To The Point - Ancient History (English)

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Index
Page 11. Gupta Empire/Dynasty 47-50
No 12. Sangam Age 51-52
1. Indus Valley Civilization 2-9 13. Harshavardhana 53-54
2. Vedic Civilization 10-13 14. Six Schools of Indian Philosophy 55-56
3. Later Vedic Age 14-17 15. Early Medieval Period in India 57-57
4. Jainism 18-21 16. Pallava Dynasty 58-59
5. Buddhism 22-27 17. Chalukya Dynasty 59-60
6. Mahajanapadas 28-30 18. Rashtrakuta Dynasty 60-62
19. Chola Empire 63-64
7. Pre Mauryan Dynasties 31-33
8. Alexander Invasion Of India 34-34 20. Books and Authors in Ancient 64-64
India
9. Mauryan Dynasty 35-43
21. Important Inscriptions 65-65
10. Period of Foreign Invaders 44-47
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1. Indus Valley Civilization

combined area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian
Introdcurion civilizations.
Till 1920, the relics of the civilization were found only  Mostly, the Harappan settlements were
in the Indus valley region; therefore, it was known as located on river banks of which –
the Indus civilization. In 1920-21,  Only 40 settlements were located on the Indus
the Harappan civilization was discovered in the and its tributaries;
excavations by D. R. Salini (at Harappa) and by R. D.  As many as 1,100 (80%) settlements were located
Banerjee (at Mohenjo Daro). The remains of the on the vast plain between the Indus and the
civilization were first noticed at Harappa, therefore it is Ganga, comprising mainly
also known as the Harappan civilization.  the Saraswati river system (which no more exist);
 About 250 settlements were found in India
Chronology
beyond the Saraswati River system; a number of
 Marshall suggested that Harappan civilization
them were located in Gujarat, and a few in
flourished between 3,250 and 2,750 B.C.
Maharashtra.
 Wheeler dated it to 2,500-1,500 B.C.
 The distribution pattern of settlements shows
 On the basis of radiocarbon dating method
that the focus of Harappan civilization was not the
following chronology of the civilization emerges
Indus, but the Saraswati River and its tributaries,
as −
which flowed between the Indus and the Ganga.
1. Early Harappan Phase: c. 3,500 – 2,600 B.C.
Therefore, few researchers prefer to call it as
2. Mature Harappan Phase: c. 2,600 - 1,900 B.C.
Saraswati civilization or Indus-Saraswati
3. Late Harappan Phase: c. 1,900 – 1,300 B.C.
civilization
 The settlements belonging to this civilization
Following are the important geographical facts of can be classified as

distribution of Harappan civilization −  Small villages (which were up to 10
 The 1,400 settlements of this civilization hectares),
discovered so far are distributed over a very wide  Larger towns and small cities (10 to 50
geographical area covering almost 1,600 km (east hectares).
to west) and 1,400 km (north to south).  Large cities settlements such as −
 Harappan civilization extent starts from −  Mohenjo Daro (+250 hectares),
 Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) in the west  Harappa (+150 hectares),
to Alamgirpur (Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) in the  Ganawariwala (+80 hectares),
east and  Rakhigarhi (+80 hectares),
 Manda (Akhnoor District, Jammu and  Kalibangan (+100 hectares), and
Kashmir) in the north  Dholavira (+100 hectares).
to Daimabad (Ahmadnagar District,  Large cities were surrounded by vast agricultural
Maharashtra) in the south. lands, rivers, and forest that were inhabited by
 About 1,400 settlements of scattered farming and pastoral communities and
the Harappan culture are known from different bands of hunters and food-gatherers.
parts of India. About 925 settlements sites are  Excavations at the sites of Mohenjo Daro,
now in India and 475 are in Pakistan. Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada,
 The total geographical stretch Dholavira, etc. have given us a fair idea about
of Harappan civilization is about 1,250,000 sq. the various aspects such as town planning,
km which is more than 20 times of the area of economy, technology, religion, etc. of this
Egyptian and more than 12 times of the civilization.
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Town Planning  The view into the house was blocked by a wall or a
 The orientation of streets and buildings, according room around the front door. This was done to
to the cardinal directions east-west, and north- protect the activities in the central courtyard from
south was the distinguishing factor of the Indus- the view of passers-by.
Saraswati cities.  The doors were made with wooden frames and a
 Harappan city sites, including Mohenjo Daro, brick socket set in the threshold served as door
Harappa, Kalibangan, and Surkotada were having pivot.
large gateways at various entry points of the city.  Some of the doors seem to have been painted and
These gateways are seen even in the inner possibly carved with simple ornamentation
fortification areas also.  The windows were small at first and second
 At Dholavira, a fallen signboard was found close to stories.
the main gateway. It is a large inscription having  The adjacent houses were separated by a narrow
ten symbols each measuring approximately 37 cm space of "no man's land".
high and 25 to 27 cm wide proclaimed some name
Public Buildings
or title.
 Some large and distinct structures have been
Materials Used in Buildings found in several cities designed especially for
 Most settlements were situated in the alluvial the public purpose.
plains where the most common building materials
were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks, wood and Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro
reeds.  The Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro is the most
 In the foothills and on the Islands of Kutch and in remarkable feature of any Harappan site.
 The Great Bath was a brick structure, which
Saurashtra, dressed stone replaced bricks (due to
an abundance of stone). measured 12 m by 7 m and is nearly 3 m deep from
 The sizes of bricks have been found identical the surrounding pavement.
 Water was evidently supplied by 3 large well
proportions 1:2:4, that the width is double the
thickness and the length four times, the thickness. placed in an adjacent room.
 Surrounding the bath, there were porticos and sets
 Doors and windows were made up of wood and
mats. of rooms, while a stairway led to an upper storey.
 The bath was linked with some sort of ritual
 Floors of houses were generally hard-packed
earth that was often plastered. bathing, which was very common in Indian life
 Drains and bathing areas were made with baked right from the ancient times to till date.
 Immediately to the west of the Great Bath
bricks or stone.
 Roofs were probably made of wooden beams (at Mohenjo Daro) was a group of 27 blocks of
covered with reeds and packed clay. brickwork crisscrossed by narrow lanes. This
structure measures 50 m. east-west and 27 m.
Types of Buildings north-south. These structures have been identified
 Excavations have uncovered many types of houses as granaries, which were used for storing grains.
and public buildings at both large and small Similar structures have been also found
settlements. at Harappa, Kalibangan, and Lothal.
 The architecture may be grouped into three  The dockyard found at Lothal was another
categories with some variations as − important structure. It was a large structure
o Private houses, measuring 223 m. in length, 35 m. in width and 8
o Large houses surrounded by smaller units, m. in depth, provided with an inlet channel (12.30
and m. wide) in the eastern wall and a spillway.
o Large public structures.  The inlet channel was connected to a river. By its
 Doorways and windows rarely opened out into the side, it was 240 m. long and 21.6 m wide wharf.
main street, but faced side lanes.
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This was a dockyard where ships and boats used to  Steatite was used for making a variety of objects
come for loading and unloading of trading goods. like seals, beads, bracelets, buttons, vessels, etc.
 Lothal was a major trading center of but its use in making faience (a form of glass) is
the Harappan civilization. particularly noteworthy.
 The gold objects found in the form of beads,
Streets and Drains pendants, amulets, brooches, and other small
 The most outstanding features of ornaments in the Harappan civilization.
the Harappan civilization were the streets and The Harappan gold is of light color indicating high
side lanes equipped with drains system. silver content.
 The streets cut each other on the right angles  Mature Harappan pottery represents a blend of
and the width of these streets was in a set the ceramic tradition of the pre-Harappan culture
ratio. of both west of the Indus region as well as of
 No encroachment on the streets was to be the Saraswati area.
seen.  The pottery technology was quite advanced. Most
of the pots were wheel-made.
 Even smaller towns and villages had
 Big storage jars were also produced. Pots were
impressive drainage systems. This indicates
beautifully painted in black on the bright red
that people had a great civic sense of
surface with geometric designs, plants, animals,
sanitation and care for health and hygiene. and a few paintings seem to depict scenes from
 Burnt bricks were used to make drains. Small stories.
drains connected with bathing platforms and  More than 2,500 seals have been found. These are
latrines of private houses were joined with the made of steatite. They mostly depict a single
medium sized drains in the side streets then animal-unicorn bull, elephant, rhinoceros etc. but
these drains ran into larger sewers in the main some also depict trees, semi-human, and human
streets which were covered with bricks or figurines; in some cases, participating in a
dressed stone blocks. ceremony.
 Shell working was another flourishing industry.
Crafts And Industrie Artisans, settlements close to the sea
 The Harappan civilization is referred to as a manufactured shell ornaments like pendants,
Bronze Age civilization. rings, bracelets, inlays, beads etc., besides objects
 Customarily, unalloyed copper was used for as bowls, ladles, and gamesmen.
manufacturing artifacts and rarely tin was AD
mixed with copper to make bronze. Trade and Commerce
 Intensive agricultural production and large-scale
Harappan Tools
 Tools and weapons were simple in form. They trade played significant roles in flourishing of
comprised of flat -axes, chisels, arrowhead, the Harappan civilization.
spearheads, knives, saws, razors, and fish-hooks.  The elegant social structure and the standard of
 People also made copper and bronze vessels. They living must have been achieved by a highly
made small plates and weights of lead, and gold developed system of communication and a strong
and silver jewelry of considerable sophistication. economy.
 The Harappans continued to use knives  The trade must have been internal in the beginning
of chert blades. Further, a great skill and expertise i.e. between one zone and another.
have been seen in precious and semi-precious  Agricultural produce, industrial raw materials
stone beads and weights. (including copper ores, stone, semi-precious shells,
 Long barrel shaped cornelian beads (up to 10 cm. etc.) were traded on a large scale.
long) are the finest examples of craftsmanship.  Besides the raw material, they used to trade −
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o Finished products of metals (pots and  The measure of length was based upon a foot
pans, weapon, etc.); of 37.6 cm. and a cubit of 51.8 to 53.6 cm.
o Precious and semi-precious stones
Transport and Travel
(beads, pendants, amulets, etc.); and  Pictures of ships and boats are found on some
o Ornaments of gold and silver were also seals and drawings on pottery
traded to various areas. from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro.
 Ship or a boat, with a stick-impressed socket for
They procured −
the mast, has been found from Lothal.
 Copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan;  The boats depicted on seals and pottery resembles
 Chert blades from Rohri hills of Sindh; with the boats used in Sindh and Punjab areas
 Carnelian beads from Gujarat and Sindh; (even today).
 Lead from south India;  For land transport, bullock-carts and pack animals
 Lapis-lazuli from Kashmir and Afghanistan; like bull, camel, ass etc. were used.
 Turquoise and jade from central Asia or  The terracotta models of bullock-cart found on
Iran; roads from various sites indicate that carts used in
 Amethyst from Maharashtra; and those days were of the same size and shape used
 Agate, chalcedony, and carnelian in the present day.
from Saurashtra.
 The occurrence of mature Harappan seals and
other artefacts in contemporary
CULTURE
Mesopotamian civilization, and some of the Arts
Mesopotamian and Egyptian objects  A large variety of
in Harappan civilization, and the evidence of objects such as seals,
Mesopotamian documents established that stone statues,
the Harappans had the trading relationship terracotta, etc. is
with each other. superb examples of
the art activities.
Weights and Measures
 The trade requires a regulation of exchange  A Yogi from Mohenjo
and of weights and measures. Daro and two small

 Harappan weights and measures were cubical figurines
and spherical in shape and were made up from Harappa are the most outstanding pieces of
of chert, jasper, and agate. art.
 The system of weights proceeded in a series  A dancing girl statue of about 11.5 cm. in height
i.e. made up of bronzes was found from Mohenjo

Daro.
o first doubling, from 1, 2, 4, 8, to 64,
 Daimabad bronze
then going to 160; then
animals’ workmanship,
o Decimal multiples of sixteen, 320,
most likely belong
640, 1600, 6400 (1600 × 4), 8000 to Harappan period.
(1600 × 5) and 128,000 (i.e. 16000 ×  The red sandstone
8). torso found at Harappa
 The tradition of 16 or its multiples continued in is made up
India till 1950s. of detachable limbs
 Sixteen chhatank made a ser (equivalent to and head.
one kilo) and 16 annas made one rupee.  The grey stone torso
perhaps illustrates a
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dancing figure. Both these are so realistic that  The granaries found at Harappan cities suggest
none would believe that they belong to that cereals were produced in such a large
the Harappan period. quantities. They also kept enough reserve to face
 Harappan people produced a large number of any future emergency.
terracotta figurines, which were handmade. The  The principal cereals were wheat and barley. Rice
figurines include humans, animals, birds, and was also known and was a favored grain. Remains
monkey. of rice have been found from Gujarat and Haryana
 Following are the Specimen of Arts from areas.
the Harappan Civilization −  Six varieties of millets including ragi, kodon,
o Bronze statue (Dancing Girl); sanwa, and jowar were cultivated, along with peas
o Terracotta Bulls; and beans.
o Terracotta Female Figurine;  Fragments of cotton cloth found at Mohenjo
o Head of a Yogi; and Daro and other sites show that cotton was also
grown.
o Painted Jar dogs, sheep, and cattle.
 Cotton has been found at Mehrgarh at least 2,000
 The most artistic depictions are the figures of
years before the mature phase of the Civilization.
humped bull. Figurines of both humped and
This is the oldest evidence of cotton in the world.
humpless bulls are found in excavations
 Other major crops include dates, varieties of
 A painting was found only on pottery.
legumes, sesame, and mustard.
Unfortunately, no wall paintings, even if there
 Wooden plough with a copper or wooden
were any, have survived.
ploughshare was used for tilling fields.
Script  Terracotta models of the plough have been found
 The language of Harappan is still unknown. But at Mohenjo Daro and Banawali.
 Harvesting of crops would have been done with
copper sickles as well as stone blades hafted in
some scholars connect it to the Dravidian wood.
languages and others to Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit.  Animals like sheep, goat, humped bull, buffalo,
 There are nearly 400 specimens of Harappan signs elephant, etc. have been depicted on the seals.
on seals and other materials such as copper This shows that the range of animals domesticated
tablets, axes, and pottery. Most of the inscriptions by the Harappan people was quite large.
on seals are small, a group of few letters.  Skeletal remains of several animals like sheep,
 The Harappa script has 400 to 500 signs and it is goat, bull, buffalo, elephant, camel, pig, dog, and
generally agreed that it is not an alphabetic form of
writing.
AGRICULTURE
 Agriculture was generally practiced along the river
banks most of which were flooded during the
summer and monsoons. The flood deposited every
year fresh alluvial silt, which is highly productive
and for which no major furrowing and certainly no
manures and irrigation were required.
 The cultivated field excavated at Kalibangan shows
crisscross furrow marks indicating that two crops
were grown simultaneously. This method is
followed even today in the Rajasthan, Haryana,
and western Uttar Pradesh.
cat etc. have been found in excavations.
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 Wild animals were hunted for the food. Bones of  A terracotta piece having linga and yoni in one
animals like spotted deer, sambhar deer, hog deer, piece found from Kalibangan. People of Kalibangan
wild pig, etc. found in the excavation prove it. region were worshiped the symbolic
Besides, several types of birds as well as fishes, representation of Siva and Sakti respectively.
were also hunted for food.  A remarkable seal, found at Mohenjo Daro,
 Bones of horses have been reported from Lothal, standing between two branches of a pipal tree,
Surkotada, Kalibangan, and several other sites. represents the deity.
 Terracotta figurines of the horse have been found  A large number of 'fire-altars' have been found
at Nausharo and Lothal. But this animal is not from the sites located in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and
depicted on seals. Haryana. From Kalibangan, Lothal, and Banawali a
number of 'fire-altars' have been found.
RELIGION
 Swastika, a sacred symbol with Hindus, Buddhists,
 There are generally two aspects of Harappan
and Jaina has been depicted on seals, painting, and
religion −
graffiti.
o Conceptual or philosophical and
 A large number of terracotta figurines depict the
o Practical or ritualistic.
individuals in various yogic postures (asanas)
 The available evidence indicates that the religion of
indicating thereby that the Harappans practiced
the Indus people comprised of −
yoga.
o Worship of the Mother Goddess;
o Worship of a male deity, probably of Lord SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Siva;
 The Harappan society appears to have been
o Worship of animals, nature, semi human,
divided into three sections, viz.
or fabulous;
1. An elite class associated with the Citadel;
o Worship of trees in their natural state or of
2. A well-to-do middle class; and
their indwelling spirits;
3. A relatively weaker section, occupying the
o Worship of inanimate stones or other
lower town, which was generally fortified.
objects, of linga and yoni symbol;
 The Craftsmen and laborers normally were resided
o Chrematheism as illustrated in the worship
outside the fortified area.
of the sacred "incense-burners";
 It is, however, difficult to say whether these
o Faith in amulets and charms indicative of
divisions were based purely on the economic
demonophobia; and
factors or had a socio-religious basis.
o Practice of yoga.
 At Kalibangan, it appears that the priests resided in
 These characteristics suggest that the religion was
the upper part of the citadel and performed rituals
mainly of an indigenous growth and "the lineal on fire altars in the lower part of it.
progenitor of Hinduism,” which is characterized by
most of the features. POLITICAL SETUP
 A large number of female figurines of terracotta  It is also difficult to ascertain that what kind of
have been found, which are the representations of political setup was prevailed at the time of
the Great Mother Goddess. the Harappan civilization.
 A striking rectangle sealing found  The entire area of Indus Empire was administered
at Harappa represents the Earth or Mother from one capital, with a few regional
Goddess with a plant growing from her womb. administrative centers or provincial capitals.
 A male deity, which depiction Siva as Pasupati (i.e.  There were several independent states or
the prototype of the historic Siva), is portrayed on kingdoms, each with cities like Mohenjo Daro in
a seal with three faces, seated on a low throne in Sindh, Harappa in Punjab, Kalibangan in Rajasthan,
the typical posture of a Yogi, with two animals on and Lothal in Gujarat as their capitals.
each side - elephant and tiger on right and  During 1,000 B.C., the area was divided into
rhinoceros and buffalo on left, and two deer sixteen Mahajanapadas each independent with its
standing under the throne. own capital.
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DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD decline.
 Scattered burials, as well as discreet  Wheeler opined that it was destroyed by
cemeteries, have been found at many major the Barabarian Aryans who came to India in
sites. about 1,500 B.C.
 The skeletal remains are few in comparison to  The archaeological or biological evidence
the size of settlements and the population that proved that Wheeler's thesis of Aryan was the
may have lived on them. destroyer of the Harappan civilization was a
 The general practice was that skeletons were myth.
placed in an extended position with the head  The Harappan civilization was spread over a
towards the north. Earthen pots containing large area. There may be many causes of its
food grains, etc. were placed in the grave and, decline as −
in some cases, the body was buried with  In the River Saraswati region, most likely, it
ornaments. declined mainly due to shifting of river
 Cremation was also practiced, which has been channels.
 Along the River Indus, most likely, it declined
proved by many cinerary urns or other
largely due to recurring floods.
receptacles containing calcined human bones
 Rainfall declined in general, which affected the
and ashes together with vessel offerings for agriculture, the main economic resource.
the use of a dead person in the next life.  With the decline in economic conditions all
other institutions like trade and commerce,
DECLINE administrative and political structures, Civic
 John Marshall (Director-General of the amenities, etc. also declined over a period of
Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to time.
1928) declares that Harappan civilization  Archaeological evidence shows
declined due to environmental degradation. that Harappan civilization did not disappear
The cutting of forests for agricultural land and suddenly.
timber for fuel and over-exploitation of  The decline was gradual and slow, which is
resources, etc. resulted in the land to become witnessed over a period of almost 600 years
barren and in the silting of rivers. from c. 1,900-1,300 B.C.
 The environmental degradation, flood,  Features such as town-planning, grid patterns,
drought, and famine must have become a drainage system, standard weights, and
recurring feature, which finally led to its measures etc. slowly disappeared and a kind of
realization takes place with distinctive regional
variations.
Important Sites of IVC

