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Fundamentals of Research
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Paperback: 978-1-64892-644-0
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Contents
Preface5
COVID-19 LOCKDOWN.......Yet the Positivity Prevailed! 7
About the Authors 9
Foreword11
Designing Questionnaires 91
Exhibit 3: Key Questionnaire design considerations 95
Data Presentation 103
Caselet 3 – The Netflix Dilemma 107
Caselet 4 – Travel Agency 108
01
Introduction to Research
The word research comes from the now obsolete French word ‘recherché’ which means to
search in-depth and to ‘to investigate thoroughly’. In a very generic perspective, the study
aims at discovering. Research comprises of intellectual investigation of human efforts
aimed at discovering, interpreting, and updating knowledge on different aspects. It is an
organized and systematic way of finding solutions to problems.
Definition
The term “Research” seeks to gather & assimilate information on a particular topic.
Alternatively, research is a systematic investigation. The methods of research include all
the techniques used for conducting research. Research methodology is an approach in
which research problems find solutions in a detailed manner. It is a science involving the
study of how research progresses sequentially. The researcher also tries to find solutions
to an identified problem by using different steps. Hence, the scientific approach, which
adopted for conducting research, is called methodology.
Zora Neale Hurston said, “Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a
purpose with an intent to contribute to the existing body of knowledge.”
L.V.Redman and A.V.H Mory, in their book on ‘The romance of research’, define it as “a
systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
C.R.Kothari, in his book ‘Research Methodology – Methods and Techniques’, defined
“research is a scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic.”
The Oxford dictionary defines research as “the systematic investigation into the study of
materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions.”
18 Fundamentals of Research
Research Aim
The primary aim of any type of research is to find out the reality and facts which are
unknown. The research aim expresses the intention or aspiration of the research study.
It summarises in a single sentence what you hope & wish to achieve at the end of the
research. The aim should be specific and phrased by using SMART concept specific,
measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound. Although each research aim has its
reason for providing an answer to the research question, the aim of the research is:
1. To achieve skilfulness or to get different opinions by investigating a problem which
is not clearly defined (study with these objectives are known as exploratory or
formulative).
2. To establish the relationship with something which occurs or is related i.e., study
concerning whether certain variables are associated (this is called diagnostic research).
Introduction to Research 19
3. To test the hypothesis of a reasonable liaison between different variables and assessing
the plausibility by using sample data (this type of research falls into hypothesis-testing
research).
Research Objectives
Stating research objectives is the starting point of research. Research objectives divide
research aim into several parts. The main objectives of research not only determine
the scope & depth of the task at hand but also provide an overall direction to the
research. To simplify, the research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied, and
research objectives comprise of a number of steps that address HOW research aim
will be achieved.
Objectives may range from general to
specific. The general objective underline Example:
tasks aimed at in a generic & overall Research title: Effects of organizational
perspective, whereas the specific objectives culture on business profitability: a case study
split up the general objective into smaller of XYZ Co.
specific sequential questions addressing the Research aim: To assess the effects of
XYZ organizational culture on business
various aspects of the problem. Specific
profitability.
objectives specify precisely what you will
Research objectives: it would facilitate the
do in each phase of your study, how, where,
achievement of this aim:
when, and for what purpose.
• Analyzing the nature of organizational
Generic research objectives: culture at XYZ by 31st March, 2021.
• To explore a new idea. • Identifying factors impacting XYZ
• To gain insights into the occurrence of organizational culture by 31st December,
2020.
a phenomenon.
• Analyzing impacts of XYZ organizational
• To understand the characteristics of an
culture on employee yearly and monthly
individual, situation, or event correctly
performances by 31st March, 2021.
& with accuracy.
• To identify the frequencies of
occurrence of events.
• To establish a cause and effect relationship.
• To test the relationship between two variables.
Specific Research objectives:
Specific research objectives essentially focus on answering the 3W1H questions by
understanding problem constraints. These 3W1H are What, Why, When, and How.
What - This element talks about ‘what’ are the problems and around what critical areas
the research shall focus. Clarity at this level involves thorough insight into aims, objectives,
and the problem overview.
20 Fundamentals of Research
Why - This element involves an assessment of the current scenario and ‘why’ it has led to
this choice of problem. It could hint at possible lacunas in information and decision making
which research intends to answer. This step would involve a review of available literature
to understand the problem scenario and identify and describe variables connected to it.
