Steel - منشآت فولاذية

Metallic Structures Chapter 1 Lecture No.
Steel: an alloy of primarily iron and carbon, with fewer impurities and less carbon
than cast iron.
Advantages of steel as a structural materials:
1. High strength: High strength of steel per unit of weight means weight of
structure will be small.
2. Uniformity: Properties of steel do not change with time like reinforced

concrete.
3. Elasticity: Steel follows Hooke's law up to high stresses.
4. Permanence: Steel last indefinitely when properly maintained.
5. Ductility: The property of a material by which steel can withstand large

(extensive) deformation without failure under high tensile stresses.
Ductility can be measured by elongation (e):
6. Toughness: steel have both strength and ductility.
Disadvantages of steel as a structural material:
1. Corrosion: most steel are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air

and water.
2. Heat transmission: during fire event, steel members may transmit
enough heat from a burning section.
3. Buckling: a length and slenderness of a compression member is
increased, danger of buckling increase.
4. Fatigue: strength may be reduced if it subjected to a large number of
reversals or large number of variations of tensile stress.
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Metallic Structures Chapter 1 Lecture No.1
Figure 1 : Typical stress-strain diagram for a Mild or Low-carbon structural steel.
Figure 2 : Typical stress-strain diagram for a High-strength structural steel.
Most commonly grade of structural steels according to the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM):
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(A) Proportional limit: the largest stress for which Hooke's law applies. The highest
point on the linear portion of stress-strain diagram. The largest stress that a material
can withstand without being permanently deformed is called the elastic limit.
(B) Yield Stress: the stress at which there is a significant increase in the elongation,
or strain without a corresponding increase in stress. Defined as Fy . For high strength
steel there is no well-defined yield point, yield strength is then the stress at the point
of unloading that corresponds to a permanent strain of some arbitrarily defined
amount, 0.002 I usually selected (0.2% offset method)
(D) Ultimate Tensile Strength: maximum value of stress that can be obtained
defined as Fu .
Modulus of Elasticity E: ratio of stress to strain within elastic range. It is same for all
structural steel (29,000 ksi).
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Structural Cross-sectional Shapes
Figure 1: Rolled-steel shapes
Figure 2: Hollow structural sections (HSS) Figure 3: Cold-formed sections
Figure 4: Built-up sections
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1. W-shape (wide-flange shape): (Figure 1)

 The cross section has two axes of symmetry.
 Designation:
W nominal depth parallel to web × weight in pound per foot length.
 D: nominal depth = approximate depth in whole inches.
 Example: W 27×114
2. M-shape: (Figure 1)
 Miscellaneous.
 Does not fit exactly into either the W or S categories.
 Slope of inner flanges other than ( .
 Example: M 8×6.5 (nominal depth parallel to web × weight in pound
per foot length).
3. S-shape: (Figure 1)
 American Standard shape.
 Difference between S and W: The flanges of the W are wider in
relation to the web than are the flanges of the S. And the outside and
inside faces of the flanges of the W-shape are parallel, whereas the
inside faces of the flanges of the S-shape slope with respect to the
outside faces .
 Example: S12×35 (nominal depth parallel to web × weight in pound
per foot length).
4. HP-shape: (Figure 1)
 Bearing pile section
 Web is thicker than W-section (better resistance to impact of pile
driving)
 Approximately the same width and depth, and equal flange and web
thicknesses.
 Example: HP 12×74.
5. C-shape: (Figure 1)
 American Standard Channel
 One axis of symmetry
 Example: C10×30 (depth × weight per unit length)
6. L-shape: (Figure 1)
 Angles are: Equal leg angles , Unequal leg angles.
 Designation: L a × b × c , where :
o a, b: length from heel to toe
o c: thickness of leg, which is the same for both legs
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 Example: L 6×6× and L 6×4×
7. Structural tee (spilt tee): (Figure 1)