Site/Excavated by Location Important Findings
Situated on the bank of  Sandstone statues of Human anatomy
Harappa
river Ravi in Montgomery  Granaries
Daya Ram Sahini in 1921
district of Punjab (Pakistan).  Bullock carts
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 Great bath
 Granary
Mohenjodaro (Mound of Situated on the Bank of
 Bronze dancing girl
Dead) river Indus in Larkana
 Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
R.D Banerjee in 1922 district of Punjab (Pakistan).
 Steatite statue of beard man
 A piece of woven cotton
In southwestern Balochistan
Sutkagendor
province, Pakistan on Dast  A trade point between Harappa and Babylon
Stein in 1929
river
Chanhudaro  Bead makers shop
Sindh on the Indus river
N.G Majumdar in 1931  Footprint of a dog chasing a cat
Amri
On the bank of Indus river  Antelope evidence
N.G Majumdar in 1935
 Fire altar
Kalibangan Rajasthan on the bank of
 Camel bones
Ghose in 1953 Ghaggar river
 Wooden plough
 First manmade port
 Dockyard
Lothal Gujarat on Bhogva river
 Rice husk
R.Rao in 1953 near Gulf of Cambay
 Fire altars
 Chess playing
Surkotada  Bones of horses
Gujarat
J.P Joshi in 1964  Beads
 Beads
Banawali  Barley
Hisar district of Haryana
R.S Bisht in 1974  Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan
culture
Dholavira  Water harnessing system
Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh
R.S Bisht in 1985  Water reservoir
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2. Vedic Civilization
The Vedic Civilization was the culture and traditions Brahmanas
of the society prevalent during the Vedic age ( 1500-  The Brahmanas are prose texts. It describes about
600 BCE). the meaning of Vedic hymns, their applications,
 It should be noted here that after the decline and stories of their origins in details. Besides, it
of Indus Valley civilization by 1500 BCE, the also explains the details about rituals and
next wave of civilization began to take shape in philosophies.
form of Aryan occupation of Indo-Gangetic
plain. Aranyakas and Upanishads
 Aranyakas and Upanishads exemplify philosophical
The Aryans: meditations of the hermits and ascetics on soul,
 Typically, the age of Aryans is known as the Vedic god, world, etc. These are partly included in the
age because the four major Vedas were created in Brahmanas or attached, and partly exist as
this time. separate works.
 The word Aryan is derived from the Sanskrit word  They, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the
“arya” which means noble, not ordinary. Upanishads are attached to one or the other of the
 They arrived from russian steppes, as is believed four Vedas.
and agreed to by majority historians.  Compositions of the hymns are credited to
 But various scholars voice different opinion about Hindu Rishis (monks) of divine origin.
thier origin. Bal Gangadhar Tilak argued that  The Vedas are called ‘apaurusheya’ (not created
Aryans came from the Arctic region following their by man) and ‘nitya’ (existing in all eternity) while
astronomical calculations. the Rishis are known as inspired seers who
 It is generally agreed that they spoke Indo-Aryan received the mantras from the Supreme deity.
Language, Sanskrit.
 They were semi-nomadic, pastoral people, who led
a rural life as compared to the urban Harappans.
Classification of Vedic Period:
Vedic Literature:
The period of Vedic Civilization(1500-500 BCE) is
 The term Veda means “superior knowledge” in divided into two broad parts –
Sanskrit. 1. Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC), also known
 Four major Vedas constitute the vedic literature. as Rig Vedic Period.
They are – Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sam Veda, 2. Later Vedic Period (1000- 600 BC).
and Atharva Veda. Age of RigVeda
1. Rig Veda – Earliest veda. Has 1028 hymns
 The origin of the earth goes back to about
in praise Gods.
4,600 million years and the origin of humans
2. Yajur Veda – Has details of rules to be
themselves goes back to about 4.2 million years
followed during sacrifices.
(ago).
3. Sam Veda – Has a collection of songs. The
 Max Muller gives arbitrarily the date of
origins of Indian music are traced to it.
composition of Rig Veda to be around 1,200 to
4. Atharva Veda – has a collection of spells
1,000 B.C.
and charms.
 W. D. Whitney negated and criticized Muller
 Besides these Vedas, there were Brahmanas,
for using totally arbitrary, unscientific, and un-
Upnishads, Aryankas, and epics- Ramayana and
academic method in assigning the dates.
Mahabharata.
 On the analogy of the language of Avesta, some
 Brahmanas – Prose about vedic hymns, rituals and
scholars opined that the date of Rig Veda may
philosophies.
be 1,000 B.C.
 Aryankas – Deal with mysticism, rites and rituals.
 Some of the Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna,
 Upnishads – Philosophical texts dealing with soul,
Mitra, and the two Nasatyas were mentioned
mysteries of nature.
in Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor) inscription of 1,400
 Ramayana was authored by Valmiki.
B.C., which proves that Rig Veda must have
 Mahabharata was written by Ved Vyasa.
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come into existence much before the date  The battle of ten kings, mentioned in the Rig
described by some of the foreigner scholars. Veda, gives names of ten kings who
 The Boghaz-Koi inscription records a treaty participated in a war against Sudas who
between the Hittite and the Mitanni Kings and was Bharata king of Tritsus family. It illustrates
the gods (mentioned in the above point) were that the territory known to Vedic people was
cited as witnesses to this treaty. Even today, divided into a number of states-republics and
exactly in the same way, the oath is taken in monarchical (kingdoms).
the courts and on an assumption of a public  The battle was fought on the bank
office (in the name of god). of Parushani (Ravi) river and Sudas emerged as
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak, on astronomical grounds, victorious.
dated Rig Veda to 6,000 B.C.  ‘Bharatvarsha’ was the name used for the
 Harmon Jacobi held that Vedic civilization whole country. It was given by the most
flourished between 4,500 B.C. and 2,500 B.C. important people of the Rig Veda. They
and the Samhitas were composed in the latter were ‘Bharatas’ who were settled in the region
half of the period. between the rivers Saraswati and Yamuna.
 Famous Sanskritist, Winternitz felt that the Rig  The Rig Veda also gives the location of other
Veda was probably composed in the third people, such as Purus in the region
millennium B.C. of Kurukshetra; the Tritsus east of Ravi; the
 R. K. Mukerjee suggested that "on a modest Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis
computation, we should come to 2,500 B.C. as west of Indus (up to Kabul river) and so on.
the time of Rig Veda".
 G. C. Pande also favors a date of 3,000 B.C. or
even earlier. Society
AD  Occupation of individuals was the basis of
classification of a society in the Rig Vedic
Rig Vedic Geography period.
 Rig Vedic people called themselves ‘Aryans’.  It was divided into four varnas, namely
They had detailed knowledge of the o Brahmanas (teacher and priests);
geographical area in which they lived. Name o Kshatriya (rulers and administrators);
and location and pattern of geographical o Vaisya (farmers, merchants, and
features such as rivers and mountains bankers); and
mentioned in Rig-Veda suggest location of the o Sudra (artisan and laborers).
regions of the geographical area of their  There was complete freedom and mobility for
habitat. the adoption of a profession.
 The Nadi-sukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions  Trades and occupations did not assume a
21 rivers, which include the Ganga in the east hereditary character in the society (till now).
and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.
 The pattern of rivers is given in a definite order Salient Features of Vedic Society
from the east to west i.e. from the Ganga in the  The family was the smallest unit of a society. It
east to the Kubul in the west. The rivers was primarily monogamous and Patriarchal.
like Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ravi,  Child marriage was not in fashion.
Jhelum, and Indus are situated  There was freedom of choice in marriage.
between Ganga and Kabul.  A widow could marry the younger brother of
 The mountain namely the Himalayas and her deceased husband.
the Mujavant (as mentioned in the Veda) are  The wife was a partner of the husband in all
located in the north. religious and social ceremonies.
 The Ocean i.e. ‘Samudra’ is mentioned in  The father's property was inherited by son.
connection with rivers Sindhu and the  The daughter could inherit it only if she was the
river Saraswati had been falling into the ocean. only child of her parents.
Ocean has been also mentioned in the context  Right to property was known in moveable
of foreign trade. things like cattle, horse, gold, and ornament
 The geography of Rig Vedic period covers and so also in immoveable property like land
present-day western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and house.
Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, the whole of
Pakistan, and the south of Afghanistan.
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Education  Initially, copper was the only metal that was
 The teacher was given great respect. used and the general term 'ayas' had been
 The school was in the home of the teacher used for this. In a later period, terms like ‘lohit
where he taught the particular sacred texts. ayas’ and ‘syam ayas’ were used for copper
 The texts were in the first instance learnt by and iron respectively.
pupils repeating the words taught by their  The trade and traders (vanik) were also known
teacher. in the Rig Vedic era.
 A great importance was attached to  The practices of exchange of goods (Barter
enunciation and pronunciation. Economy) were in trend. It has been found that
 Oral learning was the method of training. ten cows were quoted as the price for an image
 Students were given intense training and of Indra.
learning to memorize and preserve the huge  The use of money can be traced in the mention
mass of Vedic literature. of a gift of 100 nishkas.
 Money-lending was also popular. It is
Food and Drinks mentioned that an eighth or a sixteenth part of
 The important part of the diet was milk and its one being paid either as an interest or part of
products like curd, butter, and ghee. Grains the principle.
were cooked with milk (kshira-pakamodanam).  The sea is mentioned in the context of trade
 Chappati (bread) of wheat and barley was and ocean wealth, like pearls, and shells.
eaten mixed with ghee.
 People used to eat the meat of birds, wild Political Structure
animals (like boar, antelopes, and buffalo), and  Politics of Vedic India was well structured and
fish.
organized
 The meat of animals such as sheep, goat, and
 The political structure of Rig Vedic India can be
buffalo etc., which were sacrificed on
studied in the following ascending order −
ceremonial occasions, was also eaten.
o The Family (Kula), the smallest unit.
 The cow was mentioned as aghnya i.e. not to
o The Village (Grama)
be killed. The Vedas prescribe a penalty of
o The Clan (Vis)
death or expulsion from the kingdom to those
o The People (Jana)
who kill or injure cows.
o The Country (Rashtra)
 Sura and Soma i.e. alcoholic drinks were also
 Kula (family) included all the people living
consumed, though their consumption had been
under the same roof (griha).
condemned.
 A collection of several families constitutes
Economic Life the grama (village) and its headman was
 Agriculture, cattle rearing, and trade and
called gramini.
 The collection of several grama (village) was
commerce were the main economic activity of
the Rig Vedic people. called as the Vis and its head was
 People had domestic animals like cows, sheep,
called Vispati.
 Several Vis constituted a Jana as it is
goats, asses, dogs, buffalos etc.
 Oxen were used for ploughing and drawing mentioned as Panchajanah, Yadva-
carts and horses for drawing the chariots. janaha, and Bharata-janaha.
 The plough was drawn by the oxen at times in a  The aggregation of
team of six, eight, or even twelve. all Jana constitutes Rashtra (country).
 The grains were harvested with sickles.
Administration
 Manure was used for high yield; irrigation was
 The hereditary kings were the popular form of
also practiced.
Government.
 Excess of rains and drought is mentioned as
 The provision of a democratically elected king
damaging the crops.
by the assembly of people Jana was also
 The grains are collectively
known.
called ‘Yava’ and ‘Dhanya.’
 The Rashtra was small states ruled by
 Some other occupations were pottery-making,
a raja (king).
weaving, carpentry, metal working, leather-
working, etc.
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 The bigger kingdoms were ruled Vishnu, the Adityas, Ushas, and the
by ‘samrat’ that reflects that they enjoyed a Asvins.
position of greater authority and dignity.  Indra and Varuna (the supreme cosmic and
 The Raja administered justice with the moral ruler) stand out in that order, pre-
assistance of Purohita and other officials. eminent above the rest.
 The Raja was offered bali, which was voluntary  Agni and Soma were also popular
gift or tribute for his services. The bali was deities. Agni was valued as the messenger
offered by his own people and also from between the earth and the heaven. Agni is the
defeated people. only God who is regarded as present among all
 The crimes were strongly dealt with by the the categories of Gods.
administration. Major crimes were theft,  Gods are described as born yet they are
burglary, robbery, and cattle lifting. immortal. In appearance, they are humans,
 The important royal officials were − though sometimes they are conceived as
o Purohita (chief priest and minister) animals, e.g. Dyaus as a bull and Sun as a swift
o Senani (army chief) horse.
o Gramini (head of a village)  In the sacrifice to the God, ordinary food of
o Dutas (envoys) men such as milk, grain, flesh, etc. were offered
o Spies (spy) and it becomes the food of Gods.
 Sabha and Samiti were two important  The gods normally used to be kind; but some of
assemblies mentioned in the Rig Veda. These them also had unkind traits,
assemblies were forms the essential feature of like Rudra and Maruta.
the government.  Splendor, strength, knowledge, possession, and
 The Samiti was mainly dealt with the policy truth are common attributes of all the deities.
decisions and political business, included  Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by the pious
common people. Hindus even today.
 The Sabha was a selected body of the Elders or  The multiplicity of gods is due to the different
Nobles and less political in character. designations that have been given to God.
 The ultimate unity of the universe is asserted as
Vedic Religion and Philosophy the creation of one God to whom different
 Some gods had also been worshipped during designations applied.
the Rig Vedic period, which were the  The creation is deemed as the outcome of the
personified powers of nature. sacrifice made by the Viratpurusha or of
Categories of Gods evolution from nonbeing manifested in the
 The Vedic Gods were classified into three form of water.
categories as −  It is mentioned that Hiranyagarbha arose
o Terrestrial (Prithivisthana) e.g. Prithivi, from the great waters, pervading the universe,
Agni, Soma, Brihaspati, and Rivers. and thus created the waves out of eternally
o Aerial or intermediate pre-existing matter.
(Antarikshasthana), Indra, Apam-napat,  The hymn devoted to Visvakarman tells us that
Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Prujanya, and Apah the waters contained the floating world egg
(water). from which Visvakarman arises; the first born
o Celestial (Dyusthana) e.g. Dyaus, in the universe, the creator, and maker of the
Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, world. It is now confirmed by science that life
first developed in water.
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3. Later Vedic Age