When - This element every research is prone to be impacted with the time frame
constraints, this step talks about the inquiry set up and its efficacy as linked up to specific
scenarios.
How - This element is one of the most critical elements since the blueprint or the research
design starts here. Based on the problem, its aims and objectives, we would establish the
data sources, the research instruments, quantitative statistical measures to be deployed,
the evaluation techniques & the presentation techniques.
Types of Research
All types of research can be classified into two major divisions, basic and applied.
Basic Research – Basic research is fundamental research driven by a scientist’s curiosity.
The motivational drive to the researcher here is to expand knowledge, not to invent. The
purpose and objective of this category of research is to present assimilated knowledge in
an organized form, which may be eventually shared and put to use by others.
Applied research – Applied research, on the other hand, is designed to solve practical
problems, rather than to gain knowledge. Applied research aims to prove a specific
hypothesis of value to clients paying for the research. The orientation of applied research
is on testing out facts and associations vis-à-vis presenting data, which was the focus of
primary research. E.g., a management institute is trying to arrive at associations between
low student involvement in classes and increasing degree of absenteeism to a plethora of
reasons like abstract course design, faulty layout, outdated teaching pedagogy, to name a
few. The attempt is to understand causes in order to find correctives or to eliminate the
negating elements.
While the purpose of the research is to check and establish facts to enable decision making,
the process of research may be open to severe flaws of human error like biasing and halo
effect. Overcoming the errors might be achieved by a repeated reassessment of research
findings while some primary criterion prevails, which is classified into various categories
described below.
BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
INTENTION To expand general knowledge of To improve the understanding of a
processes particular problem
RESULT Universal principles Solution to a particular problem
Introduction to Research 21
Research Variables
A component, element, or anything that can change or vary, is defined as a variable. The
varying factor could be noticed in an individual, a situation or event, or even in a business
or organization. The use of variables in research talks about classifying them into the
causative variables and then noticing the impact on factors to be studied or the resulting
outputs. Commonly identifiable variables in research include:
1. Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is the variable being tested and
measured in an experiment, and is ‘dependent’ on the independent variable. This
variable measures the impact of introducing or altering the independent variables. For
example, if the independent variable is a new type of teaching pedagogy introduced,
the resulting dependent variable will be student’s performance in a test designed to
check the content taught using the pedagogy. As such, the change in the dependent
variable depends on the change in the independent variable.
2. Independent Variables: These variables are controlled, introduced or manipulated
by the researcher. They are the ‘cause’ factors to which the ‘effect’ is the dependent
variable. In an experiment, the researcher is looking for a possible effect on the
dependent variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable.
For example, in the case, as mentioned earlier, the independent variable is the new
teaching pedagogy, the impact of which is being measured by the test on content
understanding.
3. Intervening variables: These variables impact the relationship between an independent
and a dependent variable. The intervening variables are usually caused by the
independent variable and becomes the cause of the dependent variable. These are
also known as the mediating variables. E.g., understanding the association between
income & longevity. Having money does not make one live longer. The variables
that intervene are better quality of life, access to more comforts & better health care,
which in turn increase longevity.
Introduction to Research 23
it to the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss the problem
initially, understand how it comes about, and what reflections are involved in its possible
clarification.
⇓
Literature Review
⇓
Hypothesis formulation
⇓
Preparation of Research Design
⇓
Determining Sample Design
⇓
Data collection
⇓
Analysis of Data and Hypothesis testing
⇓
Generalizations & Interpretation
⇓
Report writing or Presentation of results
objectives and goals would lead to clutter, which leads to deviation from the path and
confused and ambiguous results.
• Review the problem context
Understand the environment in terms of available resources, constraints & feasibility of
the research. A literature review would facilitate in-depth analysis.
• Examine the nature of the problem
Research problems vary from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables
and the nature of their relationship. Understanding the nature of the problems will reveal
the variables affecting and the data inputs required.
• Define Variable Relationships
This step would involve identification, classification & establishment of associations
between various variables impacting research. The sequence of steps under this stage
would fall as –
Determining the variables that affect the solution to the problem.
Determining the degree to which each variable is brought under control.
Determining the functional relationships between the variables and identify variables
that are critical to the solution of the problem.
