres were employed by Napoleon as State propagandists, showing Napoleon as
a romantic hero-figure.

(Here Napoleon showed all his dictatorial tendencies. He showed that his reforms were mainly
aimed at consolidating his position. It also shows that his policies in France were retrogressive)

How successful was Napoleon in enforcing centralised control of France?

A police state was established

 Prefects were the key to the administration in the provinces. Apart from their duties of
enforcing an efficient system of tax collection and conscription, they were the eyes, ears and voice of
the central government [Napoleon].

 Prefects reported on opposition to Napoleon and kept a tight grip on public opinion through
censorship and propaganda.

 Prefects’ duties included the following. To

 enforce conscription and pursue deserters

 supervise the collection of taxes

 ensure smooth running of the local administration, check the work of sub-prefects and
magistrates, and appoint mayors and town councils

 obtain information about the department, particularly if there was discontent among the
people

 spy on people who might be politically dangerous and submit reports about them

 spread propaganda issued by Napoleon and help his ministries

 help increase commerce and trade

 The prefects were expected to carry out their duties to the letter.

 Napoleon personally appointed the prefects and advanced men of talent who had proved
themselves capable administrators. It was also a good way of healing the divisions.

 According to D. G. Wright, prefects were ‘from all shades of political spectrum’ – the pre-
1789 nobility, middle class or the military

 Napoleon also relied on the police.

 Under Joseph Fouche, the police had a lot of powers

The police:

 spied on individuals

 searched for deserters

 supervised prisons

 acted as censors

 provided constant intelligence about the public

 Militant Jacobin and royalist elements had no opportunity to cause any trouble

 Fouche sent daily reports directly to Napoleon

 Napoleon had his own spies too.

 Special new courts were set up.

 Military courts dealt with terrorists

 In 1810 the government re-introduced imprisonment without trial.

 The government also regularly used house arrests.

 Opposition was silenced.

 In 1815 only 2 500 people were in prison for political offences.

 There were also legal reforms. Although judges were appointed for life they were closely
supervised.
 The Code Napoleon was also more repressive and less liberal.

 There was no equality for women who were seen as ‘less equal’ than men.

 Workers needed a livret to obtain work; this enabled the police to supervise workers closely.

 Commercial, Criminal and Penal codes were codified in the Code Napoleon.

 Napoleon knew his main supporters were property-owners. This was acknowledged by the
codes that legally and finally transferred property titles to those who had bought ‘biens nationaux’.

 The Penal codes returned the pre-Revolutionary days of hard labour and harsh punishment.
The message was that the liberal days of Revolution were over.

 Strict censorship ensured that papers, books, theatres, artists etc. were tightly controlled

 The government made sure that only its version of the news was published. The official
bulletins written by Napoleon and his ministers came out in Le Moniteur. At the time of the
Directory there were 73 political journals but they were later reduced to nine. By 1809 each
newspaper had its own censor.

 Ministers were not required to think for themselves either.

 Opposition was limited due to:

• patronage

• honours

• police control

• packing government organs with supporters

• spying

Only two problems remained:

1. by 1813 desertions and avoidance of conscription were high

2. gangs of vagabonds terrorised rural areas during periods of economic depression

Education

 -Napoleon I introduced measures that provided each French man with an equal opportunity
to get educated. Elementary schools were placed in the church.

 He introduced “lycees”- schools entirely controlled by the government

 -The Grant Master of the University of France was put in charge of all secondary education in
France. Much emphasis was put on Maths and Science.

 -The University was founded under the Grant Master with branches throughout the French
districts.

 -Technical schools were also established and this benefited the French people

 Subjects considered as dangerous such as History, Economics and Philosophy were banned.
 Much emphasis was placed on male education and he did not even cater for girl education
as he said “I don’t think we need trouble ourselves with any plan of instruction for young females,
public education is not for them because they are never called upon to act in public. Manners are all
in all to them and marriage is all they look to” D. Richards (page 43).

 -what he meant here was simply clear, he did not see it wise for girls to be educated but
rather he suggested that they should be taught some basic skills such as cooking with their mothers
at home.

 -however this shows that Napoleon was gender blind in his reforms since he left the girls out

 -also the banning of History and Philosophy is a clear indication of his dictatorial tendencies
since he knew that these subjects will open the minds of the French people and they will make them
revolt against him

 -in line with this, H.L Peacock argues that Napoleon’s education system was mainly aimed at
producing citizens who were absolutely and uncritically loyal to the government and this is the
reason why History and Philosophy were banned ( H.L Peacock page 60)

Careers Open to Talent

 -This was a revolutionary idea. Napoleon appointed and promoted men to high offices in the
State on merit or talent irregardless of one’s origin or social class.

 -For example many of Napoleon’s Generals were men of lowly birth e. g Murat who was
given charge of the Cisalphine Republic was the son of an innkeeper.

 -The principle of the career opened to talent undoubtedly accounts for much of the strength
of France at this time.

Public Works

 Napoleon also introduced great schemes of work in France which permanently beautified
and enriched France

 He initiated infrastructural development in France canals and ports were greatly improved
and aided the expansion of industry

 Marshes were drained while sea ports were enlarged and fortified

 Museums were founded and the Louvre completed and filled with the priceless treasures
stolen from Italy

 Palaces like Fontainebleau were restored

These public works did not only beautify and enrich France but they also created employment to the
local people hence Napoleon was very successful in public works.