 The different branches of Vedic literature had  The struggle for supremacy among different
grown out of one another. states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of
 The four Vedas were followed by universal empire appeared.
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and  Satapatha Brahmana mentioned the expansion
the Upanishads. of people towards the east. It
 The Brahmanas explain in detail various Vedic mentioned Videgh Madhav migrated from the
sacrificial ceremonies and their origins. It is the land of Vedic Culture (Saraswati Valley) and
earliest of the Aryan's prose literature. crossed Sadanira (modern Gandak River) and
 The Aranyakas contains the philosophical and the eastern boundary of Kosala and came to
mystical content. They are called so because the land of Videha (modern Tirhut).
their contents required that they should be  The growth of three kingdoms, namely Kosala,
studied in the isolation of the forest (aranya). Kasi, and Videha took place. Thereafter, the
They are the closing portions of excavations at Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, and
the Brahmanas. many other sites have revealed cultures
 In the last phase of the Vedic literature, ranging from 2,000 B.C. onwards.
Upanishads were deduced form the tradition of  Some characteristic of the pottery of
the Aranyakas. post Harappan period were noticed as Ochre
 The Rig Veda deals Colored Pottery (O.C.P.) (c. 2,000-1,500) and
with Karmakanda (ritualistic) and philosophical during c. 1,200-600 B.C., Black and Red ware,
aspects. Painted Grey Ware etc. were noticed.
 The Brahmanas contains the ritualistic aspect.  Northern Black Polished (N.B.P.) ware came to
 The Upanishads contains the philosophic be manufactured about 7th century B.C.
aspect.  The Kuru-Panchala region is mentioned in the
 Chhandogya and Brihadaranyaka are the two Upanishads as the seat of culture and
oldest and most important of forms of the prosperity. It was the region of present western
Upanishads. and central Uttar Pradesh.
 Other important Upanishads include Kathak,  Three kingdoms of Kosala,
Isa, Mundaka, Prasna, etc. Kasi, and Videha mentioned as the seats of
Vedic culture.
Geography and New Political States  Magadha and Anga were also mentioned as
 The main settlement of the Rig Vedic people distant lands in the Atharvanaveda.
was the region of Indus and Saraswati Valleys.  In the south, Vidarbha (in Maharashtra) was
However, during the later Vedic mentioned.
period, Samhitas and Brahmanas mentions that  The states of Bahlikas, Kesins,
the settlements covered virtually the whole of Kekayas, and Kamboja were situated in the
northern India. further west to Punjab.
 The Ganga river, by the time, occupied the
proud place of the most revered and sacred Polity and Administration
river of India. Therefore, the center of  With the growing concept of states, kingship
civilization now shifted became the normal form of government. The
from Saraswati to Ganga. kingship was being given the status of divine
 There was remarkable development in gradual origin.
expansion and consolidation of Vis.  Terms like adhiraj, rajadhiraja,
 Jana known in Rig Vedic period like Bharatas, samrat, and ekrat were used in most of the text
Purus, Tritsus, and Turvasas were slowly refers to the concept of a king of kings.
merging with other Janas and disappeared  The term ekrat defined in Atharvanaveda,
from the scene. People of Anus, Druhyus, refers the paramount sovereign.
Turvasas, the Krivis, were also vanished.  Special ceremonies were organized for the
 The states, namely Kasi, Kosala, Videha, appointment of kings, such as the Vajpeya,
Magadha, and Anga developed in the eastern Rajsuya, and Ashvamedha.
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. However, the areas of
south India are not clearly mentioned.
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 The monarchy was established on the firm o Kshatri (chamberlain), etc.
foundations. It was not absolute, but limited in  The administrative machinery was highly
several ways. organized and became an efficient instrument
 Certain democratic elements were operating for ruling over a large kingdom.
within the framework of kingship. These were −  Legal institutions became more focused. The
o The people's right in choosing their king administered justice and wielded the rod
king; of punishment.
o The conditions imposed on king's rights  Petty offences were left to "village judges.”
and duties;  The punishments for the crime were rather
o The kings dependence on the council of severe.
his ministers; and  For evidence, the eye-witness was more
o The assemblies of people, sabha, important than informer.
and samiti, as check upon king's  The law was also very clear on the question of
absolutism. inheritance of property, ownership of land, etc.
 The king, under no circumstances, be  The father's property was inherited by sons
considered as the sole owner of the kingdom alone.
with absolute power over the objects and  The daughters could inherit it only if she was
subjects. the only child or there were no male issues.
 The king was holding the kingdom as a trust. He
was supposed to be only a trustee and hold it Social System
on the condition that he would promote the  During the latter Vedic period, Varnas came to
people's well-beings and progress. be birth-based rather than profession-based
(as were in Rig Vedic period).
Sabha  Development of new professions gave rise
 Sabha and Samiti played important role in the to ‘jatis.’ But the jati system was not yet as rigid
administration along with the ministers and as it became during the period of the sutras.
officials,  The Rig Veda describes Vishvamitra as a rishi,
 The sabha functioned as a parliament for but Aitareya Brahmana mentions him
disposal of public business by debate and as Kshatriya.
discussion.  The fourth Varna, i.e. Sudra were deprived of
 The Chief of the sabha was called as the rights of performing sacrifices, learning the
the sabhapati, the keepers as sabhapala and sacred texts and of even holding landed
the members as sabheya, sabhasad, property.
or sabhasina  The concept of untouchability had not acquired
 Rules were framed to govern the debate its ugly form.
in sabha.  The individuals such as Kavasha,
 Sabha also acted as a court of justice as it is Vatsa, and Satyakama Jabala were born in non-
said that "one who attends the Sabha sits as a Brahman jatis, but came to be known as the
law court to dispense dharma Justice". great Brahmans.
Samiti Education
 Samiti was the larger General Assembly of the  This was period of the development of a vast
people and it was different than Sabha in terms and varied Vedic literature.
of function and composition. The Sabha was a  The Upanishads were evolved as the highest
smaller selected body, which functioned as the level of intellectual attainments.
lower court.  Education began with
 Due to increase in complexity of the society the ‘Upanayana’ ceremony.
and political structure, some new officials were  The aim of learning was to get success in both
appointed by the state namely − worldly as well as spiritual life. Therefore It was
o Suta (charioteer), necessary to learn faith, retention of
o Sangrahitri (treasurer), knowledge acquired, posterity, wealth,
o Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), longevity, and immortality.
o Gramini (head of a village),  The duties of pupils were well defined and
o Sthapati (chief judge), there were stages of studies.
o Takshan (carpenter),
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 The pupils were taught at the homes of their ADEconomic life
teachers where they lived as family members  Atharvanaveda dealt with economic aspect. It
and participated in the household works also. described many prayers to bring economic
 For an advanced study, there were academies prosperity for the success of farmers,
and circles of philosophical discussions. shepherds, merchants, and so on.
 Educated house holder may carry on their  Atharvanaveda explained prayers for
quest of knowledge by mutual discussions and ploughing, sowing, rains, and an increase in
regularly visiting the distinguished sages and cattle, wealth, and exorcism against beasts,
learned scholars at different centers. wild animals, and robbers.
 A great motivation of learning came from the  The plough was known as Sira and the
assemblies of learned men; normally, organized furrow Sita.
and invited by the kings.  Cow dung was used as manure.
 Parishads were established in  It is mentioned that six, eight, and sometimes
different Janapadas with kings’ support. even twenty-four oxen were used to pull a
 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad described that king plough.
Janak of Videha organized a conference of the  Many types of grains were grown, such as rice,
learned people. The major participants in this barley, beans, and sesame. Their seasons are
conference were Yajnavaikya, Uddalaka Aruni, also mentioned as barley sown in winter,
Sakalya, Gargi, etc. ripened in summer; rice sown in the rains,
 Yajnavalkya defeated all the participants in reaped in autumn and son on.
discussions and was declared as the most  The Satapatha Brahmana mentions various
learned and wise. operations of agriculture such as ploughing,
 Gargi and Maitreyi were the learned women. sowing, reaping, and threshing
Their status shows that women were allowed  The Atharvanaveda discussed that drought and
to take an active part in the intellectual quest. excess rains threatened agriculture.
 During this period, Kshatriyas begins to  The Atharvanaveda mentioned that hymens to
participate in the intellectual pursuit. worship the cow and the death penalty were
 Some well-known Kshatriyas scholars were − prescribed for cow killing.
o Janaka − the king of Videha,  Moneylending was also in trend; normally,
o Pravahana Jaivali − the king of practiced by Rich merchants.
Panchala, and  Specific weight and measuring units were also
o Asvapati Kaikeya − the king of Kasi. known.
 These scholars (mentioned above) had acquired  Niska and Satamana were the units of
such distinction that even the learned currency.
Brahmans came to them for further  Bargaining in the market was known from the
instructions. Rig Vedic times itself.
 It is mentioned that Yajnavalkya, after  Aitareya Brahmana speaks of the "inexhaustible
completing his education with Uddalaka Aruni, sea" and "the sea as encircling the earth". It
went to Janaka (a king and Kshatriya) to study shows that sea-borne trade was well known.
philosophy and other subjects.  The term Bali was used for a voluntary gift to
 The Chhandogya Upanishad described some chief (initially), but later on, it become a regular
subjects as the study of Vedas, namely tax. It was collected to maintain the political
Mathematics, Mineralogy, Logic, Ethics, and administrative structure.
Military Science, Astronomy, Science dealing  During this period, a noticeable development in
with poisons, Fine Arts and Crafts, Music, and industry and occupations was seen.
Medical Sciences.  Various occupations were mentioned such as:
 The Mundaka Upanishad classifies all the fishermen, fire and rangers, washer men,
subjects of study under Apara vidya. barbers, butchers, elephant-keepers, footmen,
 In Mundaka Upanishad, the term Para messengers, makers of jewels, baskets, ropes,
vidya was used for the highest knowledge i.e. dyes, chariots, bows, smelters, smiths, potters,
the knowledge of atman that involves etc. Besides, merchants, long distance
knowledge of life, death, God, etc. caravans, and sea trade were also mentioned.
 The Rig Veda describes only one metal
as ‘ayas,’ which has been identified as copper.
But during this period, a new metal i.e. iron,
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came into existence. Therefore, we get the speculations about the eternal problems of
term ‘syam ayas’ (iron) and ‘lohit human thought concerning God, man, and the
ayas’ (copper). Apart from this gold, lead and universe etc.
tin are also mentioned.  The Upanishads are considered as an important
 Iron was used for making weapons and other contribution of India towards the world's stock
objects like nail-parers, hammers, clamps, of spiritual thought.
ploughshares etc. and Copper was used for
making vessels. Science and Technology
 Silver (rajat) and Gold were used for making  Vedas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads give
ornaments, dishes, etc. enough ideas about the sciences of this period.
 The term ‘Ganita’, was used for
Religion and Philosophy the ‘Mathematics,’ which
 The Brahmanas recorded the growth of includes Arithmetic (Anka
ritualism and ceremonial religion and the Ganita), Geometry (Rekha
consequent growth of priesthood. Ganita), Algebra (Bija
 During the Rig Vedic period, large-scale Ganita), Astronomy and Astrology (Jyotisa).
ceremonies required maximum seven priests  The Vedic people knew the methods of making
and two chief priests, but in the later Vedic squares equal in area to triangles, circles, and
period, the large-scale ceremonies required calculate the sums and differences of the
seventeen priests. squares. Besides, Cubes, cube roots, square
 Several rites and ceremonies were come into roots, and under roots were also known and
practice as a means of attaining success in life used.
in this world or the bliss in heaven.  The Zero was known in Rig Vedic times and was
 The idea of penance and meditation took the frequently used in calculations and to record
precedence. Men took to ascetic practices large numbers.
under the belief that they would not only gain  Astronomy was well developed. They were
heaven, but also develop "mystic, aware of the movement of heavenly bodies and
extraordinary, and superhuman faculties". able to calculate about their positions at
 During the later Vedic period, simple religious different times. They had prepared accurate
worship of the Rig Vedic period was replaced calendars and predicting the time of solar and
by elaborated rites and ceremonies and ascetic lunar eclipses.
practices on one hand.  The Vedic people knew that the earth moves
 Whereas on the other, the intellectual pursuit on its own axis and around the Sun. Further,
of the people continued with the conviction moon moves around the earth. They also tried
that salvation was attainable only through the to calculate the time period taken for
true knowledge. revolution and distances among heavenly
 The Upanishad contains philosophical treatises bodies from the Sun. The results of these
and there are about 200 Upanishads. calculations are almost the same as the ones
 The Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya were done by modern methods.
the oldest Upanishad. They contain bold
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4. Jainism
 The Varna system divided the society into 4
Introduction classes based on birth, where the two higher
 Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is one classes enjoyed several privileges.
of the three most ancient Indian religious  Kshatriya's reaction against the domination of
traditions still in existence and an integral part of the brahmanas.
South Asian religious belief and practice.  Spread of the new agricultural economy in the
north-eastern India due to the use of iron
When did Jainism Originate? tools.
Jainism came to prominence in the 6th century B.C.,
when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
There were 24 great teachers, the last of whom
was Lord Mahavira.
Doctrines of Jainism
o These twenty-four teachers were The doctrines of Jainism revolve around Ahimsa, i.e.,
called Tirthankaras-people who had non-violence, Satya, i.e., truth, faith, and knowledge
attained all knowledge (Moksha) while As many Tirthankaras were born before Mahavira, they
living and preached it to the people. have made significant contributions to the doctrines
For example, the five vows of Jainism are:
o The first Tirthankara was Rishabnatha. 1. Ahimsa: Non-injury to living being
 The word ‘Jain’ is derived 2. Satya: Do not speak a lie
from jina or jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’. 3. Asteya: Do not steal
4. Aparigraha: Do not acquire property
Vardhamana Mahavira 5. Brahmacharya: Observe continence
 Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, was
born in 540 B.C. in a village called Kundagrama
Ahimsa
near Vaishali.
 To avoid hurting or harming any living being
 He belonged to Jnatrika clan and was connected to Satya
the royal family of Magadha.  To be truthful irrespective of the hardships or
 His father Siddharta was the head of the Jnathrika tough challenges that you are going through in
Kshatriya clan and his mother Trishala was a sister your life
of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali.
Asteya
 At the age of 30 years, he renounced his home and
 Never steal anything from anyone. One who
become an ascetic.
remains Asteya does not harm anybody’s property
 He practised austerity for 12 years and attained or possession
highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya(i.e
conquered misery and happiness) at the age of 42 Aparigraha
years.  To never own any material thing or property in life.
If we own something, we invest our emotions and
 He delivered his first sermon at Pava.
greed in them. It disturbs us from attaining the
 A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara
ultimate truth
and Mahavira’s symbol was a lion.
 His missions took him Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Brahmacharya
Champa etc  Brahmacharya means a state of being chaste or
 He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at pure. In India, people observe chastity by leaving
material things, avoiding marriage, and leading a
the Pavapuri in Bihar.
simple life by eating simple food and wearing
Cause of Origin? simple clothes
 Hinduism had become rigid and orthodox with
 Only the fifth vow was added by Mahavira
complex rituals and dominance of Brahmins.  The first four vows were added by Parshwanath
who is credited to be one of the founders of
Jainism
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 He is the 23rd Tirthankara among the 24 Non-Belief in God
Tirthankara, i.e., propagators of dharma or  According to Mahavira, God did not create the
righteousness in Jainism universe nor is he responsible for regulating it
 People who believe in Jainism have to exist by  The world has always existed and will continue to
observing the Triratna or three gems of Jainism exist but it may change its form. The effect of the
Samkhya philosophy can be seen clearly in this
principle
Three Jewels or Triratna i.e. Rejecting Vedas
1. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)  Jainism and Mahavira challenged the teachings of
2. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana) Vedas and did not consider the rituals offered by
3. Right Action (Samyakcharita) the Brahmans as important
Samyak Shraddha or Right Faith Ahimsa
 The people who follow Jainism must have faith  Ahimsa means non-violence. Himsa or violence
in all the Tirthankaras is not only physical but also verbal
 They should not have any doubts about their  It means that one cannot harm others through
teachings and preachings incorrect or violent speech
Samyak Jnana or Right Knowledge Freedom to Women
 It refers to the complete knowledge of the  Mahavira believed that women have the right
universe to salvation as they have equal rights to attain
 It includes knowledge of 5 substances and 9 salvation
truths revealed in Jainism
Anekantavada
Samyak Karma or Right conduct or Acharana  Anekantavada in Jainism is the ontological
 It relates to practising the five vows of Jainism assumption that any entity is at once enduring but
that are discussed above also undergoing change that is both constant and
inevitable.
Teachings of Mahavira  The doctrine of anekantavada states that all
 The teachings of Mahavira revolve mainly entities have three aspects: substance (dravya),
around equality quality (guna), and mode (paryaya).
 He did not believe in God or his existence  Dravya serves as a substratum for multiple gunas,
 He asked his disciples to only believe in Karma each of which is itself constantly undergoing
and focus on equality transformation or modification.
 He also outrightly rejected the superiority of  Thus, any entity has both an abiding continuous
Vedic rituals and the Vedas nature and qualities that are in a state of constant
flux.
The essential teachings of Mahavira are: Syadvada
 Syadvada, in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that
Strong Belief in Karma and Soul
all judgments are conditional, holding good only in
 Mahavira believed that all the elements have certain conditions, circumstances, or senses,
spirituality and physicality attached to them expressed by the word syat (“may be”).
 While the physical factors tend to perish with time,  The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are
the soul keeps evolving infinite in number.
 To set the soul free from the Karma or actions  Syadavada literally means the ‘method of
taken by the physical body, one has to get rid of all examining different probabilities’.
the desires Difference between Anekantavada and Syadvada
Nirvana
 The basic difference between them is that
 The term Nirvana is found in the teaching of both
Anekantavada is the knowledge of all differing but
Buddha and Mahavira
opposite attributes whereas Syadvada is a process
 While Buddha terms it as the truth, Mahavira
of the relative description of a particular attribute
considers it salvation that one can attain by
of an object or an event.
avoiding all the bad karmas in life
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Sects/ School of Jainism  Famine in Magadha led to the spread of Jainism in
 Jain order has been divided into two major South India.
sects: Digambara and Svetambara. o The famine lasted for 12 years, and in order
 The division occurred mainly due to famine in to protect themselves many Jains went to
Magadha which compelled a group led by South India under the leadership of
Bhadrabahu to move South India . Bhadrabahu.
 During the 12 years famine, the group in South
 In Odisha, it enjoyed the patronage of Kalinga
India stick to the strict practices while the King of Kharavela.
group in Magadha adopted a more lax attitude
and started wearing white clothes. Jain Literature
 After the end of famine, when the Southern Jain literature is classified into two major categories:
group came back to Magadha, the changed
practices led to the division of Jainism into two Agam Literature: Lord Mahavir's preaching was
sects. methodically compiled by his followers into many
texts. These texts are collectively known as Agams,
Digambara: the sacred books of the Jain religion. Agam
 Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. literature is also divided into two groups:
Male monks do not wear clothes while female
 Ang-agama: These texts contain the direct
monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
preaching of Lord Mahavir. They were
 Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya,
compiled by Ganadharas.
Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
 Believe women cannot achieve liberation. o Lord Mahavir's immediate disciples were
 Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect. known as Ganadhara.
o All Ganadharas possessed perfect
Major Sub-Sects knowledge (keval-gyan).
 Mula Sangh o They orally compiled the direct preaching
 Bisapantha of Lord Mahavir into twelve main texts
 Terapantha (sutras). These texts are known as Ang-
 Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha agams.
 Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang-agams):
Minor Sub-Sets
These texts are expansions of Ang-agams.
 Gumanapantha
They were compiled by Shrutakevalin.
 Totapantha
 Svetambara: o Monks who had knowledge of a minimum
of ten Purvas were known as
 Monks wear white clothes. Shrutakevalin.
 Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya). o Shrutakevalin wrote many texts (sutras)
 Believe women can achieve liberation. expanding the subject matter defined in
 Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect. the Ang-agams. Collectively these texts are
Major Sub-Sects called Ang-bahya-agams meaning outside
of Ang-agams.
 Murtipujaka
o The twelfth Ang-agam is called
 Sthanakvasi
Drastivad. The Drastivad consists
 Terapanthi
of fourteen Purva texts, also
Reason for the Spread of Jainism known as Purvas or Purva-agams.
 Mahavira organised an order of his followers which Among Ang-agams, Purvas were
admitted both men and women. the oldest sacred texts.
 Jainism didn’t very clearly mark itself out from the They are written in the Prakrit language.
brahmanical religion, therefore it spread gradually  Non-agam Literature: This consists of
into West and South India where brahmanical commentary and explanation of Agam
order was weak. literature and independent works, compiled by
 The great Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya, elder monks, nuns, and scholars.
during his last years, became a Jain ascetic and
promoted Jainism in Karnataka.
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 They are written in many languages such as  Manastambha: It is found in the front side of
Prakrit, Sanskrit, Old Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, the temple, having religious importance with
Kannad, Tamil, German, and English. an ornamental pillar structure carrying the
image of Tirthankar on top and on all four
Jain Architecture cardinal directions.
Jain architecture cannot be accredited with a style of  Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or
its own, it was almost an offshoot of Hindu and temples in Karnataka.
Buddhist styles.
Types of Jain Architecture: Jain Council
 First Jain Council
Layana/Gumphas (Caves) 1. Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century
 Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra B.C. and was presided by Sthulbhadra.
 Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra  Second Jain Council
 Gajapantha Cave- Maharashtra 1. Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was
 Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.
 Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha 2. Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12
 Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu Upangas.
Statues
 Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- How is Jainism different from Buddhism?
Shravanabelagola, Karnataka  Jainism recognised the existence of god while
 Statue of Ahimsa(Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi Buddhism did not.
hills, Maharashtra  Jainism does not condemn the varna system
Jianalaya (Temple) while Buddhism does.
 Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan  Jainism believed in transmigration of soul i.e.
 Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat reincarnation while Buddhism does not.
 Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra
Note
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5. Buddhism
Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions. It actual pain but also to the
originated in India in 563–483 B.C.E. with Siddhartha potential to experience these
Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread things.
across Asia and the rest of the world.
 The essence of Buddhism
 Buddha prescribed the middle path while
is the attainment of
Jainism advocates his followers to even
enlightenment. It points
completely discard the clothes i.e. life of
to a way of life that
austerity.
avoids self-indulgence
 Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years ago
and self-denial. There is no supreme god or
as a way life that had a potential of
deity in Buddhism.
transforming a person.
 It is one of the important religions of South and  The ultimate goal of Buddha’s teaching was the
South-Eastern Asian countries. attainment of nibbana which was not a place
 The religion is based upon the teachings, life but an experience, and could be attained in this
experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, life.
born in circa 563 BCE.
 He was born into royal family of Sakya clan who  Buddha also established code of conduct both
ruled from Kapilvastu, in Lumbini which is for the monastic order and the laymen to
situated near the Indo-Nepal Border. follow which are also known as the Five
 At the age of 29, Gautama left home and Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from them.
rejected his life of riches and embraced a  Violence
lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-  Stealing
discipline.  Sexual Misconduct
 After 49 consecutive days of meditation,  Lying Or Gossip
Gautama attained Bodhi  Taking Intoxicating Substances E.G. Drugs Or
(enlightenment) under a pipal tree Drink
at Bodhgaya a village in Bihar.
 Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of
Sarnath, near the city of Benares in UP. This
event is known as Dharma-Chakra- Buddhist Literature
Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
 He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place
called Kushinagara a town in UP. The event is During the lifetime of Buddha, he encouraged his
known as Mahaparinibban. monks to follow his teachings in the vernacular. After
the death of Buddha, the Buddhist canon was
Tenets of Buddhism
transmitted and formulated by oral tradition and
 Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two
after that it was written down in 2nd and 1st
extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and
centuries B.C. The main division of Buddhism is
the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
Pitakas.
 He ascribed instead the 'Madhyam Marg' or the
 Pali canon, also known as Tripitaka in
middle path which was to be followed.
Sanskrit, is the main book of Buddhism.
 According to him everyone was responsible for
 The three pitakas of Buddhism are
their own happiness in life, stressing upon the
Abhidhamma Pitaka , Sutta Pitaka and
individualistic component of Buddhism.
Vinaya Pitaka.
 The main teachings of Buddhism are
encapsulated in the basic concept of four noble Abhidhamma pitaka
truths or ariya-sachchani and eightfold path or
 This pitaka is composed of the doctrine and
astangika marg. philosophy of Buddhism
Dukkha and its extinction are central to the
 Abhidhamma Pitaka is divided into seven
Buddha’s doctrine. Suffering is not limited to the
books namely, Dhatukatha,
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Dhammasangani,Patthana, Kathavatthu, transgressions against monastic discipline and
Vibhanga, Puggalapannatui and Yamaka atonements for these transgressions
 The philosophical analysis and teaching
Sutta Pitaka systematization of the teaching and the scholarly
 Sutta Pitaka consists of more than 10 thousand activity of the monks are recorded in
sutras related to Buddha and all his close Abhidhamma Pitaka
associates
 Sutta Pitaka is divided under the following The three Pitakas are divided into books known
sections: as Nikayas.
 Digha Nikaya, which comprises the long  The Sutta Pitaka, for example, is divided into five
discourses Nikayas: the Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta,
 Anguttara Nikaya which comprises the numerical Anguttara, and Khuddaka Nikayas.
 Majjhima Nikaya, which comprises the middle  Therigatha (a collection of short poems by
length Bhikkunis) and Theragatha (verses attributed to
 Khuddaka Nikaya which comprises the minor senior monks) are respectively the eighth and
collection ninth books of the Khuddaka Nikaya which in turn
 Samyutta Nikaya which comprises the connected is the fifth of the five divisions of the Pali Sutta
discourses of Buddha Pitaka
Vinaya Pitaka Non-canonical Buddhist texts