 Splitting an I-shaped member at mid depth.
 Examples: WT 18 × 105, ST 10×33, MT 5×4
8. Hollow Structural Sections (HSS): (Figure 1)+ (Figure 2)

a. Round HSS:
i. Designation: outer diameter × wall thickness
ii. Example: HSS 8.625 × 0.250
b. Square and Rectangular HSS
i. Designation: nominal dimensions and wall thickness
ii. Example: HSS 7 ×5 ×
9. Steel Pipe: (Figure 1)

 d: nominal outer diameter
a. Designation: Pipe d std
Pipe d x-strong
Pipe d xx-strong
b. Designation: Pipe d × wall thickness
10. Bars and Plates: (Figure 1)

a. Bars: cross sections are circular, square, and rectangular (If the width
of a rectangular shapes 8 inches or less, it is classified as a bar).
b. Plates: If the width is more than 8 inches, the shape is classified as a

plate.
i. Designation: PL thickness(in.) × width(in.) × length (ft and in.)
ii. Example: PL
11. Cold-formed sections: (Figure 3)

 Bending thin material such as sheet steel or plate into desired shape
without heating.
12. Built-up sections: (Figure 4)

 Standard section is augmented by additional cross sectional elements.
 Built-up shapes can also be created by attaching two or more standard
rolled shapes to each other.
 An effective way of strengthening an existing structure(rehabilitation),
requirements are especially severe, or standard section is not have
enough area or moment of inertia.
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Tension Members
 Tension members: are structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile
forces.
 Existence and Applications:

1. Truss members
2. Bracing for buildings and bridge
3. Cables in suspended roof systems
4. Cables in suspension and cable-stayed bridge.
 Cross sections:
1. Any cross-sectional configuration may be used.
2. Frequent used sections:
a. Circular rods
b. Rolled angles
c. Built-up shapes:
a. Plates
b. Rolled shapes double-angle section
c. Combination of plates and rolled shapes
 The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by:
: Stress in axially loaded tension member

: magnitude of the load
: area of cross section normal to the load
: Nominal Strength
: Controlling combination of factored load
{ }
: Gross area
: Net area (reduced area)
: Effective net area, may be equal to net area or less
{ }
The smaller value govern the design
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 Bolt hole
a. Drilling or punching standard holes with a diameter inch larger the
fastener diameter.
b. To account for possible roughness around the edge of the hole we add
inch.
: diameter of bolt
: diameter of hole
Example 1:
 Gusset Plate: a connection element whose purpose is to transfer the load from
the member to a support or to another member.
HOMEWORK problem 3.2-1 page 90
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Effective Area (Ae)
 Performance of a Tension member is reduced by connections (connections

always weakens the member.)
 Two types of connections:

1. Bolted connections
2. Welded connections
 Joint efficiency: a factor measures the influence of connections on the tension

member.
 Joint efficiency is a function of :

1. Ductility of the material
2. Fastener spacing
3. Stress concentrations at holes
4. Fabrication procedure
5. Shear lag
 Shear lag occurs when some elements of cross section are NOT connected .
As a result; the connected element becomes overloaded and the unconnected
part is not fully stressed.
Figure 1: Angle Tension member
 How to reduce the shear lag effect?

By lengthening the connected region.
 How to account for shear lag in calculations?

By using a reduced effective net area Ae using a reduction factor named the
shear lag factor U.
 For bolted connections:

 For welded connections:
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 U : Table D3.1 (Steel code)

 : Length of the connection in the direction of the load
1. Welded connections: from one end of the weld to the other.
2. Bolted connections: from center of bolt at one end to the center of the
bolt to the other end.
 ̅ : Distance from centroid of the connected area to the plane of the connection
 Rules for determining U:

1. Any type of tension member except plates and round HSS with ≥
1.3D
̅
2. Plates
 General case:
 Special case: The member is connected with longitudinal welds on
each side with no transverse weld:
3. Round HSS with ≥ 1.3D
4. Alternative values for single and double angles
5. Alternative values for W, M, S, and HP shapes
Figure 2: Type of welds
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Figure 3: Types of conncetions
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Example: Determine the effective net area for the tension member shown
below:
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Metallic Structures Chapter 2 ecture No.6
Examples
1 1 3
1. A single-angle tension member, an L3 2 × 3 2 × 8 , is connected to a gusset
plate with 7⁄8-inch-diameter bolts as shown in Figure 1.The length of
connection; 𝑙 = 6 inch. Steel A36 is used The service loads are 35 kips dead
load and 15 kips live load. Is this section is adequate according to LFRD?
Figure 1: Single angle tension member
2. A double angle is shown in the Figure 2 below. The steel used is A36, and
1
holes are made for inch diameter bolts. The length of connection; 𝑙 = 3inch.
2
Determine the design tensile strength for LRFD.
Figure 2:
Unequal-leg double angle connected through long legs: "Longs- Leg
Back-to -Back"
3. For each steel section determine the following:

