Changing Man Blok 1.5 Samenvatting

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5 Development (Erasmus
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COURSE 1.5 Changing Man  NATURE VS. NURTURE

Week 1; problem 1&2, lecture 1, primary resources
Problem 1: The birds and the bees(Schaffer&Kipp&Leman)
1. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION
Chromosomes
Chromosomes transmit genetic information and are located in the cell nucleus. A whole cell contains 46 chromosomes in 23
pairs. Chromosomes are made from genes (hereditary blueprints for development; basic units of heredity that work to build a
single protein). Genes, in turn, are made from strings of DNA (deoxyribonunuclceic acid). The special ability of DNA is to
replicate itself. This makes it possible for a one-celled zygote to develop into a complex human being
SMALL TO BIG: DNAGenesChromosomesZygote/Cell
DNA (more in dept)

DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the development, functioning and reproduction of all
known living organisms. DNA is a nucleic acid; alongside proteins and carbohydrates, nucleic acids compose the three
major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules form a double helix. DNA is build up from
four nucleotides (made up from sugar and a phosphate group) which are hold together by two long parallel strands:
 Cytosine (C)
 Guanine (G)
 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions (AT and CG; KEEP IN MIND: there are no other possibilities) to
each other and are therefore anti-parallel.
Sequences of these building stones are the key for production of certain proteins(=enzymes). Genes are codings for proteins,
which are involved in all cellural processes. The complementary two strings of DNA code together for one amino acid, which
in a chain is a protein. Proteins have a lot of different functions and are involved in almost every cellular process.
The gene expression is important. This goes in two fases:

 Transcription: DNA in the cell nucleus gets copied (copy of DNA called mRNA); mRNA means that A, C, T and G
brake down into new pairs. This is both influenced by genotypes and phenotypes.
 Translation: mRNA is read by cells and proteins are made. These proteins have different functions and make cell deviation
happen (e.g. one cell is part of the liver and one is part of the hand).
 KEEP IN MIND: only 2% of the DNA gets transformed into proteins, the other 98% helps putting DNA in mRNA.
Gene expression is for a big part regulated by environment.
Genetic Material
Process of human conception:
1. Before intercourse: The cell creates 4 chromosomes, as if it is undergoing mitosis.
2. Before intercourse: The sperm and ovum are produced by gametes. The egg and the sperm cell both have only 23
chromosomes instead of 46. This happens through meiosis; a process which divides cells in half (so 23 from the father;
23 from the mother).
3. The sperm cell enters the egg.
4. Together these cells create 46 chromosomes, which is enough to create a human being.
5. Crossing-over is a process in which genetic material is exchanged between pairs of chromosomes in a random matter during
the meiosis. It matches equivalent sections of homologous chromosomes and makes it switch places randomly to create an
unique child.
6. A fertilized cell is called a zygote; this cell carries genetic information from both the father (sperm) and mother (ovum).
 Humans are diploids (have two copies of each chromosomes). One chromosome comes from the mother and one from the
father. Chromosomes come in homologous pairs (KEEP IN MIND: except for the sex chromosomes in males, the Y is
shorter than the X). In order for the chromosomes to form pairs of two, they have to have the same function. A human has
22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.

Production of Body Cells

So now we have a zygote, it needs to grow into a embryo, foetus and in the end a human being. As the zygote moves
through the fallopian tube toward the uterus, it begins to replicate itself through the process of mitosis. By replicating the cell,
the organism grows. Just before each division, the cell exactly duplicates its 46 chromosomes.
1. The cell creates 4 chromosomes
2. Each chromosomes splits in half, creating a replica of itself
3. The duplicated chromosomes move away from eachother
4. The moment of division is called cytokinesis
5. The new cells both have the same amount of genetic material as the first one
 KEEP IN MIND: the difference between mitosis and meiosis is that mitosis makes an exacted duplication and meiosis splits
the cell in half.
The division of the cell then proceeds, resulting in two new cells, each of which has the identical 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Mitosis continues throughout life, generating new cells that enable growth and replacing old ones that are damaged. With each
division, the chromosomes are duplicated, so that every new cell contains an exact copy of the 46 chromosomes we inherited
at conception.
2. HEREDITARY EXPRESSION
Genotype and Phenotype
 Genotype: the genes that you inherit
 Phenotype: the chances due to environment (in the womb and after birth)
 The study of how genes come to be expressed and other genes don't is called epigenetics.
Dominant and Recessive Genes

Many human characteristics are influenced by only one pair of genes (alleles). Because we are still talking about genes, one is
from the mother and one from the father. Those genes don't have to have the same outcome, only the same in function:
 People whose genotype for an attribute consists of two alleles of the same kind are said to be homozygous for that
attribute. The child will have that trait for sure (BB; bb)
 An individual is said to be heterozygous if he/she has two alleles for an attribute that are different in their effects. The
child will get either trait dependent on the strength (Bb; bB)
The effect of het alleles depends on the strength and type of the trait (heterozygous):
 Dominant allele: a relatively powerful gene that is expressed phenotypically and masks the effect of a less powerful gene.
These traits often come up in every generation.
 Recessive allele: a less powerful gene that is NOT expressed phenotypically when paired with a dominant allele. These
traits often skip generations.
Creating a trait is not as simple as that. The child gets a trait from their mother and father, but the parents also got traits from
their mother and father. The parents of the child have two allele, which don't have to be the same either. The parents could
both have dark eyes but still get a light eyed child e.g. eye colour in a punnet square:
DAD
MOM B(rown) b(lue)
B(rown) BB Bb
b(lue) Bb bb
 There is a 75% chance that the child gets brown eyes, and a 25% change the child gets blue eyes.
KEEP IN MIND: parents with two dominant genes CAN get a child with a recessive trait, but parents with two recessive
genes CAN'T get a child with a dominant trait.
KEEP IN MIND: a dominant trait is not equal to BB, but can also be Bb or bB; this is why recessive traits don't die out. Bb
or bB means you are a carrier of the recessive trait as well, even though it does not show in your appearance.
KEEP IN MIND: A lot of complex traits (e.g. height) are influenced by multiple alleles (polygenic traits), thus not by one.
These are more complicated than the punnet square above.
Dominant Recessive
Dark hair Blond hair
Normal hair Pattern baldness
Curly hair Straight hair
Non-red hair Red hair
Facial dimples No dimples
Normal hearing Some forms of deafness
Normal vision Nearsightedness
Farsightedness Normal vision
Normally pigmented skin Albinism
Double-jointedness Normal joints
Type A; B blood Type O blood
Positive blood type Negative blood type
Codominance/Incomplete dominance
Alternative forms of a gene do not always follow the simple dominant-recessive pattern; some are codominant: (the phenotype
they produce is a compromise between the two genes; e.g. blood type A, B or AB)
Sex Linked Inheritance

A majority of these sex-linked attributes are produced by recessive genes. This might seem weird when you think about it, but
if it would be a dominant trait the majority would get sick.
Males suffer from this more because they have one of the sex chromosomes (XY), and can't counteract the effect of one
infected X chromosome. Females can counteract an infected X chromosome by the other X chromosomes (XX). Females can
be affected but it is less common. Females need both X chromosomes to be infected in order for the decease to show.
 e.g. fragile X syndrome (damaged X chromosome that causes physical, social and cognitive malfunctions) ; colour blindness
2. STAGES OF PRAGANCY
The gestation last for about 9 months.
1. Period of The Zygote/Germinal period (0-2 weeks): after the cell divided by mitosis into new cells, 60-80 cells form a
ball-like structure (blastocyst). Cell differentiation has already begun. The implantation takes about 48 hours and is usually
11-15 days after conception. Only about half of all fertilized ova are firmly implanted  miscarried.
The inner layer of the blastocyst will become the embryo, and the outer layer of cells will develop into tissues that protect
and nourish the embryo:
 Amnionic sac: contains amnionic fluid to regulate its temperature and cushion it against injuries. In this "sac" is a yolk
located with nourishment. This yolk is attached to a third membrane, the chorion.
 Chorion: a membrane that becomes the placenta. The placenta has a semipermeable (does not let everything through)
barrier. It allows the embryo to feed through the blood vessels of the mother.
 Allantois: forms the umbilical cord.
2. Period of The Embryo(3-8 weeks): The embryonic disk differentiate three cell layers.
 Ectoderm (outer layer): nervous system, sensory cells, skin and hair.
 Mesoderm (middle layer): muscles, bones and circulatory system.
 Endoderm (inner layer): digestive system, lungs, urinary tract and other vital organs.
The development of the brain (neural tube), spinal cord, skeletal structure, face, own blood, limbs, muscular contractions,
sexual features and the hearts begins to beat. It is also the beginning of the sensitive period (a lot of growth is happening,
thus changes in the environment can be lethal). At 6 weeks the embryo looks like a human. Sadly, this is the period in
which most miscarriages happen (1/4).
3. Period of The Fetus:

 The third month: the sex of the fetus develops, it grows and it can make movements.
 The fourth-sixth month: it can e.g. hiccups, breathe, cough and snort. The kicking can now be felt by the mother. The
fetus is getting covered in a white, cheesy substance that covers the fetus to protect the skin (vernix). It is also getting
covered in a fine layer of body hair (langugo). It also develops auditory and visual senses.
 The seventh-ninth month: the fetus reaches the age of viabilty (the point at which the survival in the outside world is
possible). KEEP IN MIND: They might still need extra care.
3. HEREDITARY DISORDERS
 Inherited defects:
 Chromosomal abnormalities
o Too many chromosomes
o Not enough chromosomes
o Damaged chromosomes
 Genetic abnormalities
o Recessive genes for a disorder
o Dominant genes for a disorder
o Genetic mutation
 Environmental defects:
 Complications at birth
 Prenatal exposure to damage
Survival of Harmfull Alleles

Most genetic disorders do not show when they are heterozygous. But when both parents carry the recessive gene, the child
can get the disorder. But the severity of the symptoms can depend on the environment and experiences of the person in
question.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
When a germ cell divides during meiosis, the distribution of its 46 chromosomes into sperm or ova is sometimes uneven. In
other words, one of the resulting gametes may have too many chromosomes, and the other too few (or damaged ones). If
these abnormal germ cells are conceived, the vast majority of these chromosomal abnormalities are lethal and will fail to develop
or will be spontaneously aborted. However, some chromosomal abnormalities are not lethal, but will be noticeable during life.
Turner’s syndrome; XO  Appearance: Phenotypically female but small in stature with stubby fingers and toes, a
webbed neck, a broad chest, and small, underdeveloped breasts. Normal sexual development
lacking at puberty, although Turner females can assume a more “womanly” appearance by
taking the female hormone estrogen.
 Fertility: Sterile.
 Intellectual characteristics: Normal verbal intelligence but frequently score below average on
tests of spatial abilities such as puzzle assembly or the mental rotation of figures.
Poly-X or “superfemale”  Appearance: Phenotypically female and normal in appearance.
syndrome; XXX,  Fertility: Fertile; produce children with the usual number of sex chromosomes.
XXXX, or XXXXX  Intellectual characteristics: Score somewhat below average in intelligence, with greatest deficits
on tests of verbal reasoning. Developmental delays and intellectual deficits become more
pronounced with an increase in the number of extra X chromosomes inherited.