 Vinaya Pitaka is also known as a book of  Milinda Panha: The literal meaning in Pali –
discipline Questions of Milinda, was composed around 100
 Vinaya Pitaka deals with monastic rules for nuns BC. The book has the conversation that occurred
and monks. It is further divided into three books between the Indo-Greek King Menander I or
Khandhaka, Suttavibhanga and Parivara Milinda of Bactria and sage Nagasena where
Milinda asks Nagasena about Buddhism
Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture  The Nettigandha or Nettipakarana (The Book of
 The concept of Ahimsa was its chief contribution. Guidance) is from the same period and provides a
Afterwards, the ahimsa teachings came to be comprehensive account of the Buddha’s
recognised as among the most cherished values teachings
across the country  Commentaries on the Tripitaka include a 5th-
 The teachings of Buddhism contributed to the century work by Buddhaghosha
development of languages like Pali and some  The Nidanakatha (1st century) contains the
other local languages Buddha’s first connected life story
 It has a remarkable role when it comes to the  The Dipavamsa (4th–5th centuries) and
architecture of India Mahavamsa (5th century) are historical-mythical
accounts of the Buddha’s life, Buddhist councils,
Literature Maurya emperor Ashoka, Sri Lankan kings, and
 There are two types of early Buddhist literature: the advent of Buddhism on the island
Canonical and Non-canonical writings
 Canonical Texts are books that set out a religion Sanskrit texts
or sect’s basic tenets and values. Author Works
 Tripitaka: “Pitaka” literally means basket. Sutta, Ashwaghosh Buddha Charita, Saundarananda,
Vinaya, and Abhidhamma are the three books Sutralankara, Sariputra Prakarana and
belonging to Tripitaka Vajra Suchi.
 The Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues of Buddha’s Nagarjuna Madhyamika Siddhanta, Madhyamika
discourses on various doctrinal problems. Sutta Sutralankara, Saddharma Pundarika,
(from the Sanskrit sutra) refers to Buddhist texts Subhalekha and Rasaratnakara.
that are believed to contain what the Buddha Amarasimha Amarakosa, the first dictionary in
himself said Sanskrit.
 The Vinaya Pitaka has the records of the rules of Vasubandhu Abhidharmakosa, first dictionary on
conduct and discipline that are followed by the Buddhist philosophy.
monks and nuns during their monastic life. It Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga, Sumangalvasini, and
contains the Patimokkha, which is a list of Atthakathayen.
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Dignaga Introduced the Theory of Logic,  It originated in northern India and Kashmir and
Pramanasmuchaya. then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and
Dharma Nyaya Bindu some areas of Southeast Asia.
Keerti  Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet
and Japan belong to the Mahayana tradition.
Buddhist Councils
Hinayana
There were four councils/Sangeethis of Buddhism
 Literally Lesser vehicle, also known
organised under different regimes:
as Abandoned Vehicle or Defective vehicle. It
I. First Council- believes in the original teaching of Buddha or
Doctrine of elders.
 It was held under the patronage
 It does not believe in Idol worship and tries to
of Ajatshatru(Haryanka Dynasty) in 486BC.
 Monk Mahakassapa Upali presided over the first
attain individual salvation through self discipline
council. and meditation.
 Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
 It was held at Sattapani caves in RajGriha just
after the death of Buddha. Theravada
 Compilation of VinayPitaka and SuttaPitaka was
 It is the most ancient branch of extant Buddhism
accomplished here.
today.
II. Second Council  It remains closest to the original teachings of the
Buddha.
 In 383 BC. under the patronage
 Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and
of Kalashoka (Shishunaga Dynasty).
subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia.
 It was held at Vaishali after one century of
It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia,
Buddha’s death(parinirvana).
 The second council was presided over by
Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Sarvakamini. Vajrayana
 First division in Sangha took place. Theravedin
 Vajrayana means “The Vehicle of the
and Mahasanghika split up here.
Thunderbolt”, also known as tantric Buddhism.
III. Third Council-  This Buddhist school developed in India around
 In 250 BC under the patronage of King Ashoka.
900 CE.
 It is grounded on esoteric elements and very
 It was held at Pataliputra
complex set of rituals compared with the rest of
 It was presided by Mogaliputta Tissa.
the Buddhist schools.
 Compilation of AbhidhamPitaka was done.
Zen
IV. Fourth Council-
 It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that
 In the 1st century AD, under patronage of
originated in China during the Tang dynasty as the
King Kanishka(Kushan dynasty).
 It was held in Kundalvana of Kashmir.
Chan school of Chinese Buddhism in and later
 Under the presidency of Vasumitra along with
developed into various schools.
th
 It spread to Japan in 7 century C.E.
Asvaghosha.
 Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this
 Buddhism was divided into two sects namely,
Buddhist tradition.
Hinayana and Mahayana.
Schools of Buddhism
Spread of Buddhism
Mahayana:  Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks
 It is one of the two main schools of Buddhism. (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas).
 The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which  The monks were organized into the Sangha for
literally means "Great Vehicle". the purpose of spreading his teachings.
 It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol  The Sangha was governed on democratic lines
worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas embodying and was empowered to enforce discipline among
Buddha Nature. its members.
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 Owing to the organised efforts made by the Ashtanga Marga
Sangha, Buddhism made rapid progress in North  Finally, Buddha preaches the ‘Ashtanga Marga’ or
India even during Buddha’s life time. the Eightfold Path that leads us towards
 After the death of Buddha, his followers enlightenment
traversed on his path of meditation and roamed  According to Buddha, Dukkha, Trishna, Nirvana,
throughout the countryside. and the Eightfold Path are the four noble truths
 For 200 years Buddhism remained overshadowed of our lives
by their Hindu counterparts until the advent  In the Eightfold Path, Buddha had asked his
of Great Mauryan King – Ashoka. disciples to follow his teachings
 After the bloodbath in his Kalinga conquest,  These teachings revolve around purity in view,
emperor Ashoka decided to give up the policy of thought, speech, behaviour, livelihood, efforts,
worldly conquest and adopted Dhamma mindfulness, and meditation
conquest.  Symbolically, it is represented as a wheel of
 Ashoka during the third Buddhist council dharma or righteousness and is also referred to
dispatched various Buddhist missions to different as Dharmachakra
areas such as Gandhara, Kashmir, Greece, Sri
Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Egypt, and Thailand.
 Through his missionary effort Ashoka spread Four Noble Truths
Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local 1. All beings experience pain and misery (dukkha)
religious sect was transformed into a world during their lifetime:
religion. “Birth is pain, old age is pain, sickness is pain,
death is pain; sorrow, grief, sorrow, grief, and
anxiety is pain. Contact with the unpleasant is
pain. Separating from the pleasant is pain. Not
Doctrines of Buddhism getting what one wants is pain. In short, the five
assemblies of mind and matter that are subject to
Dukkha attachment are pain“.
 Through his doctrines of Buddhism, Gautama
2. The origin (samudaya) of pain and misery is due
Buddha explains that life is full of suffering, i.e.,
to a specific cause:
Dukkha
“It is the desire that leads to rebirth,
 Dukkha refers to the sadness we have in our lives accompanied by pleasure and passion, seeking
due to anxiousness and lack of satisfaction. We pleasure here and there; that is, the desire for
are always desperate and feel uneasy due to pleasures, the desire for existence, the desire for
various reasons non-existence“.
Trishna
3. The cessation (nirodha) of pain and misery can
 Trishna means desires like lust, greed, and other
be achieved as follows:
selfish things we want for ourselves
“With the complete non-passion and cessation of
 It is the reason behind all the suffering
this very desire, with its abandonment and
 Trishna is not just selfish or nasty desires. It also
renunciation, with its liberation and detachment
includes the worldly desires which motivate us to from it“.
help others and change the world
Nirvana 4. The method we must follow to stop pain and

misery is that of the Noble Eightfold Path.
 Towards the end of sadness, anxiety, and
suffering, we realize the truth
Eight Fold Paths: the path consists of various
 The phase during which we realize the truth is
interconnected activities related to knowledge,
called Nirvana in Buddhism
conduct, and meditative practices.
 When we observe the truth without being partial
1. Right view
or judgemental, our actions are free from
2. Right intention
emotions and desires
3. Right speech
 We act spontaneously and try to seek the 4. Right action
ultimate truth or goal of our lives 5. Right livelihood
6. Right mindfulness
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7. Right effort Hinayana and Mahayana. A ‘Yana’ is referred to
8. Right concentration the vehicle that one takes to reach from the
sufferings to enlightenment. In layman’s terms, a
Hinayana is a lesser vehicle while Mahayana is a
The major facts related to life of Buddha Greater vehicle.
1. Gautam Buddha was born in Lumbini, principality
Hinayana:
of Kapilvastu in Nepal.
Early Buddhist teachings gave more importance to
2. His childhood name was Siddartha. self-realization and effort in achieving nirvana.
3. He was son of Shuddodhana, king of Shakya clan.  the ideal of Hinayana is individual salvation, thus
4. His mother’s name was Mahamaya. it is considered lesser vehicle.
5. The birth of Buddha is celebrated in India as  The Hinayana or Theravada doctrine believes in
Buddha Purnima while it is called Vesaka in some the original teaching of Buddha, or the old,
countries. respected path of theras.
 They doesn’t believe in Idol Worship.
6. He got married with Yashodhara at the age of 16
 Hinayana teaches that, to attain individual
and had a son called Rahul. salvation the path goes through self discipline
7. At one stage of his life, he encountered human and meditation.
sufferings such as disease, old age and death and  It should be noted here that Asoka patronized
discussed these sufferings with his charioteer Hinayana
Channa.  Pali, the language of masses was used by the
8. He left his home at the age of 29 years to live a Hinayana scholars.
 It is also called the “Deficient Vehicle”, the
life of an ascetic which is known as
“Abandoned Vehicle”, Stharvivada or
Mahabhinishkramana (the great departure). Theravada meaning “doctrine of elders”.
9. He attained enlightenment at Gaya in Magadha  Hinayana stresses on righteous action and law of
(Bihar) under a pipal tree, was known as karma.
Gautama Buddha and Tathagata (he who has  The Hinayana ideal is Arhat, the one who strives
attained the truth). for his own redemption.
 Hinayana regards Buddha as a man, of
10. He delivered his first sermon known as
extraordinary knowledge, but just a man,
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (turning of the therefore, do not worship him.
Wheel of Law) at Sarnath in which he dealt with  It is developed around the acts of Buddha.
the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold  Hinayana believes in salvation by works, that
Path, the very base of Buddhist teaching. each man should work for his own salvation.
11. Kaundinya and four others became his first  Hinayana scriptures are written in Pali, and
disciples. founded on the Tripitakas.
 Hinayana or Theraveda traditions are followed in
12. His ten chief disciples were Upali, Rahula, Punna,
SriLanka, Laos, Cambodia, other South-east Asian
Mahakaccana, Subhoti, Mahamoggallana, countries.
Mahakasyapa, Ananda, Sariputta and Anuruddha.
13. Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana( died) at Mahayana:
Kushinagar in 483 BC  Mahayana believes firmly in the spirit of
Buddha’s teachings.
 Mahayana scriptures are written in form of
Difference between Hinayana And Mahayana Sutras in Sanskrit.
Buddhism  This form of Buddhism gained recognition at the
time of Kanishka. The Third Buddhist Council
 For many centuries after Buddha’s demise,
recognised these two forms of Buddhism.
Buddhism strived in its earlier form. But by the
 It believes in salvation by faith.
advent of 1st century AD, anew doctrine
 Mahayana is developed around the symbolism of
emerged which was different and distinct in ideas
Buddha’s life and personality.
and practices from the previous orthodox
 The Mahayana ieal is salvation for all, that is why
Buddhism.
it is called as greater vehicle.
 These schools have been divided into the two
Yanas or ‘Vehicles’ or ‘Paths’. These two are: the
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 Mahayana holds the law of karuna / compassion spirituality which emphasised a path to spiritual
over and above the law of karma. liberation.
 Mahayana upholds the ideals of Boddhisatva /  There were many similarities in their teachings –
the saviour – who is concerned about the
salvation of others. ending caste distinctions, teaching ahimsa,
 This sect believes in the divine qualities of meditation, reincarnation and compassion to
Buddha and thus believes in Idol Worship. living beings.
 It is also known as the Bodhisattva Vehicle.  They both spoke in the common language and
 Mahayana Buddhism is spread across India, taught in simple parables, downplaying Sanskrit
China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan,
texts.
Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Tibetan
Buddhism is a traditions of Mahayana only.  They are both pictured sitting in the lotus
 The fundamental principles of Mahayana posture.
doctrine are based on the possibility of universal  Both overcame religious convention to accept
liberation from suffering for all beings. Therefore women as disciples and initiate them into a new
this is considered the “Great Vehicle”. monastic order for women.
 The doctrine of Bhakti has evolved as a
 Both teachers experienced hostility from those
characteristic feature of Mahayana Buddhism.
 “Nagarjuna” was the most outstanding exponent who wished to injure them because they were
of Mahayana Buddhism. jealous of their spiritual popularity.
 Both died in their 70s, leaving behind disciples to
continue their religion.
Differences between Jainism and