• Evaluating the alternate courses of action
Trying to anticipate the possible outcomes of the alternative courses of action hastens up
the choice of the potentially suitable one.
II-Literature Review
Once the research problem is identified, the researcher must study all the available
literature to get her/himself familiar with the selected problem. She/he may review two
types of literature, first is the conceptual literature, which is related to the concepts and
theories, and second, the empirical literature, which consists of previous studies similar to
the proposed research problem.
The researcher should undertake a vast literature survey concerned with the problem. For
this, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies
are the first place where the researcher can get the information or knowledge. Academic
journals or conference proceedings or government reports & books are the other sources
the researcher can refer to, for study. After this, the researcher revises the problem into
analytical or operational terms i.e., putting the problem in as specific terms as possible.
This assignment of formulating or defining a research problem is an essential step in the
entire research process.
The primary reason for conducting research is to produce new knowledge and to
disseminate, to make it available to everyone. When approaching a research project, it is
Introduction to Research 27
III-Hypothesis formulation
After the literature survey, the researcher should make a ‘hypothesis’ or a working
hypothesis. A hypothesis assists in converting the research problem and objective into a
comprehensive explanation or prediction of the expected results of the study. It follows
from the research problem, literature review, and conceptual framework.
A working hypothesis, however, is a guess made to test the logical or empirical outcome
of the research.
28 Fundamentals of Research
Since the hypothesis is open to testing, therefore, it should be specific and limited to the
scope of the research. It sharpens the researcher’s thinking and focuses on the essential
facts of the problem.
Hypothesis formulation could involve the following approaches:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the research problem, its source,
cause, and the objectives in search of a solution;
(b) Assessment of data and records;
(c) Evaluation of similar previous studies and
(d) The personal investigation involves the original field survey.
Thus, any hypothesis formulated as a result of prior thinking about the subject, assessment
of the available data, and material, including related previous studies. The formulation of
a working hypothesis is an essential step in any research process.
recorded. Noteworthy is that the observations are written down or recorded in some way,
in order that they can be subsequently analyzed.
The scale of research is under the influence of two major factors: the level of complexity
of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.
Exploratory
Exploratory research is defined as research
used to investigate a problem that is not Exploratory – EXPLORE
clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better “…the initial research into a hypothetical
or theoretical idea”
understanding of the existing problem, but will
– Taking well defined theories and
not provide conclusive results. Hence study applying them in your area
is conducted to know more about it. This – Developing your own theory from a
research will help in formulating the problem scratch
similar in others too. In this way, the comparative design implies to explore and test what
conditions were involved in causing certain events, so that it is possible, to understand the
likely effects of making individual decisions.
Experimental
Experimental research tries to isolate and control every relevant condition which
determines the events investigated and then observes the effects when the manipulation
of conditions occur. At its simplest, making changes to an independent variable and the
effects observed on a dependent variable under controlled condition. Although experiments
involve exploring a particular event, they usually require a hypothesis (prediction) to be
formulated first in order to determine what are the variables under testing and how can
they can be controlled and measured. There are several classes of an experiment – pre,
true, quasi, et al., that are characterized by the amount of checking, including control
involved in the methods.
Simulation
Simulation is a process of representing the properties or behavior of a system by means
of another system. Often simulation is carried out through the use of a computer
program. It involves devising a representation in a small and simplified form (model)
of a system, creating prototypes of a real-world experiment. It is a model in which
experiments can be conducted, creating a higher level of completeness than a normal
experiment. Simulation models can assist in both complex and simple experiments, and
they can be used with almost any social process. It is similar to experimental design, but
it provides a more artificial environment. In an artificial environment, it works with
original materials on the same scale. Simulation models can be mathematical (number-
crunching in a computer) or physical, working with two or three – dimensional
materials. The performance of the model must be assessed and calibrated against the
real system to check that the results are reliable. Simulation enables ideal situations
under testing ‘what if ’?
Evaluation
Evaluation research can be defined as “the use of scientific methods to measure the
implementation and outcomes of programs for decision-making purposes” (Rutman
1984, p. 10). This descriptive type of research, also known as program evaluation refers
to research purpose instead of a specific method. It is a design to deal with complex social
issues. It is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of time, money, effort, and
resources spent in order to achieve a goal.
A common purpose of evaluation research is to examine:
• the level of awareness,
• costs and benefits,
• cost-effectiveness,
Introduction to Research 31