Klinefelter’s syndrome;  Appearance: Phenotypically male with the emergence of some female secondary sex
XXY or XXXY characteristics at puberty. Significantly taller than normal (XY) males.
 Fertility: Have underdeveloped testes and are sterile.
 Intellectual characteristics: About 20% to 30% of Klinefelter males are deficient in verbal
intelligence, and their deficiencies become more pronounced with an increase in the number of
extra X chromosomes inherited.
Poly-y or "supermale"  Appearance: Phenotypic males who are significantly taller than normal (XY) males, have large
syndrome; XYY, teeth, and often develop severe acne during adolescence.
XYYY, or XYYYY  Fertility: Typically fertile although many have abnormally low sperm counts.
 Intellectual characteristics: Although once thought to be subnormal intellectually and prone to
violence and aggression, both these assumptions have been proven wrong by research.
Down syndrome By far the most frequent of all autosomal abnormalities is Down syndrome, or trisomy-21, a
condition in which the child inherits all or part of an extra 21st chromosome.
 Appearance: They may also have congenital eye, ear, and heart defects and are usually
characterized by a number of distinctive physical features, including a sloping forehead,
protruding tongues, short stubby limbs, slightly flattened nose, and almond-shaped eyes.
 Fertility: Typically fertile
 Intellectual characteristics: Children with Down syndrome are mildly or moderately intellectually
impaired, with IQs that average 55.
Genetic Abnormalities
 Healthy parents can give birth to a child with a genetic defect. If both parents carry the recessive trait, the child gets those
as well.
 Some genetic abnormalities are caused by dominant alleles. In this case, the child will develop the disorder by inheriting
the dominant allele from either parent.
 Genetic abnormalities may also result from mutations; changes in the chemical structure of one or more genes that produce
a new phenotype. Many mutations occur spontaneously and are harmful or even fatal. KEEP IN MIND: Presumably, any
mutation that is induced by stressors present in the natural environment may provide an “adaptive” advantage to those who
inherit the mutant genes, thus enabling these individuals to survive.
Cystic fibrosis (CF) A genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine
through a lack of enzymes. Many who have CF die in childhood or adolescence, although
advances in treatment have enabled some to live well into adulthood. CF is inherited in
an autosomal recessive manner.
Diabetes Individual lacks a hormone that would enable him or her to metabolize sugar properly. Produces
symptoms such as excessive thirst and urination. Can be fatal if untreated.
Duchenne-type muscular Sex-linked disorder that attacks the muscles and eventually produces symptoms as slurred speech
dystrophy and loss of motor capabilities. Due to progressive deterioration of muscle, loss of movement occurs,
eventually leading to paralysis. The disorder is caused by a mutation in the gene dystrophin,
located on the human X chromosome. Symptoms usually appear in boys between the ages of 2
and 3 and may be visible in early infancy. Intellectual impairment may or may not be present but if
present, does not progressively worse as the child ages.
Hemophilia A sex-linked condition. Child lacks a substance that causes the blood to clot. Could bleed to
death if scraped or cut. Like other recessive sex-linked, X chromosome disorders, haemophilia is
more likely to occur in males than females.
ADHD Creates DRD4 which activates the neurotransmitter dopamine. But this only accounts for 25% of
the hyperactivity. ADHD is therefore a perfect example of a polygenetic trait.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) Child lacks an enzyme to digest foods (including milk) containing the amino acid phenylalanine.
Disease attacks nervous system, producing hyperactivity and severe mental retardation. In people
without PKU, the PAH enzyme breaks down any excess phenylalanine from these sources beyond
what is needed by the body. However, if there is not enough of the PAH enzyme or its cofactor,
then phenylalanine can build up in the blood and brain to toxic levels, affecting brain development
and function. Protein-rich foods or the sweetener aspartame can act as poisons for people with
phenylketonuria. This is a perfect example of a pleiotropic trait (genes rarely do one thing).
Sickle-cell anemia Abnormal sickling of red blood cells causes inefficient distribution of oxygen, pain, swelling, organ
damage, and susceptibility to respiratory diseases. Sickle-cell disease is associated with a number of
acute and chronic health problems, such as severe infections, attacks of severe pain stroke, and an
increased risk of death. Several subtypes exist, depending on the exact mutation in each
haemoglobin gene.
Tay-Sachs disease It causes a progressive deterioration of nerve cells and of mental and physical abilities that begins
around 7 months of age and usually results in death by the age of four. The disease occurs when
harmful quantities of cell membrane components in the brain's nerve cells, eventually leading to the
premature death of the cells.
Huntington's disease A neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and leads to mental decline
and behavioural symptoms. As the disease advances, uncoordinated, jerky body movements
become more apparent, along with a decline in mental abilities and behavioural symptoms. Physical
abilities gradually worsen until coordinated movement becomes difficult. Mental abilities generally
decline into dementia. Complications such as pneumonia, heart disease, and physical injury from
falls reduce life expectancy to around twenty years from the point at which symptoms begin.
Teratogens
Teratogens are external factors that influence or harm the fetus. This can be environmental or induced by drugs. In general the
biggest impact is during the embryonic period because this is when the structure is forming and the fetus is growing most
rapidly. Not all embryos or fetuses are equally affected by a teratogen; susceptibility to harm is influenced by genetic makeup
and the quality of the prenatal environment (the individual-difference principle).
 The same defect can be caused by different teratogens
 A variety of defects can result from a single teratogen
 The longer the exposure to or higher the “dose” of a teratogen, the more likely that serious harm will be done (the dosage
principle)
 Embryos/ fetuses can be affected by both parents’ exposure to some teratogens
 The long-term effects of a teratogen often depend on the quality of the postnatal environment
 Some teratogens cause “sleeper effects”; may not be apparent until later in life (the sleeper-effect principle)
Nicotine Miscarriage, low birth weight, stillbirth, short stature, intellectual disability, learning disabilities.
It can lead to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: infant stops breathing and dies without a reason
Alcohol Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: problems may include an abnormal appearance, short height, low
body weight, small head, poor coordination, low intelligence, behaviour problems,
and problems with hearing or seeing.
Heroine Heroin use during pregnancy can result in Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS). NAS
occurs when heroin passes through the placenta to the fetus during pregnancy, causing the baby
to become dependent along with the mother. Symptoms include excessive crying, fever,
irritability, seizures, slow weight gain, tremors, diarrhea, vomiting, and possibly death.
Cocaine Decreased height, neuron damage, low birth weight, respiratory problems, seizures, learning
difficulties
Marijuana Irritability, nervousness, tremors, easily disturbed and startled
Malnutrition Not maximum height, lower IQ, greater risks of infection
Radiation Higher incidence of cancers, physical deformities
Caffeine Miss carriage, low birth weight
Mercury Intellectual disability, blindness
Lead Low birth weight, brain damage, physical abnormalities, cognitive and intellectual impairment
Age Before 15 or after 35 can cause troubles
Pollution Smaller baby, born premature, lower intelligence
Stress Behavioural issues, cognitive impairment, still under debate

Syphilis Miscarriage, born blind, mentally retarded or other physical abnormalities
Chlamydia Miscarriage or stillbirth, infant may get the decease during the birth process and develop
pneumonia or conjunctivitis
Gonorrhea Infant may get infected in the birth canal
Rebella (measles) A rubella infection can cause miscarriage, preterm birth, cardiac disorders, or stillbirth, as well
as a variety of birth defects or deafness
AIDS An infected infant can suffer from neurological impairment, defects in mental and physical
development, a small head or death
Herpes Infant may get blind, mentally retarded, have motor abnormalities or a wide range of
neuropsychological disorders
Hypertension Death, abnormalities
Rh factor incompatibility Blood types don't match: miscarriage
 If the fetus is influenced by a drug, the fetus gets addicted to that drug as well and undergoes withdrawal symptoms after
birth. If the mother stops taking the drug during the 3rd trimester, the infant has less chance to be affected.
When what Organs Develop

KEEP IN MIND: Most crucial period for physical defects of head and central nervous system= the 3rd through the 5th
prenatal week. The heart= vulnerable from the middle of the 3rd through the middle of the 6th prenatal week. Other organs
and body parts= the 2nd prenatal month.

Problem 2: It's just emotions taking me over(Schaffer&Santrock&Bukatko&Berk&Leman)

1. EMOTIONS
Emotions are feelings, or affections, that occur when people are in a state or an interaction that is important to them. Emotions
are linked to social success and health. Emotions are:
 Subjective reactions to the environment
 Either pleasant or unpleasant
 Accompanied by arousal
 Communicated to others
2. DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS
Emotional development is influenced by genetic inheritance, environment, the situation, interaction with family/peers.
Birth  Contentment The set of emotions present at birth or emerging early in the 1st year that
 Disgust some theorists believe to be biologically programmed; Emerge in all healthy
 Distress infants in all cultures. Infants smile during REM. They try to communicate
 Interest physical needs (by crying).
2-7 months Basic/primairy emotions  2 months: social smile
 Anger  3 months: excitement and boredom can appear & frustration: children
 Fear (can be shown learn to influence their environment; which is not always possible
earlier if neglected)  4 months: further development of anger, joy and sadness
 Joy  5 months: resistant behaviour (to food or strangers)
 Sadness  6 months: further development of fear and anger & social referencing
 Surprise  7 months: further development of shyness, fear, anger, affection
8-11 months  8 months: more individual expression
 9 months: real fear of strangers, recognising themselves in the mirror,
seek comfort and display discomfort
 11 months: temperament becomes clear
12-24 months Complex/self conscious  12 months: laughs at own cleverness, jealousy, sensitive to other's
/secondary emotions emotions
 Envy  15 months: mood swings
 18 months: shame, shyness and start to soothe themselves
 21 months: control of negative emotions, can tell good from bad,
control of situations
 24 months: begins to understand emotional display rules
 Overall: require sense of self and cognitive ability to evaluate one's
actions against standard rule. Uses words to describe feelings. Try to
regulatie emotions by redirecting attention to objects that do not cause
distress.
3-6 years  Embarrassment/shame  30 months: shame, embarrassment
(directed at the self)  36 months: pride, guilt
 Guilt (directed at others;  48-60 months: understanding display rules better.
empathy needed)  72 months: understanding mixed feelings
 Pride  Overall: using language to explain causes of emotions better, regulation
of emotions, understanding the cause of emotions, reading emotions,
feelings of empathy.
7-11 years Emotions are integrated with good behaviour, aware of mixed feelings,
emotional understanding improves, knowing that emotions fade away,
consciously aware of emotional display rules.
10-12 years Can fake emotions and bases concepts of emotions on internal experience.
KEEP IN MIND: relying on the mother's opinion on the baby experiencing emotions can't be seen as reliable. Scientists
usually observe using the Maximally Discriminative Facial Movement (MAX) coding system.

Deeper Knowledge about Development of Primary Emotions

Joy 1. Reflexive smile: A smile (gained from birth) that does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears
during the first month after birth, usually during REM sleep. Although it is unsure if the baby experiences real
happiness, it does help the baby to survive; parents tend to see the smiling as a sign of pleasure and want to
take care of the baby and hold it.
2. Babies that are 4 weeks old tend to focus at the eyes when they look at a face.
3. Social smile: A smile that occurs in response to an external stimulus. Social smiling occurs as early as 4 to 6
weeks (or 3 to 8 weeks; depending on the book) of age. These stimuli can be faces and voices (mostly high
pitched).
4. Babies that are 8-9 weeks old tend to focus on the eyes and the mouth.
5. Babies that are 3 months old smile more to familiar faces and more in general if conditioned; probably no longer
to arousal but because of experience pleasure.
6. Duchenne smile: starts at about 10 months; a smile directed at the mother that is different from other smiles
(not only the mouth, but also the eyes "smile"; real smile).
7. Display smile: combination of duchenne smile and draw drop; generally displayed to peers.
 Influenced by: environment, culture and gender (girls show more genuine smiles).
Sadness (crying gained from birth; the feeling of sadness comes later; created by pain, hunger, lack of control):
 Basic cry: help settle basic needs
 Anger cry
 Pain cry
Fear 1. Stranger anxiety:
 3-5 months: wariness of strangers
 4 months: smile less to strangers but show interest in them
 5 moths: the interested gaze turns into a sober stare
 6 months: starting to display distress around strangers
 7-9 months: stranger distress starts to peak; this fear is smaller in a familiar environment.
 Influenced by: reaction f the mother, environment, behaviour/appearance of the stranger, culture
2. Separation protest: crying when the caregiver leaves. This peeks at 13 to 15 months
3. Gets less after two years because they learn to self regulate the emotion.
Anger Created by pain and frustration:
1. 2 months: respond with distress
2. 6 months: responds with anger
Deeper Knowledge about Development of Secondary Emotions

Pride  Knowing the difference between an easy and a hard task
 Feel pride when accomplishing a hard task and less when accomplishing a easy task
 More pride when they had put effort into the task
Shame  Knowing the difference between an easy and a hard task
 Feel shame when failing on a easy task and less when failing on a hard task
Guilt  The older the child, the bigger the understanding of guilt (knowing that not only the outcome, but also the
intention matters)
 Can help regulate behaviour and morals
Envy  Occurs among people who have important social relationships (the older the relationship, the less the jealousy)
 Young children show distress
 Older children show anger, fear and sadness
Regulating Emotions
Parents can play an important role in helping young children regulate their emotions; later on a child can soothe itself.
Depending on how they talk with their children about emotion, parents can be described as:
 Emotion-coaching: parents monitor their children’s emotions, view their children’s negative emotions as opportunities for
teaching, assist them in labelling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.
 Emotion-dismissing approach: view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.
 The children of emotion-coaching parents are better at soothing themselves when they get upset, more effective in
regulating their negative effect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behaviour problems than the children of
emotion-dismissing parents
Specifically, the ability to modulate one’s emotions is an important skill that benefits children in their relationships with peers.
Moody and emotionally negative children are more likely to experience rejection by their peers, whereas emotionally positive
children are more popular.
KEEP IN MIND (!!!): the months that are given are only an indication at with age an emotion develops;
the given months can differ by 1-2 months dependent on the book that you use. Remember that it is not a
fixed moment!!

Recognising Emotions in Others

In order to use emotions as way to communicate, the baby needs to be able to send and receive information through emotions.
Understanding is very important as well, and harder than expressing emotion. Positive emotions are recognised earlier than
negative emotions; which is also true for displaying them. Between 3-5 months the baby starts to recognise the expressions of
the primary caregiver; this is influenced by the quality and quantity of the care and culture. At the age of 2-3 the child can
recognise emotions in a sufficient way.
Emotion Display Rules

By the age of 8-10 children start to cover up emotions that they are feeling due to display rules. But children of the age of 2
show understanding of this rules already. Emotion display rules are rules that indicate which emotions one may display in what
situation (in general: positive emotions are more accepted than negative emotions). This is most influenced by culture, religion,
parenting style and gender.
Emotional Script
With age, children acquire more understanding of the meaning of emotions. This understanding can be seen as a collection of
emotional scripts; complex schemes that enable a child to identify the emotional reaction likely to accompany a particular event.
The understanding of the meaning of emotion is also strengthened by knowing that you can have multiple emotions at once.
3. THEORIES ON EMOTIONS
KEEP IN MIND: There is not a single theory that incorporates all the elements of emotions, you should see them as a whole
because they do not necessarily claim the opposite. Emotions are influenced by genes and environment.
Genetic Maturational View of Emotions

 Ekman found a high degree of accuracy across cultures as to which emotions were represented  some emotions are
universal. Individuals from a wide variety of cultures correctly recognize fundamental emotions. Both Ekman and Izard
acknowledge that learning may play a role in emotional development, especially as children learn to control and regulate
their emotions. They maintain, however, that the role of biological factors is paramount and that emotions originate in the
genetic blueprints with which the child begins life.
 Individual differences in temperament play a central role in how intensely children react to situations and how well they
regulate their emotions.
The point of view was supported by twin studies. Identical twins developed the ability to smile at the same time while this is
not true for fraternal twins. It seems that there is interplay between genes and environment that accounts for the form and timing
for the behaviour.
Evolutionary View of Emotions

Emotions are linked with early-developing regions of the human nervous system. Significant advances in emotional responding
occur during infancy and childhood as a result of changes in neurobiological systems (including the frontal regions of the
cerebral cortex) that can exert control over the more primitive limbic system. As children develop, maturation of the cerebral
cortex allows a decrease in unpredictable mood swings and an increase in the self-regulation of emotion. However, such mood
swings increase during adolescence, likely as a result of the earlier development of the amygdala (which is extensively involved
in emotional processing) and the protracted development of the frontal cortex.
Cognitive-Socialization View of Emotions

Michael Lewis and Linda Michalson have provided an alternative account of the emotional life of the child, one that
emphasizes the cognitive activities involved in emotional experiences. According to these theorists, an environmental event does
not directly produce an emotional expression. Instead, the child relies on cognitive processes to assess the event, how it
compares with past events, and the social rules surrounding the event. Cognitive processes thus act as mediators, or mental
events that bridge the gap between environmental stimuli and the response the individual ultimately expresses. This
conceptualization accounts for individual differences in emotional reactions when the same event produces different responses
from two people.