Buddhism
Despite many similarities between Jainism and
Buddhism, there are also important differences
betwen the life of Mahavira and the Buddha and as a
consquence difference between Jainism and
Buddhism.
 The Jains place greater emphasis on the concept

of the soul and its importance.
 Jains are more strict in their observance of
ahimsa
 Jains place greater importance on the existence
of God, whilst
 Buddhist place greater emphasis on personal
liberation and often don’t mention God.
Similarities between Mahavira and The Buddha  After a long fast, where the Buddha became
There are many similarities between the life emaciated, he forsook the path of extremes but
of Mahavira and the Buddha. advocated the middle path of avoiding either
 Both were born in the northeast of the Indian
extremes. Mahavira veered towards the
subcontinent in the 6th Century BC.
advocation of austerity.
 They both were born to royal families living an
 Jains believe that Jainism did not start with
early life of material comfort.
Mahavira, but that he was the 24th Tirthankara
 They both married and a had a child.
(or spiritual teacher) – and there were 23 before
 After a period of intense spiritual discipline and him. The Buddha was seen as a new religious
asceticism, both attained spiritual liberation and teachings, though there are some parallels
after began to teach and preach on a practical between Buddhism and Hinduis
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6. Mahajanapadas
The table gives you the details of the 16 Mahajanapadas,
Capital of the
Mahajan
Mahajanapadas and Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas
apadas Modern Location
 Anga Mahajanapada finds reference in the Mahabharata and

Atharva Veda.
 During the rule of Bimbisara, it was taken over by Magadha Empire.
Champa  It is situated in present-day Bihar and West Bengal.
Anga
Munger and Bhagalpur  Its capital Champa was located at the confluence of the Ganga and
the Champa rivers.
 It was an important commercial centre on the trade routes and
merchants sailed from here to Suvarnabhumi (South East Asia).
 Magadha finds mention in the Atharva Veda.
 It was located in present-day Bihar close to Anga, divided by river
Girivraja/ Rajagriha
Magadha Champa.
Gaya and Patna
 Later, Magadha became a centre of Jainism and the first Buddhist
Council was held in Rajagriha.
Kasi  It was located in Varanasi.
Kasi/Kashi
Banaras  This city got its name from rivers Varuna and Asi as cited in the
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Matsya Purana.
 Kasi was captured by Kosala.
 Vatsa is also known as Vamsa.
 Located on the banks of the Yamuna.
 This Mahajanapada followed the monarchical form of governance.
Kausambi  The capital was Kausambi/Kaushambi (which was at the confluence
Vatsa
Allahabad of Ganga and Yamuna).
 This was a central city for economic activities.
 Trade and business prospered in the 6th century. After the rise of
Buddha, the ruler Udayana made Buddhism a state religion.
 It was located in modern Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh.
 The area also included Ayodhya, an important city associated with
Shravasti (northern), the Ramayana.
Kosala Kushavati (southern)  Kosala also included the tribal republican territory of Sakyas of
Eastern Uttar Pradesh Kapilavastu. Lumbini in Kapilavastu is the birthplace of Gautama
Buddha.
 Important king – Prasenajit (Buddha’s contemporary)
 This place was a centre of Krishna worship at the time of
Mathura Megasthenes.
Shurasena Western Uttar  There was a dominance of the Buddha’s followers also.
Pradesh  Important king – Awantipura (Disciple of Buddha).
 Its capital Mathura was on the banks of the Yamuna.
 Its capital for northern Panchala was Ahichchatra (modern Bareilly)
Ahichchatra and
and Kampilya (modern Farrukhabad) for its southern regions.
Kampilya
Panchala  The famous city of Kannauj was situated in the Kingdom of
Western Uttar
Panchala.
Pradesh
 Later the nature of governance shifted from monarchy to republic.
 The area around Kurukshetra was apparently the site for Kuru
Indraprastha Mahajanapada.
Kuru Meerut and  It moved to a republic form of governance.
Southeastern Haryana  The epic poem, the Mahabharata, tells of a conflict between two
branches of the reigning Kuru clan.
 It was situated to the west of the Panchalas and south of the Kurus.
 The capital was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat).
Viratanagara
Matsya  It is situated around present-day Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur area
Jaipur
of Rajasthan.
 Founder – Virata
 This was cited in the Rigveda.
 The capital was Sothivati/Shuktimati/Sotthivatinagara
Sothivati
Chedi  It located in the present-day Bundelkhand region (Central India).
Bundelkhand region
 King – Shishupala. He was killed by Vasudeva Krishna during the
Rajasuya sacrifice of the Pandava king Yudhishthira.
 Avanti was significant in relation to the rise of Buddhism.
 The capital of Avanti was located at Ujjaini (northern part) and
Ujjaini or Mahismati
Mahismati (southern part).
Avanti Malwa and Madhya
 It was situated around present-day Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.
Pradesh
 Important king – Pradyota.
 Father-in-law of Udayana (King of the Vatsas).
 The capital was at Taxila (Takshashila).
 Present-day location – Modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Taxila
Gandhara and the Kashmir valley.
Rawalpindi
 Gandhara is cited in the Atharva Veda.
 The people were highly trained in the art of war.
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 It was significant for international commercial activities.
 Important king – Pushkarasarin.
 Gandhara was conquered by Persians in the latter part of the sixth
century BCE.
Poonch  The capital of Kamboja was Poonch.
Rajouri and Hajra  It is situated in present-day Kashmir and Hindukush.
Kamboja
(Kashmir), NWFP  Several literary sources mention that Kamboja was a republic.
(Pakistan)  Kambojas had an excellent breed of horses.
 It was located on the banks of Godavari.
Asmaka or Potali/Podana  It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya
Assaka Banks of Godavari Range and was in Dakshinapatha.
 It included the region of Pratisthan or Paithan.
 North of Ganga in the division of Tirhut was the state of the Vajjis.
 It included eight clans, the most powerful being the Lichchhavis
Vaishali (Capital – Vaishali), Videhans (Capital – Mithila), Jnatrikas (based in
Vajji
Bihar Kundapura).
 Mahavira belonged to the Jnatrikas clan.
 The Vajjis were defeated by Ajatashatru.
 It finds a reference in Buddhist and Jain texts and in the
Mahabharata.
 Malla was a republic.
Kusinara
 Its territory touched the northern border of the Vajji state.
Malla Deoria and Uttar
 Capitals – Kusinara and Pava.
Pradesh
 Both capitals are important in the history of Buddhism. The Buddha
took his last meal at Pava and went to Mahaparinirvana at
Kusinara.
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7. Pre Mauryan Dynasties

Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom located in  Magadha became the dominant force in the
what is now west-central Bihar state in northeastern 6th century B.C. as a result of his conquests
India. Between the sixth and eighth centuries BCE, it and diplomacy, so much so that Magadha is
served as the foundation for numerous bigger reported to have comprised 80,000 villages.
kingdoms or empires. Magadha's early prominence can  According to Buddhist records, Bimbisara
be explained by its strategic location in the Ganges reigned from 544 to 492 B.C. There is no
(Ganga) River valley, which allowed it to dominate definitive answer as to
communication and trade on the river. whether Bimbisara practised Jainism or
 Over time, the Magadha Empire was ruled by Buddhism, yet both religions claim him as a
three dynasties: the Haryanka Dynasty, the supporter.
Shishunaga Dynasty, and the Nanda Dynasty.
 The Magadha Empire is thought to have Ajatashatru (492-460 B.C)
existed from 684 BCE to 320 BCE.  Bimbisara was succeeded to the throne by
 From the sixth to the fourth centuries BCE, the Ajatashatru (492-460 B.C.). It is stated
four Mahajanapadas - Magadha, Kosala, that Ajatashatru murdered his father in order
Avanti, and Vatsa – vied for power. to take the kingdom.
 Finally, Magadha emerged triumphant and  He pursued an ambitious growth strategy.
gained statehood. It rose to supremacy as the  Ajatashatru's murder of his father
most powerful state in ancient India. caused Mahakosaladevi pain, therefore,
 Magadha is located in modern-day Bihar. Prasenjit, King of Koshala, renounced Kashi,
 Jarasandha, a descendant of Brihadratha, resulting in a battle in which Koshala was
established the empire in Magadha, vanquished.
mentioned in the Mahabharata.  Despite the fact that his mother was a
Lichchhavi princess, Ajatashatru waged war
Haryanka dynasty against Vaishali.
Magadha rose under the Haryankas, expanded under  It took him 16 years to demolish Vaishali and
the Sisunagas and Nandas, and reached its height include it in his dominion.
under the Mauryas.  He utilised a war engine to launch stones,
much like catapults. He also owned chariots
Bimbisara (558 BC – 491 BC) with maces attached, allowing for mass
 Bimbisara, the ruler of Haryanka, was a murders.
contemporary of the Buddha.  Rajagriha responded to Avanti's warning by
 Bimbisara was the first monarch to maintain a preparing for an invasion that never happened.
permanent army, also known as Seniya or  Udayin (460-444 B.C.) succeeded Ajatashatru,
Sreniya. and for strategic reasons, he erected the fort
 Bimbisara's father was beaten by an Anga at the confluence of the Ganga and Son at
monarch, thus Bimbisara conquered the Anga Patna.
king Brahmadatta in retaliation.
Udayin –
 He bolstered his status via marriage
partnerships. Was the first monarch to  He founded the city of Patliputra, at banks of
command a permanent army. Under his Ganga and Son.
guidance, Magadha rose to prominence.
 He had a feud with Avanti king Pradyota, but
they eventually became friends,
Sisunaga Dynasty
and Bimbsara even dispatched his royal Udayin was replaced by the Shishunaga dynasty, which
minister Jivaka to Ujjain, when Pradyota had a briefly relocated the capital to Vaishali.
conflict with him.  They crushed Avanti's strength, putting an end
 He began to use marriage ties to boost his to the conflict between Magadha and Avanti.
political standing.  Kalasoka (Kakavarin), a Sisunaga monarch,
moved the capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra.
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The Sisunagas were eventually displaced by the  The Nandas are described in Buddhist literature as
Nandas. belonging to annatakula (unknown lineage).
 His rule was twenty-eight years long.
Sisunaga  He is also known as "Sarva Kashtriyantaka"
 Shishunaga established this dynasty. He was (Kshatriya slayer) and "Ekrat" (sole sovereign who
an amatya / official / governor of Nagdasaka, destroyed all other ruling princes).
the last Haranyaka king.  During his rule, the empire expanded. It went from
 Girivaraja was the capital. the Kuru country to the Godavari Valley in the
 Shishunaga's most significant accomplishment south, and from Magadha to Narmada in the east.
was the downfall of Avanti's power, which had  He conquered numerous kingdoms.
its capital in Ujjain.  He annexed Kalinga to Magadha and carried a
 This effectively ended Magadha and Avanti's victory trophy of Jina.
100-year conflict. Avanti became a part of  He also obtained Kosala, who had most likely
the Magadha empire and remained so until revolted against him.
the end of the Mauryan dynasty.  Because of his enormous army, he is also known as
 Later, the capital was relocated to Vaishali. Ugrasena in Pali scriptures. The Nandas were
tremendously wealthy and influential.
Kalasoka
 They kept 200,000 men, 60,000 cavalry, and 6000
 Sisunaga's son. Kakavarna is another name for
war elephants on hand. Only an effective revenue
him.
system could sustain such a massive army.
 The capital was relocated to Pataliputra by
Kalasoka. Dhana Nanda
 He was assassinated during the palace revolt  He was the final emperor of Nanda.
that brought the Nanda dynasty to power.  In Greek, he is known as Agrammes or
 In 383 BC, Kalasoka convened the second Xandrames.
Buddhist Council in Vaishali.  During his reign, Alexander invaded North-
 This council was called by a Buddhist monk Western India, but he was unable to advance
named Yasa, who witnessed the Vaishali to the Gangetic plains due to his army's
monks ignoring the doctrine. resistance.
 Dhana Nanda inherited his father's vast
Nanda Dynasty wealth. He had 200,000 troops, 20,000 cavalry,
 The Nandas were formidable 3000 elephants, and 2000 chariots on standby.
monarchs. Mahapadmananda, also known as As a result of this, he rose to become a great
Ekarat, Eka-Chchhatra, or Sarvakshatrantaka, monarch.
was a great conqueror.  He is reported to be one of Mahapadma
 Eka — Chchhatra indicated that he united the Nanda's 8 or 9 sons.
entire planet under one canopy.  He is credited with developing
 Sarvakshatrantaka indicated that he Nandopakramani (a particular measure).
annihilated all of the Kshatriya kingdoms at the  He became unpopular among his citizens as a
period. result of his punitive taxation methods.
Furthermore, his Sudra ancestry and anti-
Mahapadma Nanda Kshatriya stance earned him a significant
 He is known as India's "first historical emperor." number of adversaries.
(Chandragupta Maurya was India's first emperor.)  Finally, he was deposed by Chandragupta
He assassinated Kalasoka to become king. Maurya and Chanakya, who used public
 His origins are unknown. He was the son of the last animosity to establish the Maurya Empire in
Sisunaga monarch and a Sudra lady, according to Magadha.
the Puranas.
 He was the son of a barber and a harlot, according Causes of Rise of Magadha Empire
to certain Jain writings and the Greek writer  Advantages physical location, with Rajgir and
Curtius. Pataliputra being in crucial areas
 As a result, the Nandas were labelled adharmika  The use of natural resources, such as iron,
(those who violate Dharma rules). enabled Magadhan monarchs to arm
themselves with formidable weapons.
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 The Gangetic plains' alluvial soil and enough  Several enterprising and ambitious rulers
rainfall were conducive to cultivation. contributed.
 Economic hegemony means control of the  Leaders who are ambitious and their agenda.
Ganga. The Ganga was vital to trade in North  The rise of Jainism and Buddhism ushered in a
India. philosophical and intellectual upheaval. They
 With Bimbisara's acquisition of Anga, the improved on liberal traditions.
Magadha Empire gained access to the Champa  The Brahmanas did not control society as
River. much, and many of Magadha's monarchs were
 Champa had a significant role in trading with of 'poor' ancestry.
South-East Asia, Sri Lanka, and South India. Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom located in
 The rise of the city and the use of metal money what is now northeastern India's west-central Bihar
increased trade and commerce. The princess state. The four Mahajanapadas — Magadha, Kosala,
might impose tolls. Avanti, and Vatsa – fought for sovereignty from the
 Because of its proximity to ancient Kalinga, sixth to fourth century BCE. Finally, Magadha
elephants are used on a massive scale in triumphed and was granted statehood. It ascended to
conflicts. become the most powerful state in ancient India.
 Magadhan society's unconventional nature
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8. Alexander Invasion Of India

Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedonia, is  After the victory of Assakenoi, Alexander had
considered to be one of the ancient world's great himself resolved a special agreement by which he
conquerors. granted the lives of the army of 7,000 mercenaries.
But deceitfully, they had been slaughtered
At the age of twenty, he ascended the throne in 335 mercilessly in the night by Alexander and his
BC. Fired by an ambition to become the conqueror of soldiers. This massacre of Assakenoi has been
the world, Alexander gathered a large army and began condemned even by the Greek writers.
his conquests in 334 BC. After consolidating his  Alexander, after defeating Assakenoi, joined his
position by conquering neighboring powers, between other division of army and constructed a bridge on
334 and 330 BC, he became active in waging war with the Indus River nearby Attock.
Persia and conquered Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt.  After crossing the Indus, Alexander proceeded
Alexander Expeditions in India towards Taxila, but the king Ambhi admited the
 In 326 B.C. when Alexander reached on the Indian sovereignty of the Alexander.
soil, the king of Takshasila near Rawalpindi in  Paurava (Greeks call Porus), the ruler of a kingdom
Punjab offered help to him. But many of the between the Jhelum and the Chenab was the most
Republican Chiefs and kings in Afghanistan, Punjab, powerful among the north-western Indian
and Sindh had poised a brave resistance and provinces. Alexander made intense preparations to
refused to submit to the Alexander without a fight. defeat him.
 Alexander divided his army into two parts after  Porus fought bravely and with nine wounds on his
crossing Hindukush and Alexander himself, body, was led a captive before Alexander.
conquers the north-western part of India.  When Porus was brought as captive before
 The Greeks had faced a strong resistance from Alexander, he (Alexander) asked him how he would
tribal Hasti chief having capital Pushkalavati. like to be treated. Porus replied proudly, "Like a
 The army of Assakenoi king was led by the queen, King".
which was the example of an enthusiasm for the  Alexander made a coalition with the brave king
defense of the country by the people of these Porus by restoring his kingdom and adding to it the
regions that even women and the mercenaries territories of 15 republican states along with 5,000
took part in fighting and preferred a glorious cities and villages.
death.  Alexander had to fight hard with the Kathaioi
 In spite of a hard resistance for many days (by the (Kathas) on the bank of river Beas. The casualties
Assakenoi soldiers), Alexander captured the tolled up to 17,000 killed and 70,000 captured.
city Massaga (the capital of Assakenoi).
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9. Mauryan Dynasty
The Mauryan Dynasty, which began about 321 BCE and  It is often assumed that he was an orphaned
lasted in 185 BCE, was the first pan-Indian empire, youngster from a poor home who was tutored by
encompassing the majority of India. It encompassed Kautilya.
sections of central and northern India as well as  Sandrokottos is the name given to him in Greek
modern-day Iran. The conquest of the Indo-Gangetic records.
Plain centred the Mauryan Empire, and Pataliputra  Alexander abandoned his invasion of India in 324
served as its capital city (modern Patna). Outside of the BC, and within a year, Chandragupta had beaten
imperial core, the empire's geographical extent was several of the Greek-ruled towns in the country's
determined by the loyalty of military commanders who northwestern region.
ruled the armed cities that dot it.  Kautilya devised the approach, which
Chandragupta carried out. They had formed their
Mauryan Dynasty
own mercenary army.
 Literary sources such as Kautilya's Arthashastra,  They then proceeded eastward towards Magadha.
Megasthenes' Indica, and Ashoka's edicts shed  In around 321 BC, he destroyed Dhana Nanda in a
more insight on this period's history. series of conflicts, laying the groundwork for
 Dhana Nanda, the last of the Nanda monarchs, the Maurya Empire.
was widely despised for his severe tax scheme.  In 305 BC, he signed a deal with Seleucus Nicator in
 Furthermore, following Alexander's conquest of which he obtained Balochistan, eastern
North-Western India, that region suffered a great Afghanistan, and the land west of the Indus. He
deal of turmoil from other nations. also married the daughter of Seleucus Nicator.
 Some of these areas were ruled by the Seleucid  With the exception of a few locations like Kalinga
Dynasty, which was founded by Seleucus Nicator I. and the far south, Chandragupta spearheaded an
He was one of Alexander the Great's generals. expansionist programme that brought practically
 In 321 BC, Chandragupta, assisted by a clever and the whole present-day India under his rule.
politically adept Brahmin, took the kingdom by  From 321 BC until 297 BC, he ruled.
beating Dhana Nanda.  He abdicated in favour of his son, Bindusara, and
 Under the leadership of Chandragupta travelled to Karnataka with the Jain monk
Maurya and his tutor Chanakya, the Maurya Bhadrabahu.
Empire was created in the Magadha area.  He had converted to Jainism and is claimed to have
Chanakya took Chandragupta to Taxila to learn starved himself to death in Shravanabelagola
about statecraft and governance. according to Jain legend.
 Chandragupta needed an army, so he recruited
and absorbed minor military republics like Kautilya
the Yaudheyas, which had opposed Alexander's  Chandragupta Maurya's teacher and Chief
Empire. Minister.
 The Mauryan army swiftly rose to prominence as a  He was a Taxila teacher and
regional force in the Indian subcontinent's scholar. Vishnugupta and
northwestern area. Chanakya are two more
names.
Chandragupta Maurya  He was also a minister
 The beginnings of Chandragupta are shrouded in in Bindusara's palace.
mystery.  He is recognised as being the
 The Greek texts (the earliest) identify him as being main planner behind the
of non-warrior ancestry. Nanda throne usurpation and the development of
 According to Hindu texts, he was a Kautilya the Mauryan Empire via his
disciple of lowly origin (probably born to a Shudra disciple, Chandragupta.
woman). According to most Buddhist texts, he was  Arthashastra is a book on statecraft, economics,
a Kshatriya. and military strategy that he composed.
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 The work is divided into 15 volumes and 180  He became a Buddhist. A Buddhist monk
chapters. The major concept is divided into three named Moggaliputta Tissa became his guru.
sections:  In 247 BC, Ashoka presided over the third Buddhist
 King, Ministerial Council, and Government Council in Pataliputra, which was presided over by
Departments. Moggaliputta Tissa.
 Criminal and civil law.
 War diplomacy Administration
 It also includes information on commerce and  The Empire was split into four provinces, with
markets, a mechanism for screening ministers and Pataliputra serving as the imperial capital.
spies, royal responsibilities, ethics, social welfare,  According to Ashokan edicts, the four provincial
agriculture, mining, metallurgy, medicine, and capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west),
forests, among other things. Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north)
 Chanakya is often known as the "Indian (in the north).
Machiavelli."  The Kumara (royal prince), who controlled the
provinces as the king's agent, was in charge of the
Bindusara provincial government. Mahamatyas and the
 Bindusara was the son of Chandragupta, the council of ministers helped the kumara.
Mauryan Empire's founder. Several texts, including  The Emperor and his Mantriparishad mirrored this
the Puranas and the Mahavamsa, attest to this. organisational system at the imperial level.
 Throughout his term, Chanakya served as Prime  The Mauryans built a sophisticated currency
Minister. minting method. The majority of coins were made
 Bindusara maintains cordial diplomatic relations of silver and copper.
with Greece. Deimachus was the Seleucid emperor  Certain gold coins were also in circulation. The
Antiochus I's envoy to Bindusara's court. coins were frequently used in commerce and
 Bindusara, unlike his father Chandragupta (who trade.
eventually converted to Jainism), belonged to
the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's master, Pingalavatsa Central Government
(Janasana), was an Ajivika Brahmin.  The Mauryan government was well-known for
 Bindusara died around the 270s BCE, according to being very centralised.
historical sources.  It all started with the Emperor possessing
 Bindusara is credited for extending the Mauryan enormous power and exerting all authority.
Empire to Mysore.  The state was ruled by a council of ministers
 He united sixteen nations into the Mauryan known as the 'Mantriparishad,' and the ministers
Empire, conquering nearly the whole Indian were known as 'Mantris' during the time.
peninsula.  The 'Mantri Parishad-adhyaksha' presided over
this Mantri council.
Ashoka  Mahamattas are titles bestowed upon some of the
 Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara and highest-ranking officials.
Subhadrangi. Chandragupta Maurya's grandson.  There were also Amatyas, or high-ranking officials
 His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit who worked in administrative and judicial
Devanampriya, which means Beloved of the Gods) positions.
and Piyadasi.  The Adhyakshyas were organised into
 One of India's greatest monarchs. departments and a secretariat was formed.
 He was born in 304 BC.  The government monitored and documented
 His rule lasted from 268 BC until 232 BC, when he manufacturing, births and deaths, industries,
died. foreigners, product trade and sale, and sales tax
 As a young prince, Ashoka was a superb collection to ensure smooth operations.
commander who suppressed revolts in Ujjain and  Many Adhyakshyas are mentioned
Takshashila. in Arthashastra for trade, storehouses, gold, ships,
 As emperor, he was ambitious and aggressive, re- agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint,
establishing the Empire's supremacy in southern infantry, and so on.
and western India. But it was his conquest of  Yuktas are subordinate officers in charge of the
Kalinga (262–261 BCE) that proved to be the Empire's income.
defining event of his life.
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o Rajjukas: Land measuring and boundary-  Dharmasthiya (Civil Court) and Kantaka
fixing officers. Shodhana (Criminal Court) are two further types of
o Sanstha Adhyaksha: Mint Superintendent courts mentioned by Kautilya.
o Samastha Adhyaksha: Market
Superintendent Local Administration
o Sulka Adhyaksha: Toll Superintendent  Aside from the directly managed metropolitan
o Sita Adhyaksha: Agriculture zone, the empire was divided into four provinces,
Superintendent each of which was commanded by a prince or a
o Navadhyaksha is a ship's superintendent. member of the royal family (Kumara or Aryaputra).
o Loh Adhyaksha: Iron Superintendent  Under Asoka, there were four provinces: the
o Pauthavadhyakhsa: Weights and Northern Province (Uttarapatha), which
Measures Superintendent had Taxila as its capital, the Western
o Mine Superintendent: Nagaradhyaksha Province (Avantiratha), which had Ujjain as its
o Vyavaharika Mahamatta: Members of the capital, the Eastern
judiciary Province (Prachyapatha), which had Tosali as its
 Public relations officers in Pulisanj centre, and the Southern
 The administration was in charge of birth and Province (Dakshinapatha), which had Suvarnagiri
death registration, foreigners, industry, commerce, as its capital.
manufacturing and sale of commodities, and sales  The kingdom's headquarters were in the central
tax collection. province of Magadha, with its capital
at Pataliputra.
Military Administration  He nominated some of the viceroy's officers,
 Senapati, the Emperor's right-hand man, was the including the Mahamattas, who went on tour every
commander-in-chief of the whole military. The five years.
Emperor appointed him.  The village was the smallest administrative entity.
 The army received its pay in cash.  Gramika Villages had a lot of liberty as a leader.
 A board of 30 men oversees military  The province governors or district magistrates
administration, which is organised into six were known as Pradeshika.
committees: infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots,  Sthanika: Tax collectors who report to Pradeshikas.
navy, and transport.  Durgapal: Fort Governors.
 Gudda Purushas/Detectives mentions two sorts of  Antapala: Frontier governors.
detectives:  Akshapatala: General Accountant Lipikaras.
o Sansthan's (stationary)
o Sanchari's (wandering) Revenue Administration
 The Mauryan administration was notable for  Samharta was the head of the revenue
maintaining a large military. Kautilya empowered department.
all four Varnas to serve in the military.  Sannidhata was another significant official
 Pliny claims that the Mauryas maintained a force (treasurer).
of six lakh men. The Mauryans also had a navy in  Land, irrigation, shops, customs, woods, ferries,
their military. mining, and pastures all generated revenue.
 All of the major cities have police stations.  Artist licence payments were collected, and fines
 Bandhangara was the name of the jail, while were levied in the courts.
Charaka was the name of the lock-up.  One-sixth of the output was used to generate the
majority of the land revenue.
Justice System
 The ruler was in charge of the legal system. Espionage
 The Gramvardha and Nagarvyavaharika  The Mauryas had a well-developed espionage
Mahamatras resolved disputes in both villages and system.
towns, respectively.  Spies provided information to the Emperor on the
 There were Rajukas throughout the state who bureaucracy and markets.
were equivalent to our present district  There were two kinds of spies: Samsthana
magistrates. (stationary) and Sanchari (moving around)
 Gudda Purushas were covert agents or
investigators.
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 The Mahamatyapasarpa ruled over them. These  The manner of palace construction during this time
agents were chosen from various social groups. is also described in Kauilya's Arthashastra.
 There were additional agents known  Later stone pillar pieces, including one virtually
as Vishakanyas (poisonous girls). whole, with round tapering shafts and flawless
polish show that Ashoka was responsible for the
Economy stone columns that replaced the earlier wooden
 For the first time in South Asia, political unity and ones.
military stability enabled a single economic system  During the Ashokan period, masonry was of the
and improved trade and commerce, resulting in highest quality, with tall free-standing pillars, stupa
higher agricultural output. railings, lion thrones, and other massive statues.
 Hundreds of kingdoms, many tiny armies,  Ashoka was in charge of the construction of
powerful regional chieftains, and internecine multiple stupas, which were enormous domes
conflict gave way to a disciplined central adorned with Buddha iconography.
government.  The main ones are in Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati,
 Farmers were liberated from regional rulers' tax Bodhgaya, and Nagarjunakonda.
and crop collecting duties, instead paying to a  The Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka,
centrally regulated and strict-but-fair taxation sometimes finely painted, are the most common
system recommended by the Arthashastra specimens of Mauryan architecture, with over 40
principles. scattered over the Indian subcontinent.
 Chandragupta Maurya introduced a common  As represented by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh
currency across India, and a network of provincial and Sanchi Stupa, the peacock was a dynastic
governors and administrators, as well as a civil symbol of the Mauryans.
service, ensured justice and security for merchants,
farmers, and traders. Religion
 Silk and textiles, spices, and exotic delicacies were  Brahmanism was a significant religion throughout
among India's exports. With increased commerce the early period of the kingdom.
with the Mauryan Empire, the outside world  The Mauryans were followers
gained access to new scientific knowledge and of Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Minor
technology. religious groups such as Ajivikas were also
 In addition, Ashoka funded the building of supported.
hundreds of roads, rivers, canals, hospitals, rest  When Chandragupta Maurya retired, he sacrificed
stops, and other public works projects. his kingdom and his assets to join a roaming group
 In many aspects, the Mauryan Empire's economic of Jain monks.
state parallels that of the Roman Empire some  Acharya Bhadrabahu, a Jain monk, was
centuries later. Chandragupta's pupil. Thus, under Mauryan rule,
 Both had substantial commercial relations and Jainism became an important force.
institutions that were akin to companies.  The spread of Jainism in South India is attributed
to Chandragupta and Samprati.
Architecture  During their reigns, hundreds of thousands of
 The ancient palace at Pataliputra, present temples and stupas are claimed to have been built.
Kumhrar in Patna, was the grandest monument of  Magadha, the empire's centre, was also the
this time, built during the reign of Chandragupta birthplace of Buddhism.
Maurya.  Following the Kalinga War, Ashoka abandoned
 Excavations have uncovered the remnants of the expansionism and violence, as well as the harsher
palace, which is assumed to have been a collection injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force,
of many structures, the most notable of which was intense policing, and brutal means for tax
a massive pillared hall supported on a high collection and against rebels.
substratum of timbers.
 The pillars were arranged in regular rows, Mauryan Dynasty - Decline
separating the hall into many smaller square bays.  For the next 50 years, Ashoka was succeeded by a
 The structures were set amid a sprawling park succession of lesser monarchs.
filled with fish ponds and a wide range of attractive  Dasharatha Maurya, Ashoka's grandson, took his
plants and bushes. place. None of Ashoka's sons could succeed him to
the throne.
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 His firstborn, Mahinda, was on a mission to her. Offences against women were severely dealt
preach Buddhism throughout the world. with.
 Kunala Maurya was blind and hence unable to  Kautilya also laid down penalties against officials,
attain the throne, and Tivala, son of Kaurwaki, died in charge of workshops and prisons who
even before Ashoka. misbehaved with women.
 Another son, Jalauka, does not have much of a  Megasthenese mentioned that slavery did not exist
backstory. Dasharatha lost several regions, which in India.
were eventually reclaimed by Kunala's son, AD
Samprati.
Economy
 Following Samprati, the Mauryas gradually lost
several regions.  Largely, the population was agriculturists and lived
 Brihadratha Maurya was slain in a military display in villages. The state helped people to bring new
by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in 180 BCE, areas under cultivation by cleaning the forest. But
leaving no successor. certain types of forests were protected by law.
 As a result, the vast Maurya empire came to an  A number of crops like rice, coarse grains
end, giving rise to the Shunga Empire. (kodrava), sesame, pepper, and saffron, pulses,
wheat, linseed, mustard, vegetable and fruits of
various kinds and sugarcane were grown.
Society And Economy During Mauryas  The state also owned agricultural farms, cattle
Society and Culture during the Mauryas were well farms, dairy farms, etc.
classified and organized; work of every class was  Water reservoirs and dams were built by the state
decided accordingly. for irrigation. Steps were taken to distribute and
measure this water for irrigation.
Classes of Society
Megasthenese mentioned that during this period, the
 The Mauryan enforced the rules and regulations in
respect of agriculture, industry, commerce, animal
society was comprising seven castes, namely −
husbandry, etc.
1. Philosophers,
2. Farmers,  Special measures were deduced for the promotion
3. Soldiers, of the economy gave great impetus to economic
4. Herdsmen, development during this period.
5. Artisans,  Megasthenese mentioned about the extraordinary
6. Magistrates, and skill of craftsmen.
7. Councilors  Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman mentions that
 Megasthenese, however, failed to comprehend the Pushyagupta (Chandragupta's governors) was
Indian society properly and confused among the responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake
terms jati, Varna, and the occupation. near Girnar in Kathiawad.
 Chaturvarna system continued to govern the  Skandagupta’s inscription of the later period
society. mentioned that the dam (on Sudarshana Lake) was
 The urban way of life developed and the craftsmen repaired during his reign, almost 800 years after its
enjoyed a high place in the society. construction.
 Teaching continued to be the main job of the  They had foreign trade with the western countries.
Brahmans. The main items of trade were indigo, various
 Buddhist monasteries were developed as medicinal substances, cotton, and silk. The foreign
important educational institutions. Taxila, Ujjayini, trade was carried on by the land as well as by the
and Varanasi were famous educational centers. sea.
 Technical education was generally provided  Special arrangements were made for facilitation of
through guilds, where pupils learnt the crafts from the trade like security of trade-routes, provisions
the early age. of warehouses, go-downs, and other means of
 The joint family system was the norm in the transport.
domestic life.  The trade was regulated by the state and the
 A married woman had her own property in the trader had to get a license to trade.
form of bride-gift (stree-dhana).  The state also had the machinery to control and
 The widows had given respect in the society. regulate the weights and measures.
All stree-dhana (bride-gift and jewelry) belongs to
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 The land tax was one-fourth to one-sixth of the  Megasthenese had described in detail about the
produce. The tax was also levied on all the famous city of Pataliputra (modern Patna). He
manufactured goods. describes it as it was stretched along the river
 The toll tax was levied on all items, which were Ganga in the form of a parallelogram. It was
brought for sale in the market. enclosed by a wooden wall and had 64 gates.
 Strabo mentions that craftsmen, herdsmen,  Excavations have brought to light remains of
traders, and farmers, all paid taxes. Those who palaces and the wooden palisade.
could not pay the tax in cash or kind were to  The Mauryan wooden palace survived for about
contribute their dues in the form of labor. 700 years.
 Revenue was that main subject of Arthashashtra.  Fa-Hien also saw it at the end of the 4th century
It describes revenue at great length. A.D.
 Sources of revenue were increased from the  The palace and also the wooden palisade had been
income of mines, forests, pasture lands, trade, destroyed by the fire. The burnt wooden structure
forts, etc. and ashes have been found from Kumrahar.
 Seven rock-cut caves in
 The income from the king's own land or estate was
the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills were built during
known as ‘sita.’
this period.
 Brahmans, children, and handicapped people were
 The inscription says that after having received his
exempted from paying the taxes.
training in writing, mathematics, law, and finance,
 Tax evasion was considered a very serious crime Kharavela ascended the throne of Kalinga in his
and offenders were severely punished. 24th year.
 The artisans and craftsmen were given special  Kharavela spent the first year in rebuilding the
protection by the state and offences against them capital of Kalinga.
were severely punished.  Kharavela invaded the kingdom of Magadha in the
 The main industries during this period were textile, 8th and 12th years of his reign.
mining and metallurgy, ship-building, jewelry  The inscription mentions the achievements of
making, metal working, pot making, etc. Kharavela only up to the 13th year of his reign.
 The industries were organized in various
guilds. Jesthaka was the chief of a guild.
 The guilds were powerful institutions. It gave Polity and Administration
craftsmen great support and protection.  The king was the head of the state. The king used
 The guilds settled the disputes of their members. A to issue ordinances known as ‘Sasana.’ He
few guilds issued their own coins. possessed the judicial, the legislative, and the
 The Sanchi Stupa inscription mentions that one of executive powers.
the carved gateways was donated by the guilds of  Sasanas are available in the form of ‘Edicts of
ivory workers. Ashoka’.
 Similarly, the Nasik cave inscription mentions that  The Mauryas king had to follow the law of the
two weaver's guilds gave permanent endowments country given by law givers and had to govern
for the maintenance of a temple. according to the customs of the land. He could not
 The guilds also made donations to educational do whatever he liked.
institutions and learned Brahmans.  The king was assisted in administration by
‘Mantriparishad,’ which was a Council of Ministers.
Art and Architecture  Adhyakshas (superintendent) were officers who
 Art and architecture had developed substantially performed a special task.
during the Mauryan period.  Kautilya mentioned a large number of Adhyakshas,
 The main examples of the Mauryan art and such as Adhyakshas of gold, store houses,
architecture are − commerce, agriculture, ships, cows, horses,
o Remains of the royal palace and the city of elephants, chariots, infantry, passports etc.
Pataliputra;  Yukta was the officer in-charge of the revenues of
o Ashokan pillars and capitals; the king.
o Rock cut Chaitya caves in  Rajjukas were the officers for land measurement
the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills; and fixing their boundaries. They were also given
o Individual Mauryan sculptures and power to punish the guilty and set free the
terracotta figurines; etc. innocents.
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 The Mauryan Empire was divided into o One such board was concerned with the
provinces. Pradeshikas was another officer of the industrial and artistic produce. Its duties
Mauryan administration. He was the provincial included fixing of wages, check the
governor. adulteration etc.
 Bindusara appointed his son Ashoka as Governor of o The second board dealt with the affairs of
the Avanti region and posted him at Ujjain. the visitors, especially foreigners who
 Asoka’s elder brother Susima was posted at Taxila came to Pataliputra.
as the Governor of the northwestern provinces. o The third board was concerned with the
 The important provinces were directly registration of birth and death.
under Kumaras (princes); however, the total o The fourth board regulated trade and
number of provinces is not known. commerce, kept a vigil on the
 Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman mentions manufactured goods and sales of
that Saurashtra (Kathiawar) was governed by commodities.
Vaisya Pushyagupta at the time of Chandragupta o The fifth board was responsible for the
Maurya and by Yavana-raia Tushaspa at the time of supervision of manufacturing of goods.
Ashoka, both were the provincial governors. o The sixth board collected taxes as per the
 The Mauryan kingdom was divided into different value of sold goods.
provinces, which were subdivided into the districts  The tax was normally one-tenth of the sold goods.
and each district was further divided into groups of  Officers were appointed by the ‘City council’ and
five to ten villages. accountable for the public welfare such as
 The village was the smallest unit of an maintenance and repairs of roads, markets,
administration. hospitals, temples, educational institutions,
 The pradeshika was the head of district sanitation, water supplies, harbors, etc.
administration. He used to tour the entire district  Nagaraka was the officer in-charge of the city.
every five years to inspect the administration of  There were numerous departments that regulated
areas under his control. A group of officials worked and controlled the activities of the state.
in each district under him.  Kautilya mentions several important departments
 Gramika was the head of the village. He was such as accounts, revenue, mines and minerals,
assisted in village administration by the "village chariots, customs, and taxation.
elders". Kalinga war and its Impact
 The villages, during this time, enjoyed substantial  The Rock Edict XIII describes brightly the horrors
autonomy. Most of the disputes of the village were and miseries of Kalinga war and its impact on
settled by Gramika with the help of village
Ashoka’s life.
assembly.
 The Rock Edict XIII describes that one lakh people
 The Arthashastra mentions the highest salary being were killed in this war, several lakhs perished and a
48,000 Panas and the lowest 60 Panas. There was lakh and a half were taken prisoners.
a wide range of scales in salary.  These figures might be exaggerated, but it is clearly
AD
mentioned that this war had a devastating effect
City Administration on the people of Kalinga. Likewise, this became the
 The Arthashashtra has a full chapter on the last battle fought by Ashoka.
administration of cities.  The panic of war completely changed the
 The Edicts of Ashoka also describe name of the personality of Ashoka. He felt great regret for the
cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, killings of the war. He left the policy of aggression
Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi. and adopted the policy for the welfare of people
 Megasthenese had described the administration of and animals.
Pataliputra in detail.  Ashoka sent ambassadors of peace to the Greek
 Megasthenese described that Pataliputra city was kingdoms in west Asia and several other countries.
administered by a city council comprising 30  Ashoka did not pursue the policy of peace for the
members. These 30 members were divided into a sake of peace and under all conditions.
board of 5 members each.  Rajjukas was a class of officers appointed within
 Each of the 5 member boards had specific the empire not only for rewarding people, but also
responsibilities towards the administration of the punishing them if required.
city. For example −
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Ashoka's Dhamma ordered wells to be dug and trees to be planted
 Ashoka's personal religion was Buddhism. along the roads for welfare of the people.
 In Bhabru rock edict, he says that he had full faith  Ashoka adopted Buddhism after observing the
in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. brutality of the Kalinga war.
 Ashoka accepted Buddhism as his main faith, but  Non-violence and non-injury to living beings is the
he never forced Buddhist ideals on his subjects. cardinal doctrines of Buddhism.
 Ashoka believed in unity among ethical and moral  Ashoka appointed a special class of officials called
values of all sects. He showed great respect to all ‘Dharmamahamatras’ whose sole responsibility
sects and faiths. was to propagate Dhamma among the people.
 In Rock Edict XII Ashoka says, "I honor all sects and  Ashoka conducted ‘Dharmayatras’ (religious
both ascetics and laymen, with gifts and various journey) and instructed his officials to do the same.
forms of recognition". He pronounced his policy of  To propagate Dhamma, he sends his missionaries
equal respect to all religious sects very clearly. to western Asia, Egypt, and Eastern Europe.
 After the Kalinga War, the propagation of Dhamma  Some of the foreign kings from whom Ashoka
became the utmost objective for Ashoka. received the message of Buddhism were −
 Ashoka's edicts explained Dhamma as a 'Moral o Antiochus Theos of Syria
Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct,’ or an 'Ethical o Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt
Order'. Further, he says that it is not a religion or a o Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia
religious system. o Megas of Cyrene
 In Pillar Edict II, Ashoka puts a question to himself: o Alexander of Epirus
"What is Dhamma?" Then he mentioned the two o Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and
basic constituents of Dhamma as less evil and daughter Sanghamitra to propagate
many good deeds. Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
 Ashoka explains evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride,
and envy that are to be avoided.
 Ashoka explains many good deeds as kindness, ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
liberality, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control,
purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and
outer purity. These good qualities are to be The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than
pursued ardently. thirty inscriptions on the pillars, as well as boulders
 Dhamma is a code for moral and virtuous life. He and cave walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the
never discussed god or soul or religion. Mauryan Empire who reigned from 268 BCE to 232
 Ashoka implanted a moral law i.e. Dhamma as the
BCE.
governing principle in every sphere of life.
 Ashoka practiced all these principles of Dhamma
 Ashoka used the expression Dhaṃma Lipi (Prakrit
and asked his countrymen to −
in the Brahmi script: "Inscriptions of the
o have control over their passion;
Dharma") to describe his own Edicts.
o cultivate purity of life and character in
 These inscriptions were dispersed throughout the
innermost thoughts;
areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
o learn other religions;
Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and provide the first
o abstain from killing or injuring animals; and
tangible evidence of Buddhism.
o have regard for them;
 The edicts describe in detail Ashoka's view about
o be charitable to all;
dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of the
o be respectful to parents, teachers,
problems that a complex society faced. According
relatives, friends, and ascetics;
to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism
o treat slaves and servant kindly; and
during this period reached as far as the
o tell the truth.
Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments
 Ashoka not only preached, but had actually
were created.
practiced these principles. He gave up hunting and
killing of animals.  James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial
 Ashoka made liberal donations to the Brahmans
administrator was the first person to decipher
and ascetics of different religious sects. Ashoka’s edicts. These Ashoka’s inscriptions are
 Ashoka established hospitals for humans and
the first tangible evidence of Buddhism.
animals and constructed rest-houses. He also  They were kept in public places and along trade
routes so that maximum number of people would
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read them. More than religious discourses, they Ashoka’s Major Rock Edicts
talk about the moral duties of the people, how to Major Rock Edicts: There are 14 major rock edicts:
conduct life, Ashoka’s desire to be a good and
benevolent ruler, and about Ashoka’s work Edict Ashokan Inscription Details
towards this end. Major
 Ashoka inscriptions can be classified into three: Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive
Rock
1. Pillar edicts, gathering.
Edict I
2. Major rock edicts and Major Care for man and animals. Mentions the
3. Minor rock edicts. Rock Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of
Edict II South India.
Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas,
Pillar Edicts Major
Pradeshikas and Rajukas who would go
 There are seven pillar edicts. Rock
every five years to different parts of his
 Two types of stones are used: spotted white Edict III
empire to spread Dhamma.
sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured Major Dhammaghosha (sound of
sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati). Rock Dhamma/righteousness) over Bherighosha
 All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from Edict IV (sound of war).
stone). Major
 They have been found from different places like About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about
Rock
Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa treating slaves right.
Edict V
(Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Major
Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati King’s desire to know about his people’s
Rock
(Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). conditions. About welfare measures.
Edict VI
 Fragments of the same edict are found in different Major
places. Rock Tolerance for all religions.
 Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh Edict VII
as much as 50 tons. Major
 The pillars depict animals such as elephants and Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the
Rock
lions and wheels and lotuses which are all Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma Yatra).
Edict VIII
significant symbols in Buddhism. Major
Rock Condemns popular ceremonies.
Edict IX
The following table gives the Edict number and
Major
what it talks about: Disapproves of the individual’s desire for
Rock
Edict Ashokan Inscription Details fame and glory and stresses on Dhamma.
Edict X
Pillar Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people. Major
Edict I Rock Elaborates on Dhamma.
Pillar Dhamma Edict XI
Edict II Major
Pillar Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, Rock Tolerance for all religions and sects.
Edict III harshness, pride and anger among his Edict XII
subjects. Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions
Pillar Responsibilities of the Rajukas. Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings
Edict IV Major Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of
Pillar List of animals and birds that should not be Rock Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene
Edict V killed on certain days. Another list which Edict XIII (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini),
mentions animals that should never be Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). Also
killed. mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
Pillar Dhamma policy of the State. Major
Edict VI Rock Engraving of inscription
Pillar Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Edict XIV
Edict VII Tolerance for all sects.
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Minor Rock Edicts Languages used in Ashoka Inscription
Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the  In the eastern part of the empire, the Magadhi
country and in Afghanistan also. language in Brahmi script is used. (Magadhi is the
Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha).
namely:  In western parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in
1. Maski, Kharoshti script is used.
2. Brahmagiri (Karnataka),  Major Rock Edict XIII contains an extract in Greek
3. Gujjara (MP) and and Aramaic as well.
4. Nettur (AP).
10. Period of Foreign Invaders