Section Required Dimension/Property Value Unit Table No. Page/CODE
PL 3⁄8 × 7 Thickness (t)

W16 × 57 Actual depth (d)
M12 × 10 Flange thickness (tf)
C8 × 11.5 Web thickness (tw)
L6×6×1 Weight (Wt.)
3 Design wall thickness (t)
HSS 4× 3×8
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Block Shear
 For certain connection configurations, a segment or “block” of material at the

end of the member can tear out.
Figure 1 : Single angle tension member with one line bolts
Figure 2 : Block shear failure in gusset plate and tension member
 Failure occurs by rupture (fracture) on the shear area and rupture on the
tension area.
 Both surfaces (shear surface and tension surface) contribute to the total
strength.
 Resistance to Block Shear = strength of tension surface + strength of shear

surface
 Shear rupture stress = 60% of tensile ultimate stress
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 Nominal strength in shear = 0.6FuAnv

Nominal strength in tension = FuAnt
 Rn : Nominal Block Shear strength

Anv : net area along the shear surface or surfaces
Ant : net area along the tension surface
Agv: gross area along the shear surface or surfaces
0.6 𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑣 + 𝑈𝑏𝑠 𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡

𝑅𝑛 ≤ {0.6𝐹 𝐴 + 𝑈 𝐹 𝐴 }
𝑦 𝑔𝑣 𝑏𝑠 𝑢 𝑛𝑡
1 ; 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑈𝑏𝑠 = { }
0.50 ; 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 "𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒"
∅ = 0.75
Example (1):
Compute the block shear strength of the tension member shown below. The holes are
7
inch-diameter bolts, and A36 is used. Use LRFD.
8
Example (2):
A C7 × 9.8 tension member is connected to a 3⁄8-in.-thick gusset plate as shown. Both

the member and the gusset plate are A36 steel. Use LRFD
a. Compute the available block shear strength of the tension member

b. Compute the available block shear strength of the gusset plate
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Staggered Fasteners
(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Single angle connected through one bolt line

(b) Single angle connected through two lines of bolts
𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = 𝑨𝒈 − 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 × (𝒅𝒃 + ) × 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔(𝒕)
𝟖
 When staggered fasteners are required ?

1. Space limitations, such as on dimension a
2. Minimizing the reduction in the cross sectional area
3. Geometry of the connections
Figure 2: staggered fasteners
 s: the stagger of the bolts; the spacing in the direction of the load
 g: the gage ; transverse spacing
Figure 3: Possible fracture path in plate section with staggered fasteners
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 Assumption : each bolt resists an equal share of the load.

𝑷
 Inclined path (for example: path bc figure c), 𝒇 = 𝑨 does not apply; because
the stresses on the inclined path are combination of tensile and shearing
stresses.
 One of the approximate methods to account the effect of the staggered hole by
using a reduced diameter 𝒅′ :
′
𝒔𝟐
𝒅 =𝒅−
𝟒𝒈
Sections with
Staggered
Bolts
Plate and
Plate Other sections:
W, C, S, HP,L...
Wn: A n:
net width in the failure line
consisting of both staggered net area in the failure
and unstagered holes line
𝒔𝟐
 𝒘𝒏 = 𝒘𝒈 − 𝚺𝒅𝒉 + 𝚺
𝟒𝒈
𝒔𝟐
 𝑨𝒏 = 𝑨𝒈 − 𝚺𝒅𝒉 𝒕𝒘 + 𝚺 𝒕
𝟒𝒈 𝒘
Example 1: Compute the smallest net area for the plate. Bolts are 1 inch diameter.
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Staggered Fasteners (2)
Staggerd Holes
in Different
Elements
Other Rolled
Angles
Shapes
Gage line
Gage line within
crossing the I-Shape Channel
leg(s)
heel
g = g1+g2-t Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 1: I section with staggerd bolts in different elements
Figure 2: Channel section with staggerd bolts in different elements
Example 1:
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Design of Tension Members
 The design of tension member involves finding a member with adequate:

