Faculty of Science

Minya University

Department :
Physics Department

Project about :
Nuclear Medicine

By :
Noor Naime Thabet
Verena Saleh Salah
Nahed Emad Muhammad

Supervision by :
Dr/ Mustafa Younis

2024

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 content
j s

• Definition of nuclear medicine

• History of nuclear medicine
• Radiopharmaceuticals
1. Definition
2. characteristics
3. types
4. uses
5. side effects
• Types of radiation
• Types of imaging methods and devices
1. CT
2. PT
3. SPECT
4. MR

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• Advantages of nuclear medicine
• Disadvantages of nuclear medicine

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 Definition of nuclear medicine

Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty that uses radioactive

tracers (radiopharmaceuticals) to assess bodily functions and to
diagnose and treat disease. Specially designed cameras allow
doctors to track the path of these radioactive tracers. Single
Photon Emission

Computed Tomography or SPECT and Positron

Emission

Tomography or PET scans are the two most common imaging modalities in
nuclear medicine.

History of nuclear medicine

Nuclear medicine is associated with a long history, to which scientists from

various different fields such as physics, medicine chemistry and engineering
have contributed over the decades. This multidisciplinary involvement means
it has been difficult for historians to determine the origins of nuclear
medicine. However, researchers believe the birth of this medical specialty
probably occurred somewhere between 1934 when artificial radioactivity
was first discovered and 1946 when radionuclides were first produced for
medical use by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Nuclear medicine first

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became recognized as a potential medical specialty in 1946 when it was
described by Sam sidling in the Journal of the American Medical Association.
sidling reported on the success of radioactive iodine (I-131) in treating a
patient with advanced thyroid cancer. Later, the use of I131 was expanded
to applications such as thyroid gland imaging, hyperthyroidism treatment
and quantification of thyroid function.

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Radiopharmaceuticals: are agents used to diagnose certain
medical problems or treat certain diseases. They may be given to the
patient in several different ways. For example, they may be given by
mouth, given by injection, or placed into the eye or into the bladder.

Half-Life Time : The ideal radiopharmaceutical should have a short or

long physical half-life time depending on what the property is being used
for. The half-life time is the amount of time it takes for the radioactive
nuclei used to decay to half of its radioactive lifespan.
Radiopharmaceuticals used for diagnostic purposes should have a short
physical half-life to safely limit radiation doses and to decay quickly after
diagnostic imaging. Therapeutic uses of radiopharmaceuticals should have
a long physical half-life, as a short decay period would decrease the
therapeutic properties of the compound, making it less effective as time
goes on. In diagnostic imagining, the effective half-life time should also be
equal to the examination period. Effective half-life time is the amount of
time it takes for the radioactivity in specific radioactive substances
distributed in the body to decrease to half of their radioactive lifespan. This

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eliminates overexposure for radioactivity to the human body beyond the

examination period.

Gamma Ray Emission : Gamma ray or beta particle emission is

imperative to the diagnostic purposes of radiopharmaceuticals. Gamma
rays are forms of light that move at different wavelengths than visible light.
SPECT scans, or single proton computed tomography scans, and PET scans,
or positron emission tomography scans, are commonly used in diagnostics
by tracking the gamma ray emissions. In SPECT scans, gamma cameras can
track the gamma emissions from the radiolabeled compounds injected in
the patient's body. Through the gamma ray emission, SPEC scans can
diagnose and track the progression of heart diseases, bone disorders,
movement disorders, dementia, and Parkinson's disease. PET scans do not
measure the gamma rays emitted. In a PET scan, the decay of the
radiolabeled compound creates small particles called positrons. Positrons
then interact with electrons in the body to create photons that can be
measured and used to create images of internal organs.

Auger Electrons or Alpha Particles : For therapeutic

purposes, Auger electrons or alpha particles are emitted for molecular
nuclear therapies. In this technique, the Auger electrons or alpha particles
are targeted at a specific location, such as a tumor. These electrons bind to

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an organic molecule and are then emitted locally over a certain amount of
time to the harmful tissue. The radioactive emissions emit to the local
tissue only to cure or destroy the unhealthy mass while leaving healthy
tissues and organs unharmed.