Economic Reforms

Napoleon I aimed at promoting economic stability in France. He:

 Established many technical schools with the aim of improving the French industrial
processes and discovering new ones.
 increased domestic production by imposing high tariffs on imports and by encouraging new
inventions

 Promoted business interests by stabilizing the value of the French currency basing on Gold
and setting up the bank of France to aid industrial development.

 All the underutilized agricultural land was reclaimed, irrigation was introduced.

 Peasants were allowed to retain land gained during the Revolution

These economic reforms boosted the French economy hence it can be noted that Napoleon also
scored some notable successes in his economic reforms

Tax collection

 There were only a few francs available in the treasury in November 1799

 Napoleon used the ‘career open to talent’ approach to deal with the financial system

 He appointed a number of able and efficient ministers to undertake the task

 Gaudin was appointed minister of Finance from 1799 to 1814 whilst Barbe-Marbois was at
the Treasury (1801-1806). Both these men brought stability to the state finances. Some of their
early reforms were:

• a clear separation of roles between the Ministry of Finance and the Treasury. The Ministry
of Finance oversaw the collection of taxes and revenues whilst the Treasury dealt with government
expenditure

• the reorganisation of both the direct and indirect tax collection

• first steps in establishing a public banking system

 Gaudin centralised the assessment and collection of direct taxation

 A detailed tax register was drawn up

 Although the system was reformed the amount raised was about 29% of government
revenue

 There was increase in indirect taxation.

 The Convention had many of these forms of indirect taxes. First the Directory had
reintroduced indirect taxes on certain goods.

 A central exercise office was introduced in 1804: goods taxed indirectly included tobacco,
alcohol, items made from gold and silver, playing cards and public transport.

 In 1806 salt was added to the list; this reminded people the hated gabelle of the ancien
regime.

 Between 1806 and 1812 revenue from indirect taxation increased by 400%; by 1813 indirect
taxation accounted for 25% of the government revenue.
Analysis of Napoleonic Reforms

 -The reforms of Napoleon were characterized by a mixture of Revolutionary ideas,

Napoleonic and ancient regime ideas.

Revolutionary

 -There was political participation and representation through elections legislative council
and completion of the codification of the law started by the Revolution.

 -There was guarantee of rights and equality

 -Equal opportunities to men were granted in education.

 -Revolutionary methods of retraining, recruitment and reequipping were adopted in the

military reforms.

 -Stabilizing the French economy.

Ancient Regime

 -Centralization of power by Napoleon just like Louis XVI of the ancient regime

 -The adoption of letters de caches and press censorship of the ancient regime

 -The adoption of the ancient regime system of reward the Legion of Honour.

 -The revival of the old State church alliance through Concordat Treaty.

Napoleonic Ideas

 -Appointments of prefects, sub-prefects and mayors in charge of Government departments

and communes respectively in administration.

 -Gender insensitivity in the code Napoleon and in education

 -Establishment of University technical education, emphasis on Maths and Science, the

banning of history, philosophy and economics

 -The creation of a professional army loyal to Napoleon himself.

 -The establishment of infrastructure, bank of France, new currency, industrial reforms and
schools.

Motive of the Reforms

1 Consolidate his position as Emperor

 -Efficiency and order in administration enhanced his Popularity

 -Centralization enhanced his popularity

 -Checking opposition through press censorship and letters de caches enhanced his
popularity

 -The Legion of honour enhanced his popularity among the new type of nobility.
 -The concordat won Napoleon support and popularity with the Pope and church followers.

 -Code Napoleon enhanced the authority of males by implicating the emperors authority. It
also enhanced his popularity.

 -Militarily reforms strengthened his position through creation of army loyal to him alone.

 -Education reforms giving equal access opportunity enhanced his popularity.

 -The careers open to talent that brought equality in making appointments enhanced his
popularity

 -Economic reforms that stabilizing the economy won him popularity especially among
business class

Benevolence (acts of generosity)

 The reforms were meant to benefit the people through efficiency and order in
administration. Political participation and representation through elections, legislative assembly
local government, letters de caches, press censorship and centralization brought law and order

 in France. Under the Legion of Honour, efficient officials were rewarded hence promoting
efficiency

 The careers open to talent gave the French man equal opportunities in terms of
appointments.

 The Concordat Treaty reconciled the State and the church after a long period of hostile and
strained relations.

 Educational reforms gave French man an equal access to education.

 Codified law that granted rights and equality was accessible to all French man.

 Military reforms created a professional army for defensive and offensive purposes.
Economic reforms stabilized the French economy

 N.B Napoleon was a dictator

 -centralization

 -legislative council a rubber stamping board

 -suppressed liberty

 -adoption of Legion of Honour to back France to the ancient regime reminded the people

 of a new type of Nobility.

 -adoption of Legion of Honour to back France to the ancient regime reminded people of a
new type of Nobility.

 -The education policy and Code Napoleon showed Napoleon’s gender insensitivity.

 -The army was loyal to him.

 -He was benevolent.

 -He used his dictatorial powers for the