1. gross and net area
𝐿
2. Slenderness ratio ,
𝑟
L: the length of tension member
r: minimum radius of gyration of the cross section with respect to minor
principal axis
 LRFD requirement for tension member design: ∅𝑷𝒏 ≥ 𝑷𝒖

1. To prevent yielding:
𝑃𝑢
0.90 𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔 ≥ 𝑃𝑢 → 𝐴𝑔 ≥
0.90𝐹𝑦
2. To prevent fracture:
𝑃𝑢
0.75 𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑒 ≥ 𝑃𝑢 → 𝐴𝑒 ≥
0.75𝐹𝑢
3. Slenderness ratio limitation:

𝐿
𝑟≥
300
 If an angle shape is used as a tension member and connected through bolts,

there must be enough room for the bolts. Space will be a problem only when
there are two lines of bolts in a leg.
 g : gage distance applies when there is one line of bolts

g1 and g2 apply when there two lines.
Figure 1: Gage distances
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Example 1:
Example 2:
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Compression Members
 Compression member: structural elements subjected only to axial

compressive force ; loads are applied along the longitudinal axis through the
centroid of the member cross section.
 Existence and Applications:

1. Columns in buildings and bridges
2. Truss members
3. Components of bracing systems
 Column: A vertical member whose primary function is to support vertical

loads.
Beam-column: A structural member subjected to both bending moment and
axial load.
Strut: A compression member but smaller than columns .
 Column Theory:
If the axial load P is slowly applied, it will become large enough to cause the
member to become unstable; the member said to have "buckled", and the load
is called "Critical buckling load: 𝑷𝒄𝒓 : Euler load = Euler buckling load". The
value of critical buckling load can be obtained by the equation in the box
below.
Figure 1 : (a) Slender column, (b) Stocky column
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𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝐿
 E: Modulus of elasticity of the material

 I : The moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area with respect to
the minor principal axis
 L: The length of the member between points of supports.
Conditions:
1. Member must be elastic

2. End conditions are pins or hinge; ends must be free to rotate but not to
translate laterally.
 Critical Buckling stress:
𝜋 2𝐸
𝐹𝑐𝑟 =
(𝐿/𝑟)2
 r: the radius of gyration with respect to the axis of buckling.

 L/r : the slenderness ratio
Example:
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Effective Length
 Both the Euler and tangent modulus equations are based on the following
assumptions:
1. The column is perfectly straight, with no initial crookedness.
2. The load is axial, with no eccentricity.
To account for support conditions other than pinned ends, the effective length
(KL) is to be used instead of length (L) .
Where:
K: effective length factor Table C-A-7.1

KL: effective length
 AISC Requirements/ LRFD:

𝑷 𝒖 ≤ ∅𝒄 𝑷 𝒏
Where:
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝐴𝑔
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𝑃𝑒 𝜋2𝐸
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴 (𝐾𝐿)2
𝑟
Figure 1: Column Strength curve
Table 1: Critical stress for elastic and inelastic columns
Inelastic Column:
Elastic Column:
Example:
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Local Stability
 Local buckling: type of instability in which the elements of the cross-section

are so thin that local buckling or wrinkling at an isolated location occurs.
 When local buckling occurs, the cross section is no longer effective and the
member has failed.
 This type of failure can occur in I- and H-shaped cross sections with thin
flanges or webs.
 The measure of possibility of local buckling is the width-thickness ratio (λ).
 Elements of cross section are either Unstiffened elements or Stiffened

elements.
1. Unstiffened elements: elements are not supported along one edge parallel
to the direction of load.
2. Stiffened elements: elements are not supported along both edges.
Figure 1: Stiffened and unstiffened elements of various cross-sectional shapes
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 Limiting values of width-thickness ratios (𝜆𝑟 ) are given in AISC B4