Learning Perspective
Is mostly useful for explaining individual differences in emotional expression. Different emotions have "fixed" ages on which they
onset. Frequency and intensity of the emotion is dependent on the child, environment and their temperament. Parents help to
deal with emotions and understand them. Parents can reward their children for experiencing (certain) emotions. Parents can
also punish children for experiencing (certain) emotions. Reward makes the behaviour return and punishment inhibits the
behaviour. Also, fear seems to be directed at learned attributes (e.g. fear of riding roller coasters). This can happen through
experience or through observing others.
Functionalist View of Emotions (most contemporary)

Emotions serve to help us achieve our goals and adapt to our environment. Another element of the theory is that helps
maintain and establish social relationships. We use emotions of others to regulate our own; this is strengthened by experience.
A child’s emotional responses cannot be separated from the situations in which they are evoked.
 One implication of the functionalist view is that emotions are relational rather than strictly internal. The facial expression of
parents influences the actions of the child and the facial expressions of the child influences the actions of the parent, since
no other form of communication is possible.
 A second implication of the functionalist view is that emotions are linked with an individual’s goals in a variety of ways.
Regardless of what the goal is, an individual who overcomes an obstacle to attain a goal experiences happiness. By
contrast, a person who must relinquish a goal as unattainable experiences sadness and frustration.
 Incorporates many features of the learning theory.
4. FUNCTIONOF EMOTIONS
The Functions of Emotions
 On one level, they serve to organize and regulate the child’s own behaviour.
 A child’s emotional state can also influence cognitive processes.
 Of special importance is the fact that emotions serve to initiate, maintain, or terminate interactions with others. The baby’s
cry or smile almost invariably prompts contact with the caregiver.
 It helps to adapt to the environment and experiencing life.
 It helps to survive.
Lecture 1 INTRODUCTION
During development an infant changes physically, socially, emotionally and cognitively. The research that focused on
developmental psychology started as early as the 16th century. Big philosophical minds like John Locke and Jacques Rousseau
had their own ideas about developmental psychology. Locke thought that a child had to be carefully instructed, see the parent
as an example and be rewarded for good behaviour. Rousseau though that there was a clear line between right and wrong and
that maturation was a part of nature.
From the 19th century, there was a more scientific approach to the developmental psychology. G. Stanley Hall was the
founder of developmental psychology. He had a normative approach: he collected data on a large number of children and
calculated the average. Another important person was Alfred Binet, who developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
Sigmund Freud also added a new point of view to the developmental psychology (e.g. psychosexual theory, free association
and transference). He though that child development was purely nature. Erik Erikson, on the other hand, though that child
development had much more to do with cultural influences, therefore more nurture. John B. Watson had the idea that children
learn by experience and that environment had a strong influence on the child. Pavlov thought that a child could be conditioned
to behave in a certain way by disciplining.
Currently we look at other scientist. Skinner came up with operant conditioning (give the reward after the behaviour, not every
time). Also Albert Bandura had a important point of view: the modelling (e.g. the bobo doll). Of course we all know about
these psychologist already but pay attention to these new onces: Piaget, Vygotsky and Lorenz.


Problem 3: Attachment (not) included(Leman&Berk&Bukatko&Schaffer&Santrock&Miller&Belsky e.t. all article)
1. ATTACHMENT
Attachment is a strong emotional bond that forms in the secondary half of the first year between a child and their caregivers. It
can be detected by:
 A warm or special greeting
 Distress when the caregiver leaves
 Efforts of the infant to stay close to the caregiver
Theories of Attachment
 Psychoanalytic theory: Freud's theory was that children become attached because of the oral stimulation the parents can
give them. The baby becomes attached through e.g. breastfeeding. Freud focuses on innate drives and pleasure seeking
rather than survival. CRITICISM: As many other theories by Freud, the theory is not supported by evidence.
 Learning theory: infants attach because they get reinforced to by getting food. The food is the primary reinforcer and the
mother becomes the secondary reinforcer. Getting attached is not auto somatic but happens over time. CRITICISM:
 The terrycloth experiment by Harlow and Zimmerman;
o Two cages which are filled with food
o One cage has a fully "mum" and one is made of hard material
 Baby monkeys preferred a soft mother in times of stress, thus food is not the only motive to get attached
 Infants get attached to their fathers too and they are not involved in the feeding process as the mother is.
 Cognitive Developmental theory: Piaget thinks that before attachment can occur, the infant has to know that there exist
other humans even if they are not in the same room (object permanence; Paiget thought it started at 7-8 months but
evidence suggest 3,5 month) and recognise the mother. Physical distance gets less important as the child grows older.
 Ethological theory:
 Lorenz found that animals can attach to different kinds of caretakers (imprinting).
 Bowbly suggested that attachments have roots in instincts and social signalling systems (e.g. following, smiling);
this increases parental care and protection. Because the infant tries to survive and the parent tries to keep the
infant alive, a bond is created. Bowlby argued that infants develop an internal working model of attachment: a
simple mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of nurturing care. Parents have
one as well.The infant’s model of attachment with the caregiver influences the child’s later responses to other
people.
1. Pre-attached 0-2 months Indiscriminate social responses
2. Attachment in the making 2-7 months Recognition ( e.g. smell, voices, faces) but
not setting familiar people apart
3. Clear-cut attachment 7-24(or 18)months Setting familiar people apart (knowing the
difference between mother and
grandmother). Separation protest, stranger
anxiety, intentional communication
4. Goal-corrected partnership 24(or 18) months and onwards Children become aware of others feelings.
Two-sided relationship
 Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development: Physical comfort plays a role in Erik Erikson’s view of the infant’s
development. Erikson suggests that the first year of life represents the stage of trust versus mistrust. Physical comfort and
sensitive care are key to establishing a basic trust in infants.
Long Term Effects of Attachment

Ainsworth observes that secure attachment in the first year of life provides an important foundation for psychological
development later in life. If early attachment to a caregiver is important, it should relate to a child’s social behaviour later in
development. For some children, early attachments seem to foreshadow later functioning. Not all research reveals the power of
infant attachment to predict subsequent development. In one longitudinal study, attachment classification in infancy did not
predict attachment classification at 18 years of age. In this study, the best predictor of an insecure attachment classification at
18 was the occurrence of parental divorce in the intervening years.

2. RESEARCHING ATTACHMENT(AQ-sort; older children or Strange Situation observation; younger children)

The Strange Situation
The most widely used technique for measuring the quality of attachments that 1- to 2-year-olds have established with their
parents or other caregivers is Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: testing the secure base (a caregiver is a safe haven in times
of stress). It tested the baby with strangers (with or without the mother).
CRITICISM:
 As a measure of attachment, it may be culturally biased. This may have more to do with the Strange Situation as a measure
of attachment than with attachment insecurity itself.
 Some critics stress that behaviour in the Strange Situation might not indicate what infants would do in a natural
environment.
 Finally, placing children in categories can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Four attachment styles by Ainsworth (AQ-sort and SS= same categories)

 Secure attachment: about 65 percent fall into this category. Actively explores while alone with the mother and may be
visibly upset by separations. The infant often greets the mother warmly when she returns and, if highly distressed, often
seeks physical contact with her, which helps to alleviate that distress. The child is outgoing with strangers while the mother
is present. Needed:
 Sensitivity  Mutuality
 Positive attitude  Support
 Synchrony  Stimulation
 Resistant/Ambivalent attachment: about 10 percent of the infants fit there. These infants try to stay close to their mother
but explore very little while she is present. They become very distressed as the mother departs. But when she returns, the
infants are ambivalent: they remain near her, although they seem angry at her for having left. Infants are quite wary of
strangers, even when their mothers are present.
 Avoidant attachment: these infants (about 20 percent) often show little distress when separated from the mother and will
generally turn away from and may continue to ignore their mothers, even when their mothers try to gain their attention.
Avoidant infants are often rather sociable with strangers but may sometimes avoid or ignore them in much the same way
that they avoid or ignore their mothers.
 Disorganized/disoriented attachment: this attachment pattern characterizes the 5 percent infants who are most stressed by
the strange situation and who may be the most insecure. It appears to be a curious combination of the resistant and the
avoidant patterns that reflects confusion about whether to approach or avoid the caregiver.
 KEEP IN MIND: you can't pigeonhole infants by placing them in groups; attachments may vary from culture to culture and
reflect important cultural values. What seems to be universal is that parents around the world prefer that their youngsters
feel secure in their relationships with them.
Secure v. Insecure Attachment Style

Secure Insecure
 Consistent parents  Inconsistent parents
 Improved social and emotional competence  Decreased social and emotional competence
 Stable relationships with people in general  Instable relationships
 Higher IQ  Externalise problems (being aggressive)
 Stable routine
 Internalise problems (thinking about it)
3. CHILD CARE VS. PARTING

Caregiving Hypothesis
Ainsworth believes that the quality of an infant’s attachment to his or her mother (or any other close companion) depends
largely on the kind of attention he or she has received. According to this caregiving hypothesis:
 Mothers of securely attached infants are thought to be sensitive, responsive caregivers from the very beginning.

 Babies who show a resistant rather than secure pattern of attachment often have parents who are inconsistent in their
caregiving; reacting enthusiastically or indifferently depending on their moods and being unresponsive a good deal of the
time.
 Infants who develop disorganized/disoriented attachments are often drawn to but also fearful of caregivers because of past
episodes in which they were neglected or physically abused.
Temperament Hypothesis
The temperament of the child in combination with the care of the parents, and the reaction to the child's temperament of the
parent, determine the attachment style.
PRIMARY RESOURCES: Belsky et. all (2007) Are There Long Term Effects of Early Child Care?
Who are the subjects?
Families were followed from 54 months through 6th grade. In the end a lot of middle class minority families stopped
participating; bias.
What did the researchers want to know?

 Whether associations linking child functioning with child-care quality, quantity, and type detected before school entry and
in first through third grade continued to be evident in fifth and sixth grade;
 Whether associations between child-care experiences and child development dissipated over time;
 Whether new relations emerged between child care and child development (i.e., sleeper effects)
 How relations between child care and child development compared, strengthwise, with linkages between parenting quality
and child development.
How did they measure this?

 Measured the child's experiences, social and cognitive abilities.
 Measured before and after school child care experience.
 Measured family factors.
 Used observation, self-report and tests
What are their most important findings?

 Child-Care Quality: children who experienced higher quality early child care (of any kind) displayed somewhat better
vocabulary scores in fifth grade than did children who experienced poorer quality care. This effect stayed over time.
 Quantity of Child-Care: resulted in externalizing problems.
 Parenting Quality: greater parenting quality predicted a better reading, math and vocabulary skills and conflict and higher
levels of social skills, social-emotional functioning and good work habits. The effect weakens over time.
 Type of Care: teachers reported having more problems with children who spent more time in centers.
Are there any limitations to their discoveries?

 The sample is not drawn to be nationally representative
 Causal inferences can only be drawn with caution, if at all
 Results are on a individual level and can't be applied to larger groups
4. TEMPERAMENT
Definition of Temperament
Temperament involves individual differences in behavioural styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding.
 Chess and Thomas Classification: 35% did not fit one of these temperaments
o An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to
new experiences (40%)
o A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept
change (10%)

o A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood
(15%)
 Kagan's Behavioural Inhibition:
o Shy, subdued, timid child  inhibition to the unfamiliar
o Sociable, extraverted, bold child
 Rothbart and Bates Classification:
o Extraversion/surgency: includes “positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking  Kagan’s
uninhibited children
o Negative affectivity: includes “fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort”  Kagan’s inhibited children fit this
category. Negative emotional reactivity or irritability reflect the core of Chess and Thomas’ category of the difficult
child.
o Effortful control (self-regulation) includes “attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual
sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure”.
 KEEP IN MIND: An important point about temperament classifications such as those devised by Chess and Thomas and
by Rothbart and Bates is that children should not be pigeonholed as having only one temperament dimension.
Parenting and Temperament Attention

 Attention on respect.
 Structuring the child’s environment.
 Packaged parenting programs: programs for parents often focus on dealing with children who have “difficult”
temperaments, such as children who are irritable, display anger often, and don’t follow directions well. To label a child
“difficult” has the danger of becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Research does not yet allow for many highly specific recommendations, but in general, caregivers should:
 Be sensitive to the individual characteristics of the child
 Be flexible in responding to these characteristics
 Avoid applying negative labels to the child
PRIMARY RESOURCES: Miller P.H. (2001) Species-Specific Innate Behaviour