The invasion of Yavanas from the west was the  Greek writers mentioned that Menander was a
important event in the history of ancient Indis. great ruler and his territory extended from
 It started during the reign of Pushyamitra Afghanistan to Uttar Pradesh in east and Gujarat in
Sunga. Kalidasa also mentions about the west.
Vasumitra's conflict with Yavanas in his  Menander was converted to Buddhism by
book Malavikagnimitram. Buddhist monk Nagasena.
 Patanjali had also mentioned this invasion.  Menander asked many questions related to
Originally, the word ‘Yavana’ used for Ionian philosophy and Buddhism to Nagasena. They were
Greeks, but later it came to denote, all people recorded together with Nagasena's answers
of Greek nationality. in Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda.
 The Yavanas were the first ones to establish  The Indo-Greek rulers were the first one in the
foreign supremacy on Indian soil. history of India, whose coins carried the portraits
The Yavanas came after several central Asian of kings and their names.
tribes who invaded India and established their  Before the Indo-Greek rulers, the coins in India did
political authority. not carry names or portraits of the kings and also
Indo Greeks were the first rulers who issued gold
Indo-Greeks coins.
 Their coins are known for the depiction of realistic
 The arrival of the Yavanas in India marked by their
and artistic portraits.
invasion on the western border of India.
 After Alexander’s death, a large part of his empire ACoins of Indo-Greeks
came under the rule of his Generals. Coins circulated to the north of Hindu Kush region
 Bactria and Parthia, the adjoining areas of Iran during the rule of Indo-Greeks
were two main areas under the rule of Alexander’s  There were gold, silver, copper and nickel coins
Generals.  The coins had greek legends
 Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, revolted in  The Indo-Greek coins had royal portraits on the
about 250 B.C. against the Greeks and proclaimed obverse and greek deities (Zeus, Apollo, and
his independence. Athena) on the reverse.
 Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and
Menander were some important Indo-Greek kings. Coins circulated to the south of Hindu Kush region
 Menander, during the 165-145 B.C., was most during the rule of Indo-Greeks
illustrious among all the Indo-Greek rulers. His  There were silver and copper coins (mostly in
capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Pakistan square shape)
and he ruled for almost twenty years.  Indian weight standards were followed in the
making of these coins.
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 They had bilingual inscriptions – Greek and sun and Yueh–chi, no option but to move towards
Kharoshthi south and west.
 On the obverse of the coin, royal portraits were  The first migrants were Yueh-chi, they displaced
present and on the reverse, religious symbols Sakas.
(mostly Indian in inspiration) were present  The Sakas invaded Bactria and Parthia and
thereafter entered India through the Bolan Pass.
Decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom  The Sakas were divided into five branches and
 The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the established themselves in various parts of north-
Punjab region until 55 BC, some say until 10 AD. western and northern India.
 Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-  The first branch settled in Afghanistan.
Scythians (Sakas).  The second branch settled in Punjab with Taxila as
 It is believed that Greek people lived for several its capital.
centuries more in India under the Indo-Parthians  The third branch settled in Mathura.
and the Kushans.  The fourth in Maharashtra and Saurashtra.
 The fifth in central India with Ujjain as its capital.
 The Sakas ruled in different areas from the
Parthians 1st century B.C. to about 4th century A.D.
The Parthians were also known as Pahlavas. They were  Therefore, Sakas ruled in different parts of the
Iranian people. Few facts may be gathered from the country. However, the branch of Sakas who ruled
coins and inscriptions. However, their history is not in central and western India rose to prominence.
clear.  Nahapana was the most prominent ruler of
 Vonones was the earliest king of the Parthian western India. His reference had been found in
dynasty. He captured power in Arachosia and various inscriptions in Maharashtra and in the
Seistan and adopted the title of "great king of records of the Satavahanas.
kings".  Rudradaman the most illustrious ruler of the
 Vonones was succeeded by Spalirises. central Indian branch. He ruled from (about) A.D.
 Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian 130 to 150.
rulers. He ruled from A.D. 19 to AD 45.  Junagarh rock inscription was erected by
 Gondophernes became master of the Saka- Rudradaman.
Pahalva area both in eastern Iran and north-  Junagarh inscription mentioned that his rule
western India for a short period. extended over a vast territory including the areas
 After Gondophernes, the Pahlava rule in India of Gujarat, Sindh, Saurashtra, north Konkan,
ended. They were replaced by the Kushanas. Malwa, and some parts of Rajasthan.
 This fact is established by the excavations at  Rudradaman undertook the repairs of the
Begram in Afghanistan where a large number of Sudarsan lake dam.
coins of Gondophernes was found. o However, Sudarsan lake dam had been
built by the provincial governer of
Sakas Chandragupta Maurya in Kathiawad when
The Indo-Greek rule in north-western India was it was damaged by heavy rains.
 Ujjayini was the capital of Rudradaman. It became
destroyed by the Sakas.
 The Sakas are also known as the Scythians.
a centre of culture and education.
 The Saka’s dynasty came to an end with the defeat
 Sakas or Scythians were nomadic tribes originally
from central Asia. of the last king in the hands of Chandragupta II of
 In about 165 B.C., Sakas were turned out of their
the Gupta dynasty, in about A.D. 390.
original home by the Yueh-chi.
 Yueh-chi later came to be known as Kushanas. Kushanas
 Sakas were also pushed out of their land and came Yueh-chi were a nomadic tribe settled on the north-
to India. western border of China as per accounts of the Chinese
 The departure made by the central Asian tribes historians.
was the result of the prevailing situations in central  Yueh-chi came in conflict with a neighbouring tribe
Asia and adjoining northwestern China. known as Hiung-nu in the year 165 B.C. In this
 The construction of the Great Wall of China in the conflict, Yueh-chi were defeated and forced to
3rd century B.C. left these tribes like Hiung-nu, Wu - move out of their land.
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 They could not move towards china in the east Art
because of the China Wall; therefore, they moved  The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads
toward the west and south. of the Kushan hegemony, constitute the best
 In westwards movement, Yueh-chi came in conflict known expressions of Kushan influences to
with another tribe called Wu-sun whom Yueh-chi Westerners.
defeated easily. Thereafter, Yueh-chi were divided  Several direct depictions of Kushans from
into two groups as − Gandhara have been discovered, represented with
o Little Yueh-chi migrated to Tibet. a tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of
o Great Yueh-chi came to India. devotees to the Buddha, as well as
 Yueh-chi met with the Sakas who occupied the the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya
territory of Bactria after defeating Wu–sun.  The style of these friezes incorporating Kushan
 The Saka's were defeated and forced to leave their devotees, already strongly Indianized, are quite
land. remote from earlier Hellenistic depictions of the
 Saka's came to India and the Yueh-chi settled down Buddha.
in the land of the Sakas.
 Yueh-chi people, lastly, gave up their nomadic life Coins
and adopted an agricultural and a settled way of  Kushan kings introduced gold and copper coins, a
life. large number of them have survived till today.
 The great Yueh-chi branch was divided into five  It was the Kushan emperor, Vima Kadaphises who
branches. introduced the first gold coins of India.
 Chinese sources explained that the first great  During this period, the main coins issued were of
Yueh-chi king was Kujula Kadphises. He was also o The coin designs usually broadly follow the
known as Kadphises I. He united all the five groups styles of the preceding Greco-Bactrian
and established his authority over Afghanistan. He rulers in using Hellenistic styles of image,
called himself 'great king'. with a deity on one side and the king on
 Kujula Kadphises was also known the other.
as ‘Dharmathida’ and ‘Sachadharmathida’ (meani  Further, towards the end of Kushan rule, the first
ng one who believs in true faith). It is suggested coinage of the Gupta Empire was also derived from
that he was a Buddhist. the coinage of the Kushan Empire.
 Kadphises I was succeeded by his son Kadphises II.
He extended Kushana’s territory upto Punjab, or Decline
perhaps even up to the Ganga Yamuna doab.  After the death of Vasudeva I in 225 A.D., the
 Kadphises II issued gold and copper coins. He is Kushan empire split into western and eastern
referred as the great king and a devotee of Siva. halves.
 On some of Kadphises II’s coins, Siva holding a  The Persian Sassanid Empire soon subjugated
trident and bull are shown. the Western Kushans (in Afghanistan), losing
Bactria and other territories.
o In 248 A.D., the Persians defeated them
again, deposing the Western dynasty and
replacing them with Persian vassals known
as the Kushanshas (or Indo-Sassanids).
 The Eastern Kushan kingdom based in the Punjab.
Religion o Around 270, their territories on the
 Cultural exchanges flourished, encouraging the Gangetic plain became independent under
development of Greco-Buddhism, a fusion of local dynasties such as the Yaudheyas
Hellenistic and Buddhist cultural elements, o Further, in the mid fourth century the
expanding into central and northern Asia Gupta Empire
as Mahayana Buddhism. under Samudragupta subjugated them.
 Kanishka has earned renown in Buddhist tradition  Later, the invasions of the White Huns in the fifth
for having convened a great Buddhist council in century, and later the expansion of Islam,
Kashmir, in 72A.D. ultimately wiped out those remnants of the Kushan
 Kanishka also had the original Gandhari empire.
vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated
into the language of Sanskrit.
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Kanishk  Kanishka's court was adorned by the presence of
scholars such as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha,
 Kadphises II was succeeded by Kanishka. He was
Charaka, and Nagarjuna.
most known and greatest of all the Kushana kings.
 Taxila and Mathura emerged as the great centres
 Kanishka ascended to throne in A.D. 78 and he
of art and culture during the reign of Kanishka.
founded the Saka era.
 His successors were Vasishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva,
 Kaniskha ruled from A.D. 78-101.
and some others.
 Kanishka's empire extended from Khotan in the
 Vasudeva is a purely Indian name and it suggests
northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in
the complete Indianisation of Kushana. Vasudeva
the north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south.
was a Saiva, though his name is after the Vaishnava
 Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar was the capital
deity.
of the vast empire of Kanishka.
 The decline of Kushana power begins after
 The Coins of Kanishka had been found from almost
Vasishka. However, Kushanas continued to rule up
all over the above mentioned area.
to the 4th century A.D. over small kingdom,
 Kanishka was a follower of Buddhism. The
independently under some sovereign rulers.
4th Buddhist council was held during Kanishka's
reign.
11. Gupta Empire/Dynasty