"Classification of Sections for Local Buckling".
 It is allowed to use a cross-sectional shape with slender elements, but the

strength of such member is reduced because of local buckling:
Example:
Investigate W14×74 of A992 steel for local stability
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Design of Compression Members
 The selection of an economical rolled shape to resist a given compressive load

with the aid of the column load tables.
 For shapes not in the column load tables, a trial-and-error approach must be
used.
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
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Example 1:
Example 2:
EFFECTIVE LENGTH 2
 If a compression member is supported differently with respect to each of its

principal axes, the effective length will be different for two directions.
 Because its strength decreases with increasing 𝐾𝐿/𝑟 column will buckle in the
direction corresponding to the largest slenderness ratio.
 The available strength given in the column load tables are based on the
effective length with respect to the y-axis.
 If the capacity with respect to x-axis is required, then table is entered with:
𝐾𝐿 𝐾𝑥 𝐿/(𝑟𝑥 /𝑟𝑦 ) 𝐾𝑥 𝐿
= =
𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑥
1
Example 1:
2
BUILT-UP COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 If the cross-sectional properties of a built-up compression member are known,

its analysis is the same as for any other compression member, provided the
component parts of the cross section are properly connected.
Example 1:
SOLUTION:
 Principal of moments:
∑ 𝐴. 𝑦
𝑌̅ =
∑𝐴
 Parallel axis theorem:
𝐼 = 𝐼 ̅ + 𝐴. 𝑑 2
Table 1: Horizontal axis location
Table 2: Moment of inertia with respect to horizontal axis
1
Solution of Example 1/ BUILT-UP COMPRESSION MEMBERS
SOLUTION:
1
2
BEAMS
 Beams: Structural members that support transverse loads and subjected

primarily to flexure "bending".
 Cross-sections:
1. Doubly symmetric shapes are the most efficient : W, S and M shapes.
2. Channel shapes are sometimes used, as beams built-up from plates, in
the form of I or box shape.
 For LRFD, the required and the available strength in flexure:

𝑴𝒖 ≤ ∅𝒃 𝑴𝒏
Where
𝑴𝒖 : required moment strength = maximum moment caused by the controlling

load combination.
∅𝒃 : resistance factor for bending (flexure) = 0.90
𝑴𝒏 : nominal moment strength
 Bending stresses:
Flexural Formula:
𝑴×𝒚
𝒇𝒃 =
𝑰𝒙
𝑴×𝒄 𝑴 𝑴
𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = =
𝑰𝒙 𝑰𝒙 /𝒄 𝑺𝒙
Limits:
𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≤ 𝑭𝒚
𝑴 ≤ 𝑴𝒚
𝑴𝒚 = 𝑭𝒚 × 𝑺𝒙
Figure1 : Beam in linear elastic range
1
Where:
𝒇𝒃 : bending stress at any point
𝑴: bending moment at the cross section under consideration
𝒚: the perpendicular distance from the neutral plane to the point of interest
𝑰𝒙 : moment of inertia of the area of the cross section with respect to neutral
axis
𝒄: the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber
𝑺𝒙 : elastic section modulus of the cross section, for unsymmetrical cross

section, there is two values of elastic section modulus : for top extreme fiber
and bottom extreme fiber.
Figure 2:A simply supported beam with a concentrated load at successive

stage of loading
2
1- From equilibrium of
forces:
2- Resisting internal
couple:
𝑀𝑃 = 𝐹𝑦 × 𝐴𝑐 × 𝑎
= 𝐹𝑦 × 𝐴𝑡 × 𝑎
𝐴
= 𝐹𝑦 × 2 × 𝑎
𝑀𝑃 = 𝐹𝑦 𝑍
Figure 2 : Plastic Moment Capacity and Plastic Hinge
Where:
A: total cross-sectional area
a : distance between the centroids of the two half area
𝐴
𝑍 = ( 2 ) 𝑎 : plastic section modulus
 Definitions:
1. 𝑴𝒚 : the yield moment, bending moment that brings the beam to point
of yielding.
2. 𝑴𝑷 : the plastic moment capacity; which is the moment required to

form the plastic hinge.
3. Elastic Neutral Axis (N.A.): the axis "level" at which stress and strain
are zero ; the axis of zero strain in elastic range. For a homogenous
material, the neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
4. Plastic Neutral Axis (P.N.A): the axis of zero strain that divides the
cross section into equal area. This axis only coincides with the centroid
of the section when the section is symmetric about the axis of zero
strain.
3
STABILITY
 Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB): Overall buckling (instability) in which

beam deflected outward (flexural buckling) and twisted (torsion).
 How to prevent LTB?