Ethology
Characterized by four basic concepts:
1. Species-specific innate behaviour: there are fixed action patterns (complex innate behaviour elected by a sign stimulus that
promotes the survival of the individual) and reflexes (simple responses to stimuli). Innate behaviour changes during physical
maturation.
 Unvarying across individuals from the same species
 Present without previous experience (not learned); KEEP IN MIND: most innate behaviours are accohympanied
by learning (e.g. know how to build a nest (=innate), not building it with glass but with twigs(=learning)).
 Universal across individuals form the same species
 Relatively unchanged
2. Evolutionary perspective: involves phylogentic change (change in species over generations). KEEP IN MIND: does not
involve ontogentic change (change in a single lifetime). Individuals have to adapt to the environment they life in.
 DARWIN: natural selection
 SURBEY: numbers game (changes over generations in the relative frequencies of various genes).
3. Learning predispositions: biology makes learning possible, but also inhibits it (learn from (early) experience). Species differ
in which aspects of their behaviour are modifiable, what kind of learning is easy and in mechanisms of learning overall. Not
everything can be learned easily, if it can be learned at all. Sensitive (critical) periods indicate a moment in time when the
animal is responsive to particular stimuli that elect behavioural change. A child can learn general or specific skills. Learning
by punishment and reward has to be built into the nervous system.
 LORENZ: Some birds are most able to learn distinctive characteristics of their mother, thus their species. They
learn to prefer traits that are specific to their own species (imprinting). This keeps the animal close to the mother,
which gives it a greater chance of survival. KEEP IN MIND: the imprinting can go "wrong", they prefer whatever

they see first: e.g. flashlight, milk bottles. Lorenz thought this process was irreversible, but it may be. It does,
however, have a long-term effect on behaviour. "Humans are specialized in nonspecialization"; humans do not rely
on fixed patterns. Once behaviour is learned, deviating from it can cause fear.
 Stage Theories: in each stage, the child is sensitive to certain experiences, thus can learn in every stage.
 PIAGET: focus on motor exploration in the sensorimotor period.
 ERIKSON: focus on the meeting of others in a stage of trust or mistrust.
 FREUD: focus on the satisfaction or deprivation in the anal stage.
 Nonstage Theories: the child will only learn if the experience happens at the right time.
4. Ethological methodology: behaviour can be observed in a natural environment or tested in a laboratory setting; natural
environment is a preferred method.
Infant Caretaker Attachement

 Bowlby's Theory: and concluded that attachment between infant and caretaker is crucial for a normal development. From
observation of animals, Bowlby concluded that attachment has evolved because it promotes survival. Humans have some
reflexes at birth:
 Grasping objects  trying to hold on to the mother
 Embracing in response to a sudden event  getting protected and not falling when the mother gets scared
These reflexes don't contribute to attachment and of little use to babies in our western society; emotions are. Duplicating
facial expressions also strengthens the attachment; later talking does the trick.
The signalling (through emotions) seems very important since even deaf and blind children have e.g. the social smile.
Those expressions are not learned. The behaviour of the child and caregiver become synchronized into an attachment
behaviour system (stimilifixed reaction). The children's expectations are part of the internal working models (mental
representation of attachment, the self and relationships). Between 9-18 months children show self correcting behaviour.
Bowlby used the control system theory: the goal is being close to the adult, when the adult is too far away the feedback
is distress in the infant.
 Adults' Responsiveness to Infants: infants and adults are made to get attached, because it is important for survival.
Bonding usually occurs in the first few days after birth.
 LORENZ: babies are designed to look cute and behave cute (e.g. smiling, big eyes). The heart rate of the caretaker
goes up and pupils enlarge. KEEP IN MIND: response can differ; it can depend on sex and culture. (e.g. girls that
just started menstruating age 12-13 have a greater liking of infants).
 Contemporary Perspectives on Attachments: early attachment has indirect effect in that in plays an ongoing role during
development in the child's selection of environment, activities and experiences.
 AINSWORTH: infants prefer faces of humans rather than looking at objects. They also like attractive female faces
more. Infants can tell the difference between their mother and other adults. This process is strengthened by smell.
Ainsworth focused on the role of attachment as a secure base. Caretakers are only a secure base if they help the
infant with emotional refuelling. The quality is more important than the quantity.
Reflexes That We Need to Know

 Stepping reflex: when you hold a baby up, it tries to walk  disappears after three weeks
 Rooting reflex: try to find the source of a stimulus
 Sucking reflex: sticking objects in mouth and suck it
 Babinsky reflex: when you stroke the feet, it expands
 Moro reflex: holding reflex (like the monkey in the problem)
 Swimming reflex: swimming automatically  disappears after 3-6 months
Lecture 2 COGNITION AND READING (Katinka Beker)

TEXT COMPREHENSION
 Lower level skills: orthographic processing, phonological processing, semantics of the words; mastered quite soon. Allows
you to read aloud.

 Higher level skills: extracting main ideas, reasoning, relating paragraphs, activating background knowledge; keeps
developing throughout life. Allows you to comprehend.
 Develop independently: so your higher level skills can be good and lower level skills can be bad and vice versa.
Kendeou, van den Broek, White & Lynch (2009)

Children aged 4, 6 and 8 were tested in lower and higher level skills.
 Pre-Kindergarten (4 years): relation between lower level skills and higher level skills
 Kindergarten (6 years): relation between lower level skills and higher level skills disappears
 2nd Grade (8 years): both independently predict reading comprehension skills
How do reading skills develop?

 Comprehension skills can be trained before formal reading instructions
 Comprehension skills require a different approach than basic reading skills
 Comprehension skills can be trained with different media
Comprehension
 Comprehension process: during reading information from the text, activates associated info in memory (background
knowledge; prior text information; relevant and irrelevant but associated information). Inferencing is the process of
extracting information from a text that is implied (e.g. the glass fell, pieces were shattered on the floor  the glass fell).
This can be passive or strategic. It also depends on the genre, structure and difficulty level of the text.
 Comprehension product: this is what stores the memories as a mental representation. This is the foundation for future
applications; it allows you to see relationships between information (either referential or causal).
LEARNING FROM TEXTS

Measuring Comprehension
 Ask
 Implicit measures: reading times, viewing behaviour, brain imaging techniques (KEEP IN MIND: hard to interpret!)
Katinka Beker Research

Misconception (learning the wrong thing) can happen due to natural development, comprehension errors and questionable
sources. If you try to correct them, giving the correct explanation is not the best way to do this. It is better to lay out the
misconceptions and explain why they are wrong.
KReC Framework: every time you think about this specific topic, you think of the right and wrong way; these can also
integrate. If more knowledge connects to the right assumption, it will become dominant. Research question: does it lead to
transfer?
 Refutation text: if knowledge is revised and transferred; the transfer sentence should be facilitated (read faster)
 Non-refutation text: if knowledge is not revised and not transferred; the outcome sentence shouldn't be facilitated (read
slower).
Conclusion: Refutation texts enhance transfer (to a different text about a new topic, during reading). Refutation texts are
effective. Revised knowledge is decontextualized because it generalizes to new situations. However, more research needs to be
done to see whether this also applies to more challenging situations.
Multiple texts partially overlap, other parts are inconsistent or supplementary. This leads to integration. Do readers
spontaneously integrate multiple texts, however?
 Inconsistent without explanation: info from previous text does not resolve inconsistency, intertextual integration is not likely
 outcome sentence should be read slower
 Inconsistent with explanation: info from previous text resolves inconsistency, intertextual integration is likely  outcome
sentence should be read at a normal pace
Conclusion: Intertextual connections are made during reading. Future research, step 2: how about more challenging situations?

Problem 4: The sun is tired (Schaffer& Santrock& Berk& Bukatko&Leman)

1. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH
Cognitive Developmental Approach
Cognition refers to the inner process and products of the mind that lead to knowing. It includes all mental activity. Our
cognitive processes are crucial for survival.
Approaches to School Method

 Traditional classroom: the teacher has authority and knowledge, rules and makes the decisions. Students are passive;
listening, responding when permission is given and doing tasks.
 Constructivist classroom: grounded on Piaget's theory (learning is more efficient when a child does it himself and not copy
work of others). This is characterized by small groups, individual problem solving and a passive teacher (PBL/PGO).
2. PIAGET'S VIEW (NATURE)

Piaget's theory is mainly focused on biology. According to him, human infant do not start out as cognitce beings but grow to
be that way. They build and refine psychological stuctrures (organized ways of making sense of experience that permit children
to adapt more effectively to the environment. In this process, children are active (constructivist view).
Piaget's definitions
Piaget said that as the child seeks to construct an understanding of the world, the developing brain creates schemes. These are
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. As the child grows older, the scheme becomes more complicated.
At first the schemes are sensimotor, but it later turns into a more cognitve approach based on metal representations. This can
either be images (mental pictures) or concepts (similar objects grouped together). Images allow us to imitate behaviour a long
time after we observed it. Concepts help us to be more efficient thinkers.
To explain how children use and get and adapt their schemes, Piaget proposed two concepts:
 Assimilation: use of current schemes to interpret the external world. This concept is closely related to adaptation, which
involves building schemes through direct interactions with the environment. Assimilation is triggered by equilibrium
(everything you know is in line with what you are experiencing)
 Accommodation: creating or adjusting schemes after noticing that the current way of thinking isn't correct. This concept is
closely related to organization, which involves rearranging schemes to get a interconnected cognitive system (e.g.
assosiationg throwing and dropping with nearby and far away).Accomodation is triggered by disequilibrium (what you
already know is not in line with what your are experiencing; you can see it as an inner conflict that reaches a balance again
by adjusting knowlegde).
 Equilbration is a sum of the back-and-forth movement between equilbrium and disequilibrium. This process greates more
effective schemes.
Piaget's Cognitive Stages

 It is an general theory that includes all cognitive changes
 You have to go through each stage to get to the next one (invariant)
 The stages are universal
Sensorimotor 1. Reflective Activity /Simple reflex (0-1 month): Formation and modification of early schemes based on
(0-2 years) reflexes (reflective imitation; not real imitation) such as sucking, looking, and grasping
2. First habits Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
 First habits stage: first habits based on reflexes that promote survival (e.g. open mouth for a
nipple)
 Primary circular reactions: repetition of behaviours that produce interesting results centered on
own body; reflexes and primary circular reactions
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): Repetition of behaviours that produce interesting results in
the external world (object oriented) and manipulating it. Can sit up straight and enjoy adults
demonstrating games (can't play it yet). Starts combining schemes into new, more complex sequences.
Behaviour becomes intentional.
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes/Reactions (8-12 months): Combination of actions to achieve a goal;

better coordination. Behaviour becomes intentional. Means-end /goal-directed behaviour (behaviour
employed to attain a goal; often an accident rather than on purpose), learns to differentiate between self
and environment. The child learns that objects can be around, even when they are out of sight. A-not-B
error (see something get hidden at A, then moved to B; looks at A) is still there. Relatively able to
categorise objects.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Experimentation with different actions to achieve the same
goal or observe the outcomes. Object concept (8-9 months searching for object; 12 months searching at
a specific place) is fully developed. Imitate behaviour with variations. A-not-B error disappears. More
imitation due to flexible action patterns.
6. Invention of New Means Through Mental Combinations/Internalization of schemes(18-24 months):
Thinking through of potential solutions to problems and imitation of absent models. They don't have to use
trial-and-error to find solutions. Fully developed object permanence. Make believe play becomes possible.
 Ends with deferred imitation is the ability to imitate well after some activity has been demonstrated
Preoperational 1. Symbolic function substage: the young child (2-4 years) gains the ability to mentally represent an object
(2-7 years) that is not present.
 Semiotic function the child’s ability to use a symbol, an object, or a word to stand for something.
 Can't yet classify in a hierarchical way.
 Children in this stage are said to be egocentric (theory of the mind), a term that describes the
child’s inability to separate his own perspective from those of others.
 Animism, another limitation of preoperational thought, is the belief that inanimate objects have
lifelike qualities and are capable of action.
 Artificialism is thinking that you control something that happens naturally.
 Transductive reasoning is another feature of the child's thinking in the substage. Transductive
reasoning is a faulty type of logic that involves making inferences from one specific to another.
 Most 3-4 year olds use magical thinking (e.g. power of fairies). Declines after 4-8 years.
 Make believe play becomes more developed:
o Use realistic toys to replicate realistic situations (<2 years)
o Plays become more self-centered (>3 years)
o Play gradually includes more complex combinations of schemes (>2,5 years)
o Sociodramatic play; (>4-5 years) create several roles and story lines.
2. Intuitive Thought substage: occurring between approximately 4 and 7 years of age.
 In this substage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all
sorts of questions.
 Conservation tasks are problems that require the child to make judgments about the equivalence
of two displays; used to assess stage of cognitive development; child starts to master it.
 Lack of reversibility; the ability to mentally reverse or negate an action or a transformation.
 Decentration; focusing on one aspect of the problem the exclusion of all other information, that
could help to produce a correct solution
Concrete  At first, the six- or seven-year-old may solve only a few of the simpler problems, such as conservation of
Operational length, number, or liquid quantity. Later, she will succeed on tasks that involve area or volume (horizontal
(7-11 years) décalage).
 The child is now capable of performing operations, mental actions such as reversibility, spatial thinking and
logical thinking.
 The child’s growing logical capabilities are also manifested in his ability to classify (or put in an order)
objects:
 Seriation: The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension
(such as length).
 Transitivity: involves the ability to reason about and logically combine relationships.
 The child’s thought in this stage is also less egocentric, allowing him to understand that other individuals’
perceptions, beliefs, and feelings may differ from his own.