Specific Activity : Specific activity refers to the amount of

radioactivity per unit mass of the element or compound. Typically, high
specific activity is ideal for radiopharmaceuticals to properly localize to the
receptor site.

Localize Largely and Quickly : Radiopharmaceutical

compounds should localize largely and quickly around the receptor site.
Considering radioactivity can be dangerous to heal thy areas of the body,
radiopharmaceuticals should largely gather in the localized treatment area.
This will not only specialize treatment to the direct area needed, but it will
also keep healthy tissue and organs unaffected by harmful radioactivity.
Localizing to the treatment area quickly also allows for the treatment to
take place faster, which is often needed in diagnostics or life-saving
treatments such as tumor removal.

Stability : Radiopharmaceutical stability is incredibly important,

especially in diagnostic imaging. The stability of radioisotopes can be
affected by light, temperature, and pH balances. If these impacts are not

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taken into account during the preparation and storing of compounds,
metabolically-decomposed radiopharmaceuticals used in diagnostic
imaging can result in undesirable distribution of radioactivity and
decreased quality of the image, making diagnosis difficult.

Radiopharmaceuticals may be divided in two

distinct groups: one that includes radionuclides with radioactive
decay period (half-life) less than 2 h, and other that includes radionuclides
with half-life higher than 2h.

Uses of radiopharmaceuticals : Diagnosis or treatment of

some diseases.

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• Blood vessel diseases of the brain-Ammonia N
13, lofetamine I 123, Technetium Tc 99m Bicisate,
Technetium Tc 99m Exametazime, Xenon Xe 133.

• Bone diseases-Sodium Fluoride F 18,

Technetium Tc 99m Medronate, Technetium Tc 99m
Oxidronate, Technetium Tc 99m Pyrophosphate,
Technetium Tc 99m (Pyro- and trimeta-)
Phosphates.

•Bone marrow diseases-Sodium Chromate Cr 51,

Technetium Tc 99m Albumin Colloid, Technetium
Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid.

•Brain diseases and tumors-Fludeoxyglucose F 18,

Indium In 111 Pentetreotide, lofetamine I 123,
Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m, Technetium Tc 99m
Exametazime, Technetium Tc 99m Gluceptate,
Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate.
•Cancer; tumors-Fludeoxyglucose F 18, Gallium

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Citrate Ga 67, Indium In 111 Pentetreotide,
Methionine C 11, Radioiodinated lobenguane,
Sodium Fluoride F 18, Technetium Tc 99m
Arcitumomab, Technetium Tc 99m Nofetumomab
Merpentan.

•Kidney diseases-lodohippurate Sodium I 123,

lodohippurate Sodium I 131, lothalamate Sodium I
125, Technetium Tc 99m Gluceptate, Technetium Tc
99m Mertiatide, Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate,
Technetium Tc 99m Succimer.

•Liver diseases-Ammonia N 13, Fludeoxyglucose F

18, Technetium Tc 99m Albumin Colloid,
Technetium Tc 99m Disofenin, Technetium Tc 99m
Lidofenin, Technetium Tc 99m Mebrofenin,
Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid.

• Lung diseases-Krypton Kr 81m, Technetium Tc

99m Albumin Aggregated, Technetium Tc 99m
Pentetate, Xenon Xe 127, Xenon Xe 133

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 Side Effects

Along with its needed effects, a medicine may cause some unwanted effects.
When radiopharmaceuticals are used in very small doses to study an organ of
the body, side effects are rare and usually involve an allergic reaction. These
effects may occur almost immediately or a few minutes after the
radiopharmaceutical is given.