By bracing the beam against twisting at sufficiently close intervals. Two type
of bracing:
1. Torsional bracing
2. Lateral bracing
 The moment strength depends on the "unbraced length , 𝑳𝒃 ": the distance
between points of bracing or lateral supports.
 Classification of Shapes
Cross-sectional shapes are classified as compact, noncompact, or slender,
depending on the values of the width-thickness ratios. Where :
𝜆: width-thickness ratio
𝜆𝑝 : upper limit for compact section
𝜆𝑟 : upper limit for noncompact
Compact 𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝑝 , flange is connected continuously to web

Noncompact 𝜆 𝑝 < 𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝑟
Slender 𝜆 > 𝜆𝑟
1
Example 1:
The beam shown below is a W16 × 31 of A992 steel. It supports a reinforced concrete
floor slab that provides continuous lateral support of the compression flange. The
service dead load is 450 lb/ft. This load is superimposed on the beam; it does not
include the weight of the beam itself. The service live load is 550 lb/ft. Does this
beam have adequate moment strength?
SOLUTION:
1. Check for compactness for both flange and web:

Element 𝜆 𝜆𝑝
Flange 6.28 9.15
Web 51.6 90.55
𝜆 < 𝜆𝑝 for both flange and web ∴ section is compact
2. Nominal flexural strength: 𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑍𝑥 𝐹𝑦 = 50×54 = 2700 kip.in

= 225 kip.ft
3. Design strength: ∅𝑀𝑛 = 0.90×225 = 203 kip.ft
4. Total service dead load = superimposed dead load + selfweight

= 450+31 = 481 Ib/ft
5. Maximum factored moment: 𝑀𝑢 = 1.2 𝑀𝐷 + 1.6 𝑀𝐿

481×302 550×302
= 1.2 ( ) + 1.6 ( )
8 8
= 164 kip.ft
𝑀𝑢 < ∅𝑀𝑛
∴ W16 × 31 is adequate
2
Nominal Flexural Strength for Compact Sections
 The moment strength of compact shapes is a function of the unbraced length

𝑳𝒃 .
 The nominal bending strength for compact I and C-shapes can be summarized
as follows:
Braced length Nominal moment 𝑴𝒏

𝐿𝑏 ≤ 𝐿𝑃 𝑀𝑃
𝐿𝑃 < 𝐿𝑏 ≤ 𝐿𝑟 𝐿𝑏 − 𝐿𝑃
𝐶𝑏 [𝑀𝑃 − (𝑀𝑃 − 0.7𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥 ) ( )] ≤ 𝑀𝑃
𝐿𝑟 −𝐿𝑃
𝐿𝑏 > 𝐿𝑟 𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑆𝑥 ≤ 𝑀𝑃
Where :
𝑳𝑷 : largest unbraced beam length for which lateral-torsional buckling will

not occur.
𝑳𝒓 : unbraced beam length at which elastic lateral-buckling will occur.
𝑪𝒃 : factor to account for nonuniform bending within the unbraced length
Figure 1: The relationship between the nominal strength and the unbraced length
1
Figure 2: Values of 𝐶𝑏 for several common cases of loading and lateral support
Example 1: Determine the flexural strength of a W14×68 of A992 steel subject to :
a. Continuous lateral support

b. An unbraced length of 20 ft with 𝐶𝑏 =1.0
2
Metallic Structures Chapter 4 Lecture No. 20
Nominal Flexural Strength for Noncompact Sections
 Few of W-,M-,S- and C-shapes are noncompact.

 Non-compact beam may fail by : LTB, FLB, or WLB in either elastic range or
inelastic range.
 The strength of these three limit state must be computed, and the smallest
value will control.
 For flange local buckling (FLB), if 𝜆𝑝 < 𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝑟 then the flange is non-
compact, buckling will be inelastic:
𝜆 − 𝜆𝑝
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 − (𝑀𝑝 − 0.7𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥 ) ( )
𝜆𝑟 − 𝜆𝑝
Example:
A simply supported beam with a span of 40 ft is laterally supported at its ends

and is subjected to the following service loads:
Dead load = 400 lb/ft (including the weight of the beam)
Live load = 1000 lb/ft
If 𝐹𝑦 = 50 ksi, is a W14×90 adequate?
1
LRFD requirements for shear
𝑽𝒖 ≤ ∅ 𝒗 𝑽𝒏
Where:
 𝑽𝒖 : Maximum shear based on the controlling combination of factored load.
ℎ
 ∅𝒗 : Resistance factor for shear depends on the web width –thickness ratio (𝑡 )
𝑤
 𝑽𝒏 : Nominal shear strength
𝜆 − 𝜆𝑝
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 − (𝑀𝑝 − 0.7𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥 ) ( )
𝜆𝑟 − 𝜆𝑝
Example:
A simply supported beam with a span of 40 ft is laterally supported at its ends