 Limitations: they can't yet rap their heads around abstract thinking. This comes around 11-12 years.
Formal  Thinking in this stage is both logical and abstract.
Operations  Reason hypothetically (deductive); that is, she can generate potential solutions to problems in a
(>11) thoroughly systematic fashion; they can use knowledge and deduce what is going to happen or how to
solve a problem that is not the same as where the knowledge came from.
 Propositional thought: evaluate the logic of propositions without referring to real-world circumstances but
children can only look at it from a real world perspective.
 In the social realm, achieving abstract thought means the adolescent can think about the nature of society
and his own future role in it. Idealism is common at this developmental stage because he understands more
fully concepts such as justice, love, and liberty and thinks about possibilities rather than just realities.
 Adolescents may believe others scrutinize and evaluate them as much as they think about themselves. This
belief is called the imaginary audience.
 Adolescents may show signs of holding a personal fable, the belief that they are unique, that no one can
fully understand them, and even that they are invulnerable.
 Decision making becomes a real cognitive process:
 Weighing pros and cons
 Assessing the likelihood of possible outcomes
 Evaluating choice to whether goals are met
 Learning from mistakes and not make them again
Application to Education
 Take a constructivist approach.
 Facilitate, rather than direct, learning.
 Consider the child’s knowledge and level of thinking.
 Use ongoing assessment.
 Promote the student’s intellectual health.
 Turn the classroom into a setting of exploration and discovery.
Coming Back to the Problem (according to Piaget)

1. Imitating behaviour
2. Look in specific places where a toy could be hidden
3. Purposely dropping objects on the floor to see what happens
4. Let's play pretend games
5. Naming categories of games
6. Empathise others perspective
7. Understanding quantity
8. Apply logical reasoning to no-existent situations
Criticism
 Competence: one criticism of Piaget’s theory is that Piaget underestimated the abilities of infants and young children.
Many researchers have found that when cognitive tasks are simplified or restructured, children display cognitive skills at
much earlier ages than Piaget believed possible. It also depends how much time and effort is put into the child. E.g:
 Object permanence comes in much earlier
 Children are not as egocentric as he suggests
 Children can use analogical problem solving (apply knowledge to a different situation) at the age of 10-12
months already.
 Children can categories earlier then he thought.
 Piaget thought that children could not mentally represent experience until 18 months of age, but at 8 months a
child can remember the location of a hidden object after a minute and at 14 months after a day.

 Stages: one problem with Piagetian theory is that it posits more consistency in performance within a given stage than is
actually found in the behaviour of children. Many contemporary researchers now believe development shows more
continuity than Piaget suggested.
 Process: development, in this view, is said to be domain-general. However, some theorists maintain that advances in
thinking occur more rapidly in some domains than others; that is, development is seen as domain-specific
 Alternative explanations: the basic challenge to Piaget’s theory centers on whether cognitive development is best
understood in terms of emerging symbolic, logical, and hypothetical thought structures or whether some other explanation is
more tenable. Another central Piagetian tenet is that maturation, in conjunction with experience, is responsible for the
unfolding of more sophisticated thought structures.
 His research is biased because he used his own children and a small sample size.
 A theory that is no longer fully accepted. It is still used as a foundation but most of it is proven to be wrong.
2. VYGOTSKY'S VIEW (NURTURE)

Sociocultural Theory
 Cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural context that influences the form it takes
 Many of a child’s most noteworthy cognitive skills evolve from social interactions with parents, teachers, and other more
competent associates.
The crux of the sociocultural perspective is that children’s intellectual development is closely tied to their culture. Children do
not develop the same type of mind all over the world, but learn to use their brain and mental abilities to solve problems and
interpret their surroundings consistent with the demands and values of their culture. Vygotsky proposed that we should evaluate
development from the perspective of four interrelated levels in interaction with children’s environments:
 Ontogenetic development refers to development of the individual over his or her lifetime, and it is the topic of this book
and the level of analysis for nearly all developmental psychologists.
 Microgenetic development refers to changes that occur over relatively brief periods of time. This is obviously a finer-
grained analysis than that afforded by the traditional ontogenetic level.
 Phylogenetic development refers to changes over evolutionary time, measured in thousands and even millions of years.
 Sociohistorical development refers to the changes that have occurred in one’s culture and the values, norms, and
technologies such a history has generated. It is this sociohistorical perspective that modern-day researchers have emphasized
most about Vygotsky’s ideas.
Influence of Language
Vygotsky agreed with Piaget that the child’s earliest thinking is prelinguistic and that early language often reflects what the child
already knows. However, he argued that' thought and language eventually merge and that many of the nonsocial utterances that
Piaget called “egocentric” actually illustrate the transition from prelinguistic to verbal reasoning. He concluded that nonsocial
speech is not egocentric but communicative; it helps young children plan strategies and regulate their behavior so that they are
more likely to accomplish their goals. Vygotsky also observed that private speech becomes more abbreviated with age,
progressing from the whole phrases that 4-year-olds produce, to single words, to simple lip movements that are more common
among 7- to 9-year-olds.
Zone of Proximal Development

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master
alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children. The ZPD captures the child’s
cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be accomplished only with the assistance of a more-skilled person.
Closely linked to the idea of the ZPD is the concept of scaffolding. Scaffolding means changing the level of support. When
the student is learning a new task, the skilled person may use direct instruction. As the student’s competence increases, less
guidance is given.
 Lower limit: level of problem solving when the child works alone
 Upper limit: level of additional responsibility with assistance of a teacher

Application to Education
 Use the child’s ZPD in teaching
 Use more-skilled peers as teachers
 Monitor and encourage children’s use of private speech
 Place instruction in a meaningful context
 Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas: e.g. small groups
Criticism
 Vygotsky was not specific enough about age-related changes
 Vygotsky does not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development
 Yet another criticism is that he overemphasized the role of language in thinking
 Also, his emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls
 Some children might become lazy and expect help when they might have learned more by doing something on their own
Cognitive Developmental Approaches Compared

Vygotsky Piaget
Sociocultural Context Cognitive development varies across cultures. Cognitive development is mostly universal across
cultures.
Constructivism Social constructivist; Cognitive growth stems Cognitive constructivist; Cognitive development
from social interactions (from guided learning stems largely from independent explorations in which
within the zone of proximal development as children construct knowledge on their own.
children and their partners “co-construct”
knowledge).
Stages No general stages Emphasis on stages
Key Processes Zone of proximal development, language, Schema, assimilation, accommodation, operations,
dialogue conservation, classification
Social Processes Social processes become individual Individual (egocentric) processes become social
psychological processes processes
Influence of others Adults are especially important as change Peers are especially important as change agents.
agents (by transmitting their culture’s tools of
intellectual adaptation that children
internalize).
Role of Language Language plays a role in shaping thought Did not believe that it plays a major role in
children's cognitive development
View on Education Education learns the child skills Education refines the skills the child already has
Teaching Implications Teachers are guides, not directors, children Teachers are guides, not directors, they should
learn better if they are helped out by support children to explore
teachers and more-skilled peers


Problem 5: Shakepeare to be(Schaffer&Santrock&Berk&Leman&Bukatko)
1. LANGUAGE
Definition of Language
Language is a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols. Language
consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them. Infinite generativity is the ability to
produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
Components of Language
 Phonology: refers to the basic units of sound (phenomes) that are used in language and the combining of these sounds.
 Morphology: specify how words are formed from sounds (e.g. using verb+ed/+s)
 Semantics: refers to meaning expressed in words and sentences. The smallest meaningful units of language are morphemes:
 Free morphemes: can stand alone as a word (e.g. dog)
 Bound morphemes: has to be attached to another word (e.g. dogs)
 Syntax: the rules that specify how words are to be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences (e.g. kenny
cartman killed; cartman killed kenny).
 Syntactical bootstraping: children infer meaning of words from the sentence structure.
 Pragmatics: knowlegde on how language must be used to communicate effectively. This also involves sociolinguistic
knowlegde (culturally specific rules specifying how language should be structured and used in particular social contexts;
e.g. you don't give your parents orders).
 The task of speaking language in a good way requires not only knowledge of these five aspects but also the ability to
interpret non-verbal signals.
Theories of Language Development

 The learning/empiricist/behavioural perspective: the idea that children imitate what they hear; are reinforced when they use
proper grammar and corrected when they use wrong grammar. Skinner argued that children only speak appropriately
because they are reinforced (operant conditioning) for correct speech. Bandura added that children learn by listening to
and imitating the language of older people. Parents often use child-directed speech (high pitched), recasting (rephrasing
something a child has said in the form of a question with more complex grammar), expanding (more elaborate version of
what the child said) and labelling (identifying objects).
 CRITICISM:
o If this is true, parents have to be a constant role model.
o Also, children copy language selectively (e.g. I want a cookie  Wanna cookie).
o These theorists could not account for syntax development but only for semantics. To answer this element,
other theories came.
o Does not explain how people create novel sentences.
o Don't explain making mistakes twice
o Children learn the syntax of their native language even if they are not reinforced for doing so.
 This view is no longer considered a viable explanation of how children acquire language
 The nativist/linguistic perspective: the idea that humans are programmed to acquire language. Chomsky argued that the
structure of even the simplest language is far too complex to be taught. He thought that humans are equipped with a
language acquisition device (LAD; innate knowledge of grammar that humans have; makes children able to produce
language). Every language has universal grammar. Slobin does not assume that children are born with this knowledge, but
with a language-making capacity (LMC; a hypothesized set of skills to enable children to analyze speech and detect
relationships).
 SUPPORT:
o Brain: the brain has part that are specialized in the use of language (e.g. the Broca's area (controls
language production) and the Wernicke's area (interprets speech))
o Sensitive-period Hypothesis: Lenneberg proposed that language can be easily obtained during birth and
puberty (during the ages of brain lateralization). Children of this age with damage to the left hemisphere
can use the right hemisphere for language without special therapy, while adults do need therapy. That

why aphasia (loss of language functions) mostly occurs in adolescents and adults. Learning a new
language after puberty can therefore be harder.
 CRITICISM:
o Nativists do not really explain language development and focus too much on biology and too little on
learning from experience and the environment.
o Nativist had difficulties with specifying universal grammar.
o The assumption that grammar is innate does not fit with certain observations.
o Lacks overall comprehensiveness.
 The interactionist perspective MOST MODERN: a combination of the learning and nativist perspective; language is
acquired by both biological factors and experience.
 Nativist: The remarkable similarities that young children display when learning very different languages imply that
biology contributes to language acquisition. According to the interactionist viewpoint, young children display
linguistic universals because they are all members of the same species who share many common experiences. Infants
and toddlers often seem to talk about whatever cognitive understandings they are acquiring at the moment.
However, the preparation consists not of an LAD or LMC but a powerful human brain that slowly matures,
allowing children to gain more and more knowledge, which gives them more to talk about.
 Information-processing theories: point out that brain regions for language processing have different functions as
well.
 Learning: Parents often use child-directed speech (high pitched), recasting (rephrasing something a child has said
in the form of a question with more complex grammar), expanding (more elaborate version of what the child said)
and labelling (identifying objects). Two general principles operate during caregiver-child interactions. First, parents
generally interpret their infants’ behaviours as attempts to communicate, even when that interpretation may not
seem warranted to an objective observer. Second, children actively seek relationships among objects, events, and
people in their world and the vocal behaviours of their caregivers.
 Social interactionist theories: point out that the development of language has a lot to do with the desire to be
understood and understand others.
2. DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE
Strategies for Acquiring Language
 Fast mapping: term used for the hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept is learned based on only a single
exposure.
 Syntactical bootstraping
 Object-scope constraint: the assumption that words refer to whole objects and not parts of that object.
 Mutual exclusivity: thinking that every word means something different (e.g. cat=pussy)
 Lexical contrast constraint: comparing words with the known ones
 Taxonomic constraint: the idea that a word is a summary of all objects with the same characteristics (e.g. cat = all animals
that are furry with four legs and a tail).
Prelinguistic Period (0-13 month)

Babies’ sounds go through the following sequence during the first year:
 Crying: babies cry even at birth; crying can signal distress, different types of cries signal different things.
 Cooing: babies first coo at about 1 to 2 months. These are gurgling sounds that are made in the back of the throat and
usually express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver.
 Babbling: at 4 to 6 months babies babble; they produce strings of consonant-vowel combinations, such as "bababa"
Infants start using gestures at about 8 to 12 months of age. Pointing is considered by language experts to be an important
index of the social aspects of language, and it follows this developmental sequence: from pointing without checking on adult
gaze to pointing while looking back and forth between an object and the adult.
 Declarative: directs attention
 Imperative: goal-seeking actions

Long before they begin to learn words, infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of the language. Infants must fish
out individual words from the nonstop stream of sound that makes up ordinary speech. To do so, they must find the
boundaries between words. Infants begin to detect word boundaries by 8 months of age.
Holophase Period (12-18 months)

Infants understand words before they can produce or speak them.
 The infant’s first spoken word, a milestone eagerly anticipated by every parent, usually doesn’t occur until 10 to 15
months of age and at an average of about 13 months.
 On the average, infants understand about 50 words at about 13 months, but they can’t say this many words until about
18 months.
 The average 18-month-old can speak about 50 words
 18 months-24 months: growth of vocabulary is called naming explosion.
 18 months-2 years: a child can speak about 200 words. This rapid increase in vocabulary that begins at
approximately 18 months is called the vocabulary spurt.
 Children sometimes overextend (the tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning)
or underextend (is the tendency to apply a word too narrowly; it occurs when children fail to use a word to name a
relevant event or object) the meanings of the words they use.
Telegraphic Period (18-24 months)

By the time children are 18 to 24 months of age, they usually utter two-word messages. Telegraphic speech is the use of short
and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives. Gestures can help give
meaning to what the child is saying.
Early Childhood (2-6 years)

Between 2 and 3 years of age they begin the transition from saying simple sentences that express a single proposition to saying
complex sentences. They start getting sarcasm and overregulate. Many of the oddities of young children’s language sound like
mistakes to adult listeners. However, from the children’s point of view, they are not mistakes.
 Understanding Phonology and Morphology:
 During the preschool years, most children gradually become more sensitive to the sounds of spoken words and
become increasingly capable of producing all the sounds of their language.
 By the time, children are 3 years of age, they can produce all the vowel sounds.
 The time children move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules.
Children begin using the plural and possessive forms of nouns. They put appropriate endings on verbs,
prepositions, articles, and various forms of the verb "to be".
 Changes in Syntax and Semantics: Preschool children also learn and apply rules of syntax. They show a growing mastery of
complex rules for how words should be ordered. Gains in semantics also characterize early childhood. Some experts have
concluded that between 18 months and 6 years of age, young children learn approximately one new word every waking
hour, in the end knowing 14,000 words.
 Advances in Pragmatics: A 6-year-old is simply a much better conversationalist than a 2-year-old is. Their developing
linguistic skills and improving ability to understand the perspective of others contribute to their use of more competent
narratives. As children get older, they become increasingly able to talk about things that are not here. A preschool child
can tell you what she wants for lunch tomorrow, something that would not have been possible at the two-word stage of
language development.
Middle and Late Childhood (>7)

Children get metalinguistic awareness (the ability to talk about language). During middle and late childhood, changes occur in
the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized. At about 7 years of age, children have begun to categorize their vocabulary
by parts of speech. The process of categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary. Children make similar
advances in grammar. During the elementary school years, children’s improvement in logical reasoning and analytical skills.
During the elementary school years, children become increasingly able to understand and use complex grammar. There is
semantic and morphological improvement and integration.