Examples :
➢ chills
➢ difficulty breathing
➢ drowsiness (severe)
➢ fainting
➢ fast heartbeat
➢ fever
➢ flushing or redness of skin
➢ headache (severe)
➢ nausea or vomit in
➢ skin rash, hives, or itching
➢ stomach pain
➢ swelling of throat, hands, or feet

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 Types of radiation
There are two kinds of radiation: non-ionizing radiation and ionizing

radiation.

Ionizing : Ionizing radiation has so much energy it can knock

electrons out of atoms, a process known as ionization. Ionizing
radiation can affect the atoms in living things, so it poses a health risk
by damaging tissue and DNA in genes. Ionizing radiation comes from x-
ray machines, cosmic particles from outer space and radioactive
elements. Radioactive elements emit ionizing radiation as their atoms
undergo radioactive decay.

Non ionizing : Non-ionizing radiation has enough energy to

move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to vibrate, but not
enough to remove electrons from atoms. Examples of this kind of
radiation are radio waves, visible light and microwaves.

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 types of ionizing radiation
1) alpha particles
2) Beta particles
3) Gamma rays
4) X- ray

alpha particles : Alpha particles (a) are positively charged and

made up of two protons and two neutrons from the atom's nucleus.
Alpha particles come from the decay of the heaviest radioactive
elements, such as uranium, radium and polonium. Even though alpha
particles are very energetic, they are so heavy that they use up their
energy over short distances and are unable to travel very far from the
atom.

The health effect from exposure to alpha particles depends greatly on

how a person is exposed. Alpha particles lack the energy to penetrate
even the outer layer of skin, so exposure to the outside of the body is not
a major concern. Inside the body, however, they can be very harmful. If
alpha-emitters are inhaled, swallowed, or get into the body through a cut,
the alpha particles can damage sensitive living tissue. The way these
large, heavy particles cause damage makes them more dangerous than
other types of radiation. The ionizations they cause are very close
together - they can release all their energy. in a few cells. This results in
more severe damage to cells and DNA.

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Beta particles : Beta particles (β) are small, fast-
moving particles with a negative electrical charge that are
emitted from an atom's nucleus during radioactive decay.
These particles are emitted by certain unstable atoms such
as hydrogen-3 (tritium), carbon-14 and strontium-90.

Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, but are less
damaging to living tissue and DNA because the ionizations they produce
are more widely spaced. They travel farther in air than alpha particles, but
can be stopped by a layer of clothing or by a thin layer of a substance
such as aluminum. Some beta particles are capable of penetrating the
skin and causing damage such as skin burns.

However, as with alpha-emitters, beta-emitters are most

hazardous when they are inhaled or swallowed.

Gamma rays : Gamma rays (γ) are weightless packets of energy

called photons. Unlike alpha and beta particles, which have both energy
and mass, gamma rays are pure energy. Gamma rays are similar to visible
light, but have much higher energy. Gamma rays are often emitted along
with alpha or beta particles during radioactive decay.

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 Gamma rays are a radiation hazard for the entire body. They can easily
penetrate barriers that can stop alpha and beta particles, such as skin and
clothing.

Gamma rays have so much penetrating power that several inches of a

dense material like lead, or even a few feet of concrete
may be required to stop them. Gamma rays can pass
completely through the human body; as they pass
through, they can cause ionizations that damage tissue
and DNA.

X- ray : Because of their use in medicine, almost everyone has heard of x-

rays. X-rays are similar to gamma rays in that they are photons of pure
energy. X-rays and gamma rays have the same basic properties but come
from different parts of the atom. X-rays are emitted from processes outside
the nucleus, but gamma rays originate inside the nucleus. They also are
generally lower in energy and, therefore less penetrating than gamma rays.
X-rays can be produced naturally or by machines using electricity.

Literally thousands of x-ray machines are used daily in medicine.

Computerized tomography, commonly known as a CT or CAT scan, uses
special x-ray equipment to make detailed images of bones and soft tissue in
the body. Medical x-rays are the single largest source of man-made radiation
exposure.

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Learn more about radiation sources and doses. X- rays are also used in
industry for inspections and process controls.

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