and is subjected to the following service loads:
If 𝐹𝑦 = 50 ksi, is a W14×90 adequate?
1
Deflection (Vertical Sag)
 Serviceable Structure: is a structure that performs satisfactorily, not causing

any discomfort or perceptions of unsafety for the occupants or users of the
structure.
 Disadvantages of deflection:
1. Lead to problems with vibrations
2. Can cause problems if elements attached to beam can be damaged by
small distortions
3. Users can assumes wrongly the structure is unsafe
4. Ponding (roof system) “Collapse”
Figure 1: Most common case (simply-supported beam)
Table 1: Deflection Limits
 Deflection is a serviceability limit state, not of strength .So deflection should

always be computed with Service Loads.
 Sometimes a numerical limit, such as 1 inch, is appropriate.
1
Example:
A simply supported beam (W14×90), A995 with a span of 40 ft is laterally

supported at its ends and is subjected to the following service loads:
Compute the dead load and live load deflections for the beam if it is a roof
beam not supporting a ceiling. Is the beam satisfactory?
2

DESIGN OF BEAMS

§ Beam design: the selection of a cross-‐sectional shape that will have enough
strength and serviceability.

§ For strength, we are concern about flexure (moment) and shear.

§ Flexure is almost always more critical than shear, so we design for flexure and
then check shear.

§ Steps of design:

1. Compute the required moment strength (factored load moment) 𝑴𝒖
2. Select a shape for the required moment strength
3. Check the shear strength ∅𝒗 𝑽𝒏
4. Check the deflections ∆!"#

§ EXAMPLE:
Select a standard hot-‐rolled shape of A992 steel for the beam shown. The beam
has continuous lateral support and must support a uniform service live load of
4.5 kips/ft. The maximum permissible live load deflection is L/240.

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Metallic Structures Chapter 1 Lecture No.

Advantages of steel as a structural materials:

2. Uniformity: Properties of steel do not change with time like reinforced

3. Elasticity: Steel follows Hooke's law up to high stresses.

4. Permanence: Steel last indefinitely when properly maintained.

5. Ductility: The property of a material by which steel can withstand large

6. Toughness: steel have both strength and ductility.

Disadvantages of steel as a structural material:

1. Corrosion: most steel are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Figure 1 : Typical stress-strain diagram for a Mild or Low-carbon structural steel.

Figure 2 : Typical stress-strain diagram for a High-strength structural steel.

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Structural Cross-sectional Shapes

Figure 1: Rolled-steel shapes

Figure 2: Hollow structural sections (HSS) Figure 3: Cold-formed sections

Figure 4: Built-up sections

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

1. W-shape (wide-flange shape): (Figure 1)

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

 Example: L 6×6× and L 6×4×

7. Structural tee (spilt tee): (Figure 1)

8. Hollow Structural Sections (HSS): (Figure 1)+ (Figure 2)

9. Steel Pipe: (Figure 1)

b. Designation: Pipe d × wall thickness

10. Bars and Plates: (Figure 1)

b. Plates: If the width is more than 8 inches, the shape is classified as a

11. Cold-formed sections: (Figure 3)

12. Built-up sections: (Figure 4)

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

 Existence and Applications:

 The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by:

: Stress in axially loaded tension member

The smaller value govern the design

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

HOMEWORK problem 3.2-1 page 90

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Effective Area (Ae)

 Performance of a Tension member is reduced by connections (connections

 Two types of connections:

 Joint efficiency: a factor measures the influence of connections on the tension

 Joint efficiency is a function of :

Figure 1: Angle Tension member

 How to reduce the shear lag effect?

 How to account for shear lag in calculations?

 For bolted connections:

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

 U : Table D3.1 (Steel code)

 Rules for determining U:

3. Round HSS with ≥ 1.3D

4. Alternative values for single and double angles

5. Alternative values for W, M, S, and HP shapes

Figure 2: Type of welds

Eng. Wala'a Yamani

Figure 3: Types of conncetions

Eng. Wala'a Yamani