Timeline #1
Phonology Semantics Morphology/syntax Pragmatics
0-1 year  Receptivity  Interpretation  Preference for phrase  Joint attention with caregiver
 Discrimination of others’ speech structure and stress to objects and events
speech sounds  Preverbal gestures patterns of native  Turn-taking in games and
 Babbling begins appear language vocalizations
to resemble  Vocables appear  Appearance of preverbal
language  Little understanding gestures
of words
1-2 years  Appearance of  First words  Two-word speech  Use of gestures to clarify
strategies to  Rapid expansion of  Sentences express distinct messages
simplify word vocabulary after age semantic relations  Richer understanding of vocal
pronunciations 18 months  Acquisition of some turn-taking rules
 Overextensions and grammatical morphemes  First signs of etiquette in
underextensions of children’s speech
word meanings
3-5 years  Pronunciations  Vocabulary expands  Grammatical morphemes  Beginning understanding of
improve  Use of spatial words added in regular illocutionary intent
in speech sequence  Adjustment to different
 Awareness of most rules audiences
of transformational  Clarifying obviously
grammar ambiguous messages
6-10 years  Pronunciations  +10000 words  Acquisition of  Referential communication
become adult including abstract morphological knowledge improves
like words  Correction of earlier  Advanced conversation
 Masters patterns  Appearance and grammatical errors strategies
signalling subtle refinement of  Acquisition of complex  More understanding of
differences in semantic integrations syntactical rules illocutionary understanding
meaning  Knows multiple  Communication in
meanings for a word demanding situations
≥11  Masters patterns  +40000 words  Refine grammatical  Communicate clearly in
of abstract  Understands subtle structures accordance to social
words meanings(e.g. irony) expectations
Timeline #2
Birth  Crying
1-6 months  Decreased crying
 Soft sounds
 Coos, laughs, gurgles
 Imitates short strings of vowel sounds
 Makes consonant sounds
 Responses to prosodic features of speech
 Recognizes own name
6-12 months  Babbles strings of vowel combinations (more in familiar than unfamiliar situations)
 Sounds starting to resemble speech (sounds like a sentence)
 Starts to prefer own language over other languages
 Makes sounds to the sight of familiar objects
 "No" does not mean no
 May use two or three "words"
 Uses the same term for same kind of objects (e.g. "wah" for water and milk)
12-18 months  One-word sentences
 Tries to make self understood

 Makes symbolic gestures
 Imitates words (new word gets repeated)
 Refers to self (e.g. good boy)
 Understands naming process
18-24 months  Goes from 50 to 900 words in 6 months
 Two-word sentences
 Expanding of understanding
24-36 months  Decreasing gesturing
 Stops babbling
 Uses plurals, past tense, definite and indefinite articles, prepositions
 Three-word sentences
 Excellent comprehension
 More use of sentences
36-48 months  Yes/no questions; why questions
 Embeds one sentence with another
 Uses overregulatizations
 +1000 words
 Coordinates simple sentences and uses prepositions
48-60 months  Uses pragmatic rules of communication in a sophisticated way
 Humour and metaphors
≥5 years  Complex syntax
 Total of 14000 words
 Metalinguistic awareness
Lecture 3 ATTACHING TO MOTHERS WITH PSYCHIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS (Rianne Kok)

Parent child attachment: stable affective bond between parent and child. If environment is a factor of restlessness, it leads to an
insecure-avoidant style. If parents are this factor of disturbance, it leads to insecure-resistant attachment. If both are in balance,
you get a secure attachment style.
 Insecure Avoidant: 25%; unavailable expectation; consistent insensitive parents
 Secure: 65%; available expectation; consistent sensitive parents
 Insecure-Resistant: 10%; unpredictable expectation; inconsistently sensitive parents
According to Belsky's process model of parenting you need contextual sources (e.g. support), the temperament of the child
and characteristics of the parent.
Children of parents with severe mental illness have a risk for abuse, neglect, cognitive deficits and problem behaviour. They can
also inherit the illness. The caregiver usually takes good instrumental care of the baby but less emotional care, which is critical
for the baby's attachment style.

Problem 6: And now the moral(ity) of the story (Berk&Santrock&Shaffer&Bukakto&Crain Article)

DIFINITION OF MORALS
Moral Development
Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours regarding standards of right and wrong. Has an:
 Intrapersonal dimension: regulates a person’s activities when she or he is not engaged in social interaction
 Interpersonal dimension: regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict.
General Look Form Theorist

Developmental theorizing and research have centered on three components:
 An affective, or emotional component that consists of the feelings that surround right or wrong actions and that motivate
moral thoughts and actions
 A cognitive component that centers on the way we conceptualize right and wrong and make decisions about how to
behave
 A behavioural component that reflects how we actually behave when we experience the temptation to lie, cheat, or
violate other moral rules
Affective Component of Moral Development

 Mutually responsive relationship  committed compliance:
 Highly motivated to embrace parents rules and requests
 Sensitive to a parent's emotional signals indicating whether they have done it right
 Beginning to internalize parental reactions to their triumphs, that will later help them evaluate themselves
 Occurs when there is a mutually responsive relationship
 Not a mutually responsive relationship  situational compliance: generally nonoppositional behaviour that stems more from
parents’ power to control the child’s conduct than from the child’s eagerness to cooperate or comply.
Moral Personality
 Moral identity: individuals have a moral identity when moral notions and commitments are central to their life. In this view,
behaving in a manner that violates this moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk.
 Moral character: involves having the strength of your convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles.
Moral character presupposes that the person has set moral goals and that achieving those goals involves the commitment to
act in accord with those goals.
 Moral exemplars: are people who have lived exemplary lives. Moral exemplars have a moral personality, identity,
character, and set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment.
THEORIES ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Social Cognitive View ( moral behaviour)
Emphasizes a distinction between an individual’s moral competence (the ability to perform moral behaviours), and moral
performance (performing those behaviours in specific situations). Albert Bandura also stresses that moral development is best
understood by considering a combination of social and cognitive factors, especially those involving self-control. In this self-
regulatory process, people monitor their conduct and the conditions under which it occurs, judge it in relation to moral
standards, and regulate their actions by the consequences they apply to themselves. They do things that provide them
satisfaction and a sense of self-worth. They refrain from behaving in ways that violate their moral standards because such
conduct will bring self-condemnation. Self-sanctions keep conduct in line with internal standards. Thus, in Bandura’s view,
selfregulation rather than abstract reasoning is the key to positive moral development.
Psychoanalitic View ( emotions)

According to Sigmund Freud, guilt and the desire to avoid feeling guilty are the foundation of moral behaviour.
1. Freud’s theory focuses on affective dimensions of moral development. Children internalize the standards of the parent as a
by-product of the child’s progression through the stages of psychosexual development.
2. Freud believed a moral sense emerges near the end of the phallic stage (3-6 years) when boys resolve the Oedipal
complex.

3. The Oedipal conflict becomes resolved when the young boy suppresses his instinctual urges and allies himself with his
father. Through this process of identification, the child acquires his father’s moral values and standards (indentifying)
4. The outcome is the formation of the superego, the component of the child’s personality that functions both as a conscience
(governing what not to do) and an ego ideal (governing appropriate and desirable behaviours).
 Among the controversial aspects of Freud’s theory is its prediction that girls will develop a weaker moral sense than boys.
In the counterpart to the Oedipal complex, dubbed the Electra complex, involves far less emotional intensity for girls than
it does for boys. As a result, a girl’s identification with her mother occurs with less force, and the superego or conscience,
according to Freud, is not as strong. KEEP IN MIND: Attempts to validate the various claims made by Freud have not
met with great success. In fact, girls tend to display more guilt than boys.
Cogitive Developmental View ( moral thought)

Cognitive-developmental explanations of moral development highlight the ways children reason about moral problems. Moral
development is intimately connected with advances in general thinking abilities. The two most prominent cognitive-
developmental theorists concerned with moral development, Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, have suggested stage theories
in which children’s reasoning about moral issues is qualitatively different depending on their level of development.
PIAGET
STAGES:
 The Premoral Period: according to Piaget, preschool children show little concern for or awareness of rules. In a game of
marbles, these premoral children do not play systematically with the intent of winning. Instead, they seem to make up their
own rules, and they think the point of the game is to take turns and have fun.
 Heteronomous morality: from 4 to 7 years of age, children display the first stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory.
Children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
 In between phase: from 7 to 10 years of age, children are in a transition showing some features of the first stage of moral
reasoning and some stages of the second stage, autonomous morality.
 Autonomous morality: From about 10 years of age and older, children show autonomous morality, Piaget’s second stage
of moral development. They become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in judging an action, they
consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
DEFINITIONS:
According to Piaget, children younger than about ten are in the stage of moral development called moral realism, or
heteronomy. They judge the rightness or wrongness of an act by the objective visible consequences. They do not consider the
intentions to behave well or improperly. In the stage of moral realism, rules are viewed as unbreakable; if the rules are violated,
the child sees punishment as the inevitable consequence (immanent justice).
From a limited ability to reason about moral issues, children progress to moral relativism, or autonomy. Now the transgressor’s
motives are taken into account. In addition, the child no longer believes every violation will be punished. Punishments,
however, should relate to the misdemeanor so that the individual appreciates the consequences of his act.
 Piaget points to changes in the child’s cognitive capabilities, especially decreasing egocentrism. Another important factor is
the opportunity to interact with peers.
 Peer interactions force the child to consider the thoughts and feelings of others and eventually lead to an understanding of
their intentions and motives.
 Parents can further promote the shift from realism to relativism, pointing out the consequences of the child’s actions for
others and articulating their needs and feelings as parents.
CRITICISM:
 With development children from diverse cultures, from different social classes, and of varying intellectual abilities more fully
consider intentions in judging the actions of another person.
 Young children also can be sensitive to the intentions behind a given act. In addition, as early as the preschool years,
children recognize that actions that produce harmful psychological consequences are as unacceptable as behaviours that
produce physical harm.

 Parents and not just peers (as Piaget claimed), have a significant impact on moral reasoning.
 Last stage can happen before 10 years old
KOHLBERG (moral thoughts not moral actions)

CONCEPT (stages have to be … according to Paiget  basis for Kohlberg):
 Qualitatively different ways of thinking: one stage is different from the other stage
 Structured wholes: general patterns of thought
± Progress in an invariant sequence: no skipped stages or mixed order; some in Kohlberg's research seemed to have skipped a
stage or showed regression  he revised his research
± Hierarchic integrations: do not lose progression but integrate the knowledge into broader frameworks.
 Cross-cultural universals: most studies in other cultures where short but supported the statement of Kohlberg that his theory
is universal.
HOW IT OCCURS:
 It is not a product of socialization; but mentors can influence it
 The stages are not a product of maturation
 The stages occur from our own thinking about moral problems
LEVELS:
 Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning/ Morality is the lowest level of reasoning in Kohlberg’s theory and consists of two
stages: punishment and obedience orientation (stage 1) and individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange (stage 2).
 Level 2: Conventional Reasoning/ Morality is the second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development. Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others (external), such as
parents or the laws of society. The conventional reasoning level consists of two stages: mutual interpersonal expectations,
relationships, and interpersonal conformity (stage 3) and social systems morality (stage 4).
 Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning/Principled Morality is the third and highest level in Kohlberg’s theory. At this level,
morality is more internal. The postconventional level of morality consists of two stages: social contract or utility and
individual rights (stage 5) and universal ethical principles (stage 6).
Level Stage 1 9-18 Punishment and Obedience At this stage, moral thinking is often tied to
1 Orientation punishment and authority.
e.g. stealing is wrong because you get punished
Stage 2 10-36 (62% at Individualism, Purpose and At this stage, individuals pursue their individual
36 years) Exchange interests but also let others do the same. Thus,
what is right involves an equal exchange. People
are nice to others so that others will be nice to
them in return.
e.g. stealing is wrong but there're exceptions
Level Stage 3 >10 Mutual Interpersonal, At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and
2 (peak at 16-18) Expectations, Relationships and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments.
Interpersonal Conformity Children often adopt their parents’ moral
standards at this stage, and want their parents
to approve.
e.g. all sides should be taken into account
(store was charging too much)
Stage 4 >10 Social System Morality At this stage (two-person relationships), moral
judgments are based on understanding the social
order, law, justice, and duty (a bit like stage 1;
but can explain it better) Become concerned
with the society as a whole.
e.g. it would be chaotic if everyone came up

with their own rules (HOUSE D.M.)
Level Stage 5 >20 (only in Social Contract or Utility and At this stage, individuals reason that values,
3 10%) Individual Rights rights, and principles undergird or transcend the
law. A person evaluates the validity of actual
laws and examines social systems in terms of the
degree to which they preserve and protect
fundamental human rights and values.
Concerned with democratic procedures and
basic human rights.
e.g. law should be applied to the situation
Stage 6 Really rare Universal Ethical Principles At this stage, the person has developed a moral
( removed) standard based on universal human rights. When
faced with a conflict between law and
conscience, the person will follow conscience,
even though the decision might involve personal
risk.
SUPPORT:
 If Kohlberg’s stages represent a true developmental sequence, we should find a strong positive correlation between age
and maturity of moral reasoning. This is precisely what researchers have found in studies. KEEP IN MIND: people
progress in an orderly fashion to their highest stage of reasoning and that stage 3 or 4 is the end of this developmental
journey for most individuals worldwide.
 Findings imply is that role-taking skills are necessary but not sufficient for the development of conventional morality, and
that formal operations are necessary but not sufficient for the emergence of postconventional morality. This pattern supports
the Kohlberg hypothesis that cognitive development is a prerequisite for moral development.
 Evidence for Kohlberg’s Social-Experience Hypothesis (exposure to persons or situations that force a person to reevaluate
and alter his current moral perspectives).
PLUS POINTS:
 Tried to relate his moral stages to more than one form of cognition (e.g. role taking capacities, capacities to consider
others' viewpoints).
 More elaborate than Piaget.
CRITICISM:
 Critics have charged that Kohlberg’s highest stages reflect a Western ideal of justice and that his stage theory is therefore
biased against people who live in non-Western societies or who do not value individualism and individual rights highly
enough to want to challenge society’s rules.
 It is dangerous to place your own morals above the laws and society.
 Critics have also charged that Kohlberg’s theory, which was developed from data provided by male participants, does not
adequately represent female moral reasoning. Gilligan says men and women frequently score at different stages on
Kohlberg's scale (interpersonal feelings vs. law).
 Finally, Kohlberg’s focus on legalistic dilemmas that laws were designed to address caused him to overlook other
“nonlegalistic” forms of moral reasoning that influence the behaviour of grade-school children.
 Empirical matters, such as the problem of invariant sequence, the prevalence of regression and the relationship between
thought and action.
 Method: you can't see where in the stage you are (beginning or end of the stage)
 Too much focus on punishment
TIMELINE
2-5 years Models many morally relevant behaviours  Focus on salient features and consequences in moral

Responds with empathy-based guilt to judgment, such as physical damage, punishment or status
transgressions of an adult
 Begins to show sensitivity to other's intentions in moral
judgement
 At the end of this period, has a differentiated
understanding of authority figures legitimacy
 Distinguishes moral imperatives, social conventions and
matters of personal choice
 At the end: bases distributive justice on equality
6-11 years Internalizes many norms of good conduct,  Emphasize superficial factors, including physical
including prosocial standard consequences and self-interest, in moral judgment
(=Piaget heteromous; Kohlberg 1+2)
 Understands ideal reciprocity and emphasizes people's
intentions and expectations in moral judgment (=Piaget
autonomous; Kohlberg 3)
 Links moral imperatives, social conventions and matters of
personal choice (see intentions and context more)
 Includes merit and equity in justice reasoning
>12 years  Increasingly emphasizes ideal reciprocity as the basis for
interpersonal relationships and social laws (Kohlberg stage
3+4)
 Highly reflective moral judgment (Kohlberg stage 5+6)
 The relationship between moral reasoning and behaviour
strengthens
PRIMARY RESOURCES: Crain W.C. (1985) Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

 Piaget: most of his findings fit into the two-stage theory. There is a distinction between children before the age of 10-11.
Younger children regard rules as fixed and absolute, older children see it in a more relativistic light. They know that you
can change the rules if everyone agrees. Younger children focus on the outcome and older children focus on the intention.
The child undergoes this transformation right when it enters the general stage of formal operations.
 Kohlberg: found stages that go well beyond Piaget's stages: 6. METHOD: used 72 children from middle- and lower
class families (age 10, 13, 16). He later added delinquents. He showed them dilemma's and asked them to give a
reasoning behind their opinion. This shows the subject's moral thinking. He used interrater reliability to test his theory and
stages again, and it had a high agreement.
 The other information from the article is incorporated into the summary above.


Problem 7: Kim or Kanye (Santrock&Shaffer&Bukatko&Berk)
GENDER DEFINITIONS
We will use the term sex to refer to a person’s biological identity: his or her chromosomes, physical manifestations of identity,
and hormonal influences. We will use the term gender to refer to a person’s social and cultural identity as male or female.
 Gender identity involves a sense of one’s own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male
or female (around or a little before 2 years old).
 Gender roles are sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel:
 Girls have typically been encouraged to assume an expressive role that involves being kind, nurturant, cooperative, and
sensitive to the needs of others
 Boys have been encouraged to adopt an instrumental role that involves being dominant, assertive, independent, and
competitive.
 Gender typing is the process by which children acquire not only a gender identity but also the motives, values, and
behaviours considered appropriate in their culture for members of their biological sex.
 Sex-typed behaviour (boys playing with cars and girls with jewellery, for example) increased during the preschool years.
GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT

Cultural Influences
Children in modern industrialized societies a face strong gender-typing pressures, though not always to the same extent and in
the same ways that children in nonindustrialized societies do. Because cultural norms specify that girls should assume an
expressive role and boys an instrumental role, we may be inclined to assume that girls and women actually display expressive
traits and that boys and men possess instrumental traits (e.g. Sweden tries to counteract these stereotypes by letting children
play with both boyish and girlish toys).
Biological Influences
 Genetic Influences: Genetic factors may contribute to some sex differences in personality, cognitive abilities, and social
behaviour. Furthermore, timing of puberty, a biological variable regulated in part by our genotypes, has a slight effect on
visual/spatial performances.
 Hormones: there are two classes of hormones that have the most influence on gender: estrogens and androgens. Estrogens
and androgens occur in both females and males, but in very different concentrations. Although sex hormones alone do not
determine behaviour, researchers have found links between sex hormone levels and certain behaviours. The most established
effects of testosterone on humans involve aggressive behaviour and sexual behaviour (high levels of testosterone). Individuals
who are exposed to unusual levels of sex hormones early in development can have the following problems:
 Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): Enlarged adrenal glands, resulting in abnormally high levels of androgens.
Although CAH girls are XX females, they vary in how much their genitals look like male or female genitals. CAH
girls usually don’t like typical girl activities such as playing with dolls and wearing makeup.
 Androgen-insensitive males: Because of a genetic error, a small number of XY males don’t have androgen cells in
their bodies. Their bodies look female, they develop a female gender identity, and they usually are sexually
attracted to males.
 Pelvic field defect: In boys involves a missing penis. These XY boys have normal amounts of testosterone
prenatally but usually have been castrated just after being born and raised as females. One study revealed that
despite the efforts by parents to rear them as girls, most of the XY children insisted that they were boys.
 The Evolutionary Psychology View: emphasizes that adaptation during the evolution of humans produced psychological
differences between males and females. Males competed with other males to acquire more resources in order to access
females. Therefore, say evolutionary psychologists, males evolved dispositions that favour violence, competition, and risk
taking. Females’ contributions to the gene pool were enhanced by securing resources for their offspring, which was
promoted by obtaining long-term mates who could support a family. As a consequence, natural selection favoured females
who devoted effort to parenting and chose mates who could provide their offspring with resources and protection.
CRITICISM: its hypotheses are backed by speculations about prehistory, not evidence. Critics also claim that the
evolutionary view pays little attention to cultural and individual variations in gender differences.

Social Influences
 Social Role Theory (EAGLY): states that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men. In
Eagly’s view, as women adapted to roles with less power and less status in society, they showed more cooperative, less
dominant profiles than men.
 Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender (FREUD): stems from Sigmund Freud’s view that the preschool child develops erotic
feelings toward the opposite-sex parent. Eventually, these feelings arouse anxiety, so that at 5 or 6 years of age, the child
renounces these feelings and identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent’s
characteristics. CRITICISM: not proves
 The Social Cognitive Approach: children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through the
rewards and punishments children experience (parents, peers; gender segregation children’s tendency to associate with
same-sex playmates and to think of the other sex as an out-group, media) for gender-appropriate and gender-
inappropriate behaviour. Phyllis Bronstein recently provided these conclusions:
 Mothers’ socialization strategies: in many cultures mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and
responsible than their sons. They also place more restrictions on daughters’ autonomy.
 Fathers’ socialization strategies: fathers show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities with
sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons’ intellectual development.
CRITICISM: this explanation pays too little attention to the child’s own mind and understanding, and portrays the child
as passively acquiring gender roles.
Cognitive Influences
 Gender Schema Theory: states that gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is
gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. A sex schema is a cognitive structure, a network of
associations that guide an individual’s perceptions (creates an in/out group: I am a boy, thus I don't play with girls). A
gender schema organizes the world in terms of female and male. Children are internally motivated to perceive the world
and to act in accordance with their developing schemas.
 Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory:
 The most basic of these cognitive milestones is acquisition of gender identity, the knowledge that self and others
are female or male. This concept, which is acquired between ages two and three years.
 Children who have acquired gender stability recognize that they were born one sex and will grow up to be a
member of that same sex.
 By age six, most children acquire gender constancy, the awareness that changes in external characteristics,
behaviors, or desires do not lead to a change in biological sex. For Kohlberg, the acquisition of gender constancy
marks the child’s mature awareness of the concept of gender differentiation. Kohlberg believed that children are
internally motivated by their positive self- and same-sex evaluations to behave in a manner consonant with their
conceptions of what is sex-appropriate. External motivators (such as reinforcements and punishments) are of
minimal importance in the process of self-socialization.
 A Psychobiosocial View: nature and nurture might jointly influence the development of gender-typed attributes.
According to the model, prenatal exposure to male or female hormones influences the organization of male and female
brains in ways that might make boys, for example, somewhat more receptive to spatial activities and girls somewhat more
susceptible to quiet verbal exchanges.
GENDER STEREOTYPES
Cognitive Ability
 Verbal Ability: One of the differences is that girls display greater verbal abilities than boys on many measures. Girls
acquire language and develop verbal skills at an earlier age than boys and display a small but consistent verbal advantage
on tests of reading comprehension and speech fluency throughout childhood and adolescence.
 Visual/Spatial Abilities: Boys outperform girls on tests of visual/spatial abilities. The male advantage in spatial abilities is
not large, although it is detectable as early as age 4 and persists across the life span. Males are better at spatial perception
but in spatial rotation and visual tasks are no noticeable differences.

 Mathematical Ability: Females outscore males on math tests that require verbal strategies, but boys show a small but
consistent advantage over girls on tests of arithmetic reasoning. Girls actually exceed boys in computational skills and even
earn higher grades in math, in part because girls are more inclined than boys are to adopt learning rather than performance
goals, thereby working harder to improve their mathematical competencies.
 Aggression: Boys are more physically and verbally aggressive than girls, starting as early as age 2, and they are about 10
times more likely than girls to be involved in antisocial behavior and violent crime during adolescence.
 Activity Level: Even before they are born, boys are more physically active than girls and they remain more active
throughout childhood, especially when interacting with peers.
 Fear, Timidity, and Risk Taking: As early as the 1st year of life, girls appear to be more fearful or timid in uncertain
situations than are boys. They are also more cautious and less assertive in these situations than are boys, taking far fewer
risks than do boys.
 Developmental Vulnerability: From conception, boys are more physically vulnerable than girls to prenatal and perinatal
hazards and to the effects of disease. Boys are also more likely than girls are to display a variety of developmental
problems, including autism, reading disabilities, speech defects, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, emotional
disorders, and developmental delays in cognitive abilities.
 Emotional Expressivity/Sensitivity: As infants, boys and girls do not differ much in their displays of emotion. But from
toddlerhood onward, boys are more likely than girls to display one emotion (anger) whereas girls more frequently display
most other emotions. Two-year-old girls are already using more emotion-related words than 2-year-old boys.
 Compliance: From early in the preschool period, girls are more compliant than boys with the requests and demands of
parents, teachers, and other authority figures. And when trying to persuade others to comply with them, girls are especially
inclined to rely on tact and polite suggestions. By comparison boys are more likely than girls to resort to demanding or
controlling strategies. This is one of the reasons that girls are more likely to finish school and do a high education.
 Self-Esteem: Boys show a small edge over girls in global self-esteem. This sex difference becomes more noticeable in early
adolescence and persists throughout adulthood.
Developmental Changes in Gender Stereotyping

Children engage in more gender stereotyping than adults. Gender stereotyping by children was present even in the 2-year-
olds, but increased considerably by 4 years of age. Children use these cues to construct an understanding of gender and to
guide their behaviour. Gender stereotyping continues to change during middle and late childhood and adolescence. By the
time children enter elementary school, they have considerable knowledge about which activities are linked with being male or
female. Until about 7 to 8 years of age, gender stereotyping is extensive because young children don’t recognize individual
variations in masculinity and femininity. By 5 years of age, both boys and girls stereotype boys as powerful and in more
negative terms, such as mean, and girls in more positive terms, such as nice.
Physical Similarities and Differences

Researchers have found some brain differences between females and males.
 Female brains are smaller than male brains, but female brains have more folds; the larger folds (called convolutions) allow
more surface brain tissue within the skulls of females than males.
 One part of the hypothalamus involved in sexual behaviour tends to be larger in men than in women.
 Portions of the corpus callosum may be larger in females than in males, although some studies have found untrue.
 An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visual/spatial skills tends to be larger in males than in females.
 The areas of the brain involved in emotional expression tend to show more metabolic activity in females than in males.
TIMELINE
Prenatal period The fetus develops male or female genitalia, which Biosocial;psychobiosocial
others will react to once the child is born.
Birth to 3 years Parents and other companions label the child as a boy Social learning (differential
or a girl, frequently remind the child of his or her gend reinforcement); Psychobiosocial
er, and begin to encourage genderconsistent behavior whil
e discouraging crosssex activities. As a result of these so
cial experiences, the neural developments they foster, and

the development of very basic classification skills, the you

ng child acquires some gender
typed behavioural preferences and the knowledge that he
or she is a boy or a girl (basic gender identity).
3 to 6 years Once children acquire a basic gender identity, they begi Gender schema
n to seek information about sex differences, form gender
schemas, and become intrinsically motivated to perform th
ose acts that are viewed as “appropriate” for their own
sex. When acquiring gender schemas, children attend to
bothmale and female models. Once their gender schemas
are well established,these youngsters are likely to imitate
behaviors considered appropriate for their sex, regardless
of the gender of the model who displays them.
7 years to pub Children finally acquire a sense of gender consistency— Cognitive Development theories
erty a firm, futureoriented image of themselves as boys who
must necessarily become men or girls who will obviously
become women. At this point, they begin to rely less e
xclusively on gender schemas and to look to the behavio
r of samesex models to acquire those mannerisms and att
ributes that are consistent with their firm categorization of
self as a male or female.
Puberty and be The biological upheavals of adolescence, in conjunction w Biosocial/psychobiosocial
yond ith new social expectations (gender intensification), cause Social learning; Gender schema;
teenagers to reexamine their selfconcepts, forming an adult Cognitive-developmental
gender identity.
PRIMARY RESOURCES: Lenroot R.K. & Giedd J.N. (2010) Sex Differences in the Adolenscent Brain
Differences in The Brain
 Males have a 9-12% bigger brain (is not connected to body
size). The white matter is larger in females. This means that
females and males have the same brain volume, relatively.
 In girls, the hippocampus was larger bilaterally, as was the right
striatum. In boys, a region of the amygdala was larger in males.
With the exception of higher levels of serum testosterone in
older males, there were no differences in sex steroid levels in
their sample.
 They then examined the relationship of steroid levels and
pubertal stages to brain structure in the sexually dimorphic
regions, and found that GM intensity in the amygdala was
predicted by testosterone levels in both males and females.
Testosterone levels also predicted hippocampal size in female.
 Estosterone was positively associated with increased GM
density in right sided diencephalic structures in males, and
negatively correlated with parietal GM volume in males.
Estradiol levels were positively correlated with greater GM
density in the uncus and parahippocampal gyri in girls only.
 The largest regional sex differences were in the putamen,
insula, and amygdala, all larger in males. Total GM volumes
correlated negatively with estradiol levels in females and
positively with testosterone levels in males.

Problem 8: Wha-effer!
ADOLENCE
Physical Development
 Primary sex characteristics: are there at birth, but not ready to be "used" yet
 Secondary sex characteristic: develop during puberty due to change in hormones. It gets the genitals ready for "use".
 Menarche: first menstruation (12-18 months after the first menstruation, there is no egg released; thus they are less
fertile at that time). Average at 13.
 Spermarche: first ejaculation (does not contain as many alife sperm cells; thus they are less fertile at the time). Average
at 14.
How Puberty is Timed

 Inherited: identical twins went a lot of the same processes at the same time, whereas fraternal twins did not.
 Nutrition and movement: in females, a higher fat percentage, can trigger puberty to come in sooner. Fat triggers the protein
leptine, which signals to the brain that there is enough energy storage to start puberty. It also works the other way around:
girls with a low fat level, go into puberty later. KEEP IN MIND: this only goes for girls.
 Culture, SES and ethnicity:
 In parts of the world with a lot of infectious deceases, menarche comes later.
 In parts of the world where there is a high income, girl gets their menarche about 6-8 months earlier.
 The more (fast) food there is in a society, the earlier puberty starts (e.g. girls in the USA can start puberty at the age
of 9)
 If you live in a relative unsafe environment (due to personal circumstances) you get into puberty earlier than if you
have a safe environment and loving parents.
Mood Swings
 Higher levels of hormones (androgens, estrogens; creates by genitals, adrenal gland and pituitary gland.
 An individual can get into negative situations more often (e.g. confrontation with family dying) which is perceived with a
lot of emotion.
 Children between 12-16 have more mood swings than older children.
 Different sleeping patterns due to go to sleep lat (phase delay). This can be because of a lower level of sensitivity to it
being dark outside, jobs, friends or parties. Adolescents that sleep less, tend to score lower on school, are down and
show risky behaviour.
 The amount of support of the family can make puberty more bearable.
Relationship With The Parents

The relationship between the child and the parents tends to get worse during puberty. This can be caused by the adaptive
worth: our species is made to move on from the parents at age 11-12, but our society is not made that way. Thus the child
has to stay around the parent (economical dependent) even though the nature has not designedus to stay there. The distance
is not physical but emotional/psychological:
 Children want to be treated as adults, but parents still want to protect them.
 Parents are more strict towards girls, and they start puberty earlier: thus the conflicts can be more intense.
 As puberty comes to an end, the problems end as well.
Timeline
Age Girls Age Boys
8-13  Breast start to grow 9-14  Testes enlarge
 Height spurt  Pubic hair
 Pubic hair
8-14  Peak height spurt 10-15  Penis enlarges
 Peak strength spurt  Height spurt
10-14  Menarche 12-16  Spermarche
 Peak weight spurt  Peak height spurt
 Peak weight spurt

 Facial hair starts to grow
 Voice deepens
 Penis and testes completed
10-16  Adult stature 13-17  Peak strength spurt
 Breast complete  Adult stature
14-15  Pubic hair completed 14-17  Pubic hair completed
Effects of Puberty
Early Late
 Boys:  Boys:
 More confident + leader roles  Expressed anxiety
 More attractive  Depressed mood
 More risky behaviour  Negative body image
 Can lead to psychological distress after a while,  More positive image at age 30 because they
but it is not long term focused on other stuff then appearance
 Girls:  Girls:
 Unpopular and withdrawn  More psychological stable
 More risky behaviour  Higher confidence
 Eating disorders and anxiety  More stable relationships
 Lower life satisfaction  More leader roles
 Try to focus on other stuff then appearance
(getting intelligent)
Girls want to stay skinny and boys want to be muscular Girls stayed skinny longer
Risk Taking
 Sensation seeking: leads to more reckless behaviour. This is caused by peer pressure and development of the brain. As
puberty comes to an end, the prefrontal cortex matures and helps teens to control impulses and delay emotional
gratification to achieve goals.
 Alcohol and drugs: due to sensation seeking, teens are more prone to use drugs and alcohol or get addicted (effect
prefrontal cortex  can't appreciate rewards other than drugs).
 Smoking: most vulnerable between ages of 15-17. Can be influenced by parents as role model or peers.
PRIMARY RESOURCES: Blakemore S. & Coudhury S. (2006) Development of the Adolesent Brain
Adolescence
Adolescence is a time characterised by immense hormonal and physical changes. This transition from childhood to adulthood is
also characterised by dramatic changes in identity, self-consciousness and cognitive flexibility. They have become more self-
aware and self-reflective. They can think more strategically as well.
Experiments
Experiments suggest that the human brain keeps undergoing sensitive periods. During puberty, there are significant changes in
the prefrontal cortex. KEEP IN MIND: most research is done on animals. Two changes in the adolescence brain:
 The axons of the sensory and motor brain regions become fully covered in myelin in the first years, in the frontal cortex this
process keeps happening throughout life (brain needs to speed up the process).
 A few months after birth a infant has a maximum of synaptic density (synaptogenesis). From there on out, the brain starts
synaptic elimination/pruning: strengthening synapses that are used often and eliminate synapses that are not used  helps
us fine tuning our brain. This is experienced based. Thus, adolescences have more synapses than adults.
MRI Research
 White Matter in Adolescence: there is a more-or-less linear increase in white matter in the brain during childhood and
adolescence. This means that the myelin increases (=white matter) in the frontal and parietal cortices. This happens
specifically in the right internal capsule and left arcuate fasciculus (connect anterior speech regions (Broca's area) and
posterior language regions (Wenicke's area).
 Grey Matter in Adolescence: a not-linear decrease in grey matter. There is a peak in gray matter in the frontal lobe
between 11-12 (start of puberty) years, which is followed by a decline. The peak in gray matter in the temporal lobe is
at about 17 years old. The occipital lobe did have a linear decline in grey matter. There is a big loss of gray matter is in
the dorsal prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex; but even bigger in the frontal lobes.
 Sex Difference: there is a increase in white matter in the inferior frontal gyrus in boys, but not in girls. After correction,
boys have more grey matter than girls in this region. This might be because of testosterone that inhibits synaptic pruning; or
because hemispheric specialisation that is bigger in boys. KEEP IN MIND: still controversial and not always the same
result.
 The sensory and motor regions develop first, than the parietal cortex and frontal cortex (respectively). Last is the temporal
cortex.
 The corpus callousum undergoes region specific growth during adolescence and up until the mid-twenties.
 After Adolescence: the brain keeps developing after adolescence. In a study (subjects between 7-87 years) reduction in
grey matter density in the dorsal prefrontal, parietal and temporal cortices; thus an increase of white matter.
Behaviour and Cognition after Puberty

 Executive Function: the changes in the frontal lobe create a better executive functioning (e.g. attention, decision making).
One study showed linear improvement on some aspects of executive functioning but not on others (only in selective
attention, working memory and problem solving; strategic behaviour seemed to be formed before adolescence. Prospective
memory (ability to hold in mind an intention to carry it out later on) is associated with frontal lobe activity. This skill grows
until the age of 10, stays the same until adulthood and then increases again. When puberty starts, matching words with
images was less developed than in younger children and >17 children. There was, however, a faster reaction. That can be
explained by some synapses disappearing around this age.
 Social Cognition: the prefrontal cortex is also involved in social cognition (TOM, self-awareness). The social environment
gets more important to the child and interaction is two-way. When adolescents are shown a fearful expression, the
amygdala gets activated; happy faces created this in the bilateral amydala. Younger children sow more activity to neutral
faces. Left amygdala activity decreases in females but not in males; females also display a greater activation in the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. That is that females can regulate their emotions better because of this.
 Perspective Taking: the ability to reason about others and their feelings. It is related to the first order theory; awareness of
own state (first person perspective), awareness of mental state of others (third person perspective). fMRI has shown that
the parietal and frontal cortices are associated with the distinction between first and third person. "Mirror neurons" fire
when you see someone else and make you feel about the same. The inferior parietal cortex can help make the distinction
between the self and other on sensorimotor level. Children in puberty can recognise emotions less good than younger
children and >14 children. Emotion recognition of fear and disgust showed the biggest linear improvement during
puberty; anger was not recognized better. This seemed to be caused by hormones.
 fMRI: there tends to be a greater and more diffused activity in the dorsal region of the prefrontal cortex in children when
doing the Go/No-Go task; adults use a different region that is smaller. On word generation tasks children score lower en
show 60% more activity in the left inferior frontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. An explanation is that children
have more connections in the brain that aren't efficient yet, thus take longer to do the task.
 Adolescents seem to display more risk taking behaviour. That can be explained by adolescents trying to compensate for
low recruitment of motivational brain circuitry. Studies show activation in insula and right fusiform face area and dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex during "bad ideas". For mathematic skills, adolescents have more activation in the parietal and frontal
lobe, than adults.
 Most studies find a lower activity in older people, but some have found the opposite.
Limitations
 The influence of social environment is not yet known
 It is not yet known if there is a sensitive period in

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Changing Man Blok 1.5 Samenvatting

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1.

Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen

Op Stuvia vind je de beste samenvattingen, geschreven door je medestudenten. Voorkom

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COURSE 1.5 Changing Man  NATURE VS. NURTURE

DNA (more in dept)

The gene expression is important. This goes in two fases:

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Production of Body Cells

Dominant and Recessive Genes

Sex Linked Inheritance

3. Period of The Fetus:

Survival of Harmfull Alleles

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Stress Behavioural issues, cognitive impairment, still under debate

When what Organs Develop

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Problem 2: It's just emotions taking me over(Schaffer&Santrock&Bukatko&Berk&Leman)

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Deeper Knowledge about Development of Primary Emotions

Deeper Knowledge about Development of Secondary Emotions

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Recognising Emotions in Others

Emotion Display Rules

Genetic Maturational View of Emotions

Evolutionary View of Emotions

Cognitive-Socialization View of Emotions

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Functionalist View of Emotions (most contemporary)

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Week 2; problem 3&4, lecture 2, primary resources

Long Term Effects of Attachment

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2. RESEARCHING ATTACHMENT(AQ-sort; older children or Strange Situation observation; younger children)

Four attachment styles by Ainsworth (AQ-sort and SS= same categories)

Secure v. Insecure Attachment Style

3. CHILD CARE VS. PARTING

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What did the researchers want to know?

How did they measure this?

What are their most important findings?

Are there any limitations to their discoveries?

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Parenting and Temperament Attention

PRIMARY RESOURCES: Miller P.H. (2001) Species-Specific Innate Behaviour

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Infant Caretaker Attachement

Reflexes That We Need to Know

Lecture 2 COGNITION AND READING (Katinka Beker)

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Kendeou, van den Broek, White & Lynch (2009)

How do reading skills develop?

LEARNING FROM TEXTS

Katinka Beker Research

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Problem 4: The sun is tired (Schaffer& Santrock& Berk& Bukatko&Leman)

Approaches to School Method

2. PIAGET'S VIEW (NATURE)

Piaget's Cognitive Stages

4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes/Reactions (8-12 months): Combination of actions to achieve a goal;

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Coming Back to the Problem (according to Piaget)

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