The Gupta Empire rose in Magadha around 4th century
AD and covered greater part of the Northern India III. Numismatic Sources:
(though smaller than the Mauryan empire). It is worth  The coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends
noting, the Gupta Dynasty ruled for more than about and figures.
200 years.  These gold coins give insights about the titles and
The Gupta Period is popularly known as the ‘Golden sacrifices that were performed by the Guptas.
Age of India’. The lifestyle and culture of the Gupta
empire is known to us through the availability of The Gupta Dynasty :
various ancient scriptures, coins, inscriptions, and The Gupta empire was founded by Sri Gupta. He was
texts, etc. belonging to the Gupta era. then succeeded by Ghatotkacha. Not much
information is available about their rule of these two
The Sources for study of Gupta Period: Maharajas. Thereafter, following significant rulers from
There are typically three types of sources for Gupta dynasty ruled during this period.
reconstructing the history of the Gupta period.
Chandragupta I (320-330 A.D.)
I. Literary Sources:
 Vishakadutta had written Devichandraguptam and  Chandragupta was a powerful Gupta ruler who had
Mudrarakshasam, which provides details about waged many battles to attain his title of
rise of Guptas. ‘Maharajadiraja’ (king of kings).
 Social, economic and religious accounts left by the  He married a Licchavi princess Kumardevi, which
Chinese traveller Fa-hien, who had visited India began the eminence of the Gupta empire.
during the reign of Chandragupta II.  The Mehrauli iron pillar inscriptions has mention of
his extensive conquests.
II. Epigraphical Sources :
 He is considered as the founder of the Gupta era
 Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription – achievements of (began with his accession).
Chandragupta I.
 Allahabad Pillar inscription – About the reign of Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)
Samundragupta describing his personality and
achievements. It is engraved on an Ashokan pillar,
 He is also known as “Indian Napoleon”. He was the
written in Sanskrit in Nagari script composed of 33
greatest of the rulers of Gupta dynasty.
lines written by Harisena.
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 The Allahabad Pillar inscription contains details of western countries. Ujjain became the commercial
his military conquest in stages:- Against rulers of capital of the kingdom thereafter.
North India, Samundragupta’s Dakshinapatha  In his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien visited
expedition against South India, Another campaign India. his accounts tell of a flourishing Buddhist
against other rulers of North India. religion in Chandragupta II’s Reign. However, the
 It is little ironical that these military achievemnts Gangetic valley was a ‘land of Brahmanism’.
are engraved on the same pillar which contains the  Chandragupta II also patronised art and literature.
inscriptions of the peace-loving Ashoka. He has poets like Kalidasa in his court.
 He also performed Ashwamedha sacrifices after his  He also issued silver coins, first Gupta ruler to do
military victories. This is known by the coins issued so.
by him commorating him as the “restorer of
ashwamedha”. Kumaragupta (415-455 A.D.)
 His greatest achievemnt was political unification of
India as a formidable force.  He succeeded
 Also, a chinese source tells that, the ruler of Sri Chandragupta II.
Lanka, Meghvarman sought permission of  Kumargupta I was a
Samudragupta to build a Buddhist temple at Bodh worshipper of Kartikeya.
Gaya.  The coins of his time tell
 Samudragupta was called by differen names, one that he took titles like:
of them was ‘Kaviraja’ because of his ability to Mahendraditya, Ashwamedha Mahendrah.
compose verses. Certain coins show him with a  He laid the foundation of Nalanda
Veena. University which later grew to become an
 He patronised poets and scholars like Harisena, international centre of learning.
and hence played a part in promoting Sanskrit
literature(which is a characterstic feature of Gupta Skandagupta (455-467 AD)
dynasty).
 Samudragupta was a follower of Vaishnavism.  He was last great ruler of Gupta dynasty.
However, he also patronist the great buddhist  He saved the empire from Hun invasion coming
scholar Vasubandhu. from Central Asia. But these invasions weakened
the empire.
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya of Gupta  Details about him are mentioned on the Bhitari
Dynasty) (380-415 A.D.) Pillar inscription, proclaiming him the title of
‘Vikramaditya’.
 He is also known as Vikramaditya.
 Chandragupta II extended the limits of this empire The Later Guptas:
by conquest and matrimonial alliances. His capital After the death of Skandagupta, there were other ruler
city was Pataliputra. of the Gupta dynasty like Purugupta, Narasimhagupta,
 He married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka Buddhagupta. They were not able to save the empire
prince, who ruled the strategic lands of deccan. from Hun invasions. With the rise of Malwa and
This later was highly useful to him when he continuous Hun invasion, the Gupta dynasty totally
proceeded towards his campaign against the Saka disappeared.
rulers of western India.
 Chandragupta II conquered the western Malwa
and Gujarat by defeating the Saka rulers who had Developments in Gupta Period
ruled for about 4 centuries in the region. This
earned him the title of Administration, Cultural, Society life, Science,
‘Sakari’ and Literature, Art, Architecture Developments in Gupta
‘Vikramaditya’. Period
o Gold Coin showing  The period under the Gupta empire is known as
Chandragupta II the Golden age of Ancient India. This is rue for the
Northern region of the country, where the Hindu
 As a result the Gupta Culture was finally established in its full glory.
empire gained access to
the Arabian sea and opened trade with the
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Developments in Administration during Gupta these guilds have been testified on various
Period: inscriptions like on Indore Copper plate inscription
According to various inscriptions, the Gupta kings has mention of a guild of oilmen(teli). And
assumed titles such as – Paramabhattaraka, Mandsor inscription has mentions of guild of silk
Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and weavers.
Chakravartin.
 The king was assisted in carrying out the
Literature
administration by a council consisting of a chief  During the reign of the Guptas, the Brahmi script
minister, a ‘Senapati’ /commander- in-chief of the evolved into Nagari script.
army and other significant officials.  Sanskrit as the language saw its golden age during
 A high official called ‘Sandivigraha’ is mentioned in the Gupta period. There were numerous works
the Gupta inscriptions, for ‘foreign affairs’. written in classical Sanskrit in the forms of
 The king maintained contact with the provincial epic, lyrics, drama and prose.
administration through officials called  Puranas, smiritis and Dharmashahstras were
‘Kumaramatyas’ and ‘Ayuktas’. composed. The 18 Puranas (important ones
 The provinces in the Gupta Empire were called are Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Purana)
‘Bhuktis’ and provincial governors were known as in their present form were composed during this
‘Uparikas’. period. And the Mahabharatha and the Ramayana
 These Governors were mostly chosen from the were given final touches during this period.
princes.  Samudragupta, himself a great poet, patronized
 Bhuktis were subdivided into ‘Vishyas’ or districts. scholars including Harisena. While, Chandragupta
 The Vishyas were governed by ‘Vishyapatis’. II’s court was adorned by the celebrated
 For city administration, there were officers known ‘Navratnas’ including Kalidasa.
as ‘Nagara Sreshtis’.
 Villages in the districts were controlled by  Kalidasa wrote Sanskrit dramas Malvikagnimitra,
‘Gramikas’. Vikramovarshiyam and Abhijanan-
Shakuntalam (features among the ‘hundred best
Developments in Social Life during the Guptan books of the world’). His wrote two well-known
Empire: epics Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava(Shiva
 During the Gupta period, the caste system or varna Parvati union & birth of
system had become rigid and the Brahmins Kartikeya). Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his
occupied the top position in the society. Rulers and two lyrics (Kavya).
other wealthy people gave enormous gifts to the  Vishakadatta was the author of two Sanskrit
Brahmins. plays/dramas, Mudrarakshasa and Devichandragu
 The practice of untouchability had begun during ptam.
Gupta period. The Chinese traveller Fahien  Sudraka was a renowned poet who
mentions that ‘Chandalas’ were segregated from wrote Mrichchakatika (little clay cart).
the society. And the progress of Brahmanism led to  Bharavi – Kritarjuniya is story of conflict between
the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism. The Arjuna and Siva. It is known for its complexity of
Religious literature like Puranas was composed sanskrit.
during this period.  Dandin wrote Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita
.
Position of Women:  Subhandhu wrote Vasavadatta.
 It became miserable during the Gupta period.  Vishnusarma composed the Panchatantra stories
Women were prohibited from studying the during the Gupta period.
religious texts such as Puranas. The subjection of  Amarasimha was a Buddhist author who compiled
women to men was highly regularized. The a lexicon, Amarakosa.
practice of ‘Swyamvara’ was given up and
Manusmriti suggested early marriage for girls. Science
 Aryabhatta, the great mathematician and
Trade & Commerce: astronomer who wrote the book Aryabhatiya in
 The International trade with Romans flourished 499 A.D. The book explains the occurrence of solar
during Gupta period. Ujjain had become a major and lunar eclipses scientifically. He was the first to
commercial centre. The organisation of traders and declare that the earth was spherical in shape and
artisans into ‘Guilds’ were formed. The presence of rotates on its own axis.
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 Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, on Painting
the five astronomical systems. His Brihadjataka is a
standard work on astrology. His other  Painting as an art form reached a high degree of
work Brihadsamhita is considered a great work in perfection during the Gupta times, it is evidenced
Sanskrit literature dealing with a various subjects by the wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves
like astronomy, astrology, geography, (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near
architecture,animals, weather, omens Gwalior).
and marriage.  The Ajanta paintings primarily belong to the period
 In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during between the first to seventh century AD yet most
Gupta period. He was the last of the great medical of these were produced during the Gupta period.
trio of ancient India after Charaka and Susruta who These paintings primarily depict various scenes
lived before the Gupta age. Vagbhata was the from the life of Buddha. The paintings that have
author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight survived the centuries in Ellora and Bagh Caves are
branches of medicine). also of high standard.
Art and Culture The religion of the Gupta Empire

 Puranas and other religious literature were
The Gupta Coins: Samudragupta issued eight types of
composed during this period
gold coins. Chandragupta II and his successors had also  During the Gupta era, Brahmans ruled as a
issued gold, silver and copper coins of different supreme community in terms of religion
varieties.The general scheme on these coins was to  Vaishnavism and Shaivism were two of their
exhibit the portrait of the king on one side of the coin branches. These two religions became
and an appropriate goddess(Lakshmi or Saraswati) with prominent due to the worship of images and
the celebration of religious festivals with
her associated symbols on the other side of the coin.
elaborate rituals
 Sculptures: Various images of Buddha from
 Brahmanism’s advancement led to the neglect
Sarnath are fine examples of Gupta sculpture. The of Buddhism and Jainism
school of art that thrived at Sarnath produced
graceful images of the Buddha. There were several The Decline of the Gupta Empire
images of Hindu Gods and Goddesses created  The Gupta’s did not have a complete influence
during this period. over their empire
 Metallurgy: Besides stone, Gupta artists also used  After Skandagupta’s death, rulers were weak in
bronze for making sculptures. both administration and military power, and
Architecture defeated kings became independent
 They had given land grants to ministers and
 During the Gupta period both the Nagara and
monasteries in areas under direct jurisdiction,
Dravidian styles of architecture. However, most of
and these became very wealthy and dominant
the architecture of this period has been lost due to
 The concept of a state within a state began to
foreign invasions of Huns.
emerge, weakening the Gupta’s’ imperial
Therefore, Archaeological evidence about Gupta
authority
architecture is however poor.
 The economy was in a downward spiral
The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh is an example of
 The growth of trade, crafts, and manufacturing
Gupta architecture. It is mainly made of stone and
was generally stagnant
bricks. The examples of shrines in Gupta period have
 As a result, the Gupta’s’ military influence
been discovered in the jungles of Central India,
waned, and regional forces grew stronger
particularly in the Bundelkhand region like the one at
 Guilds were operating independently
Bhitargaon in Kanpur district. There are also other
 Huna invasions weakened the Gupta Empire
temples located at –
 Yashodharman of Malwa challenged the
 Shiva Temple of Bhumara
superiority of the Gupta and installed Pillars of
 Vishnu Temple of Tigawa Jabalpur
victory in his honour in 532 AD in the entire
 Parvati Temple of Nachria Kathura
region of northern India that had once
 Lakshaman Temple of Raipur
belonged to Guptas. So, these were some of
 Mukund Darra Temple of Kota
the factors that led to the decline of Gupta
 Shiva Temple of Koh.
 Bhitari Temple at Ghazipur
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12. Sangam Age

Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai,
Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai,
Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,
Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam .
4. Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about
ethics and morals. The most important among
these works is Tirukkural authored
by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and
philosopher.
5. The two epics Silappathigaram is written by
Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar.
They also provide valuable details about the
Sangam society and polity.
Other Sources that give details about the Sangam

The period between the 1st century B.C. to the end of Period are –
2nd century A.D. in Southern India is known as  The Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny
Sangam Period. It has been named after the Sangam and Ptolemy mentioning about commercial trade
academies during that period. contacts between the West and South India.
 According to the Tamil legends, there were  Also, the Ashokan inscriptions mention about the
three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of
the ancient South India popularly called Mauryan empire.
Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under  Another inscription, Hathikumbha inscription of
the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of Tamil
Madurai. kingdoms.
 The First Sangam, is believed to be held at
Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. Political History of Sangam Period:
No literary work of this Sangam is available. The area lying to the south of river Krishna and
 The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, Tungabhadra is called South India. During the Sangam
only Tolkappiyam survives from this. Age, it was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras, Cholas
 The Third Sangam at Madurai was founded and Pandyas. The main source of information about
by Mudathirumaran. A few of these Tamil literary these kingdoms is traced from the literary references
works have survived and are a useful sources to of Sangam Period.
reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
Cheras:
Sangam Literature:
The Cheras had their rule over major parts of modern
The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai,
Kerala/ malabar areas.
Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named
 The capital of Cheras was Vanji and their important
– Silappathigaram and Manimegalai .
seaports were Tondi and Musiri.
1. Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar, it is
considered the earliest of Tamil literary work.  They had the palmyra flowers as their garland.
Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also  The insignia of Cheras is the” bow and arrow”.
provides insights on the political and socio-  The Pugalur inscription of the 1st century AD has
economic conditions of the time. reference to three generations of Chera rulers.
2. Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works  The important ruler of Cheras was Senguttuvan
– Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, who belonged to 2nd century A.D.
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai,  His military achievements have been chronicled in
Paripadal and Padirruppattu. epic Silapathikaram, with details about his
3. The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consist of ten works – expedition to the Himalayas where he defeated
Thirumurugarruppadai, many north Indian rulers.
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 Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the  The king was assisted by a wide body of
worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. officials who were categorised into five councils.
 He was the first to send embassy to China from  They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar),
South India. envoys (thuthar), military commanders
(senapathi), and spies (orrar).
Cholas:  The military administration was
The Chola kingdom in the Sangam period extended efficiently organized with each ruler a regular army
from Northern Tamil Nadu to southern Andhra was associated.
Pradesh.  The chief source of state’s income was Land
 Their capital was firstly at Uraiyur and later shifted revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on
to Puhar(Tanjore). foreign trade.
 King Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam  Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the
Cholas. booty captured in wars.
 The insignia of Cholas was “tiger”.  The roads and highways were maintained and
 Pattinappalai portrays his life and military guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.
conquests.
 Many Sangam Poems mention the Battle of Venni Position of Women
where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras, A lot of information is available in the Sangam
Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains. literature to understand the position of women during
 He also fought at Vahaipparandalai in which nine the Sangam age.
enemy chieftains submitted before him.  There were women poets like Avvaiyar,
 Hence, Karikala’s military achievements made him Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who
the overlord of the whole Tamil country. flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
 Therefore, Trade and commerce flourished during  Love marriage was a common practice and women
his reign. were allowed to choose their life partners.
 He also built irrigation tanks near river Kaveri to  But, life of widows was miserable.
provide water for reclaimed land from forest for  There is also a mention about the practice of Sati
cultivation. being prevalent in the higher strata of society.
Pandyas: Economy
The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil  Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice
Nadu. was the most common crop.
 Their capital was Madurai.  The handicraft included weaving, metal works and
carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments
 Their insignia was the “carp”.
using beads, stones and ivory.
 King Neduncheliyans also known as Aryappadai
 These were in great demand of all above products
Kadantha Neduncheliyan. He ordered
in the internal and external trade as this was at its
the execution of Kovalan. The curse of Kovalan’s
peak during the Sangam period.
wife-Kannagi burnt and destroyed Madurai.
 A high expertise was attained in spinning and
 Maduraikkanji was written by Mangudi
weaving of cotton and silk clothes. Various poems
Maruthanar which describes the socio-economic
mention of cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of
condition of the flourishing seaport of Korkai.
steam or like a slough of snake. These were in

great demand in the western world especially for
the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
Sangam Polity and administration:
 The port city of Puhar became an important place
During the Sangam of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port
period hereditary containing precious goods.
monarchy was the form
 Other significant ports of commercial activity were
of government. Each of
Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
the dynasties of Sangam
Marakkanam.
age had a royal emblem –
 Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the
tiger for the Cholas, carp
Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero
for the Pandyas, and
have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu
bow for the Cheras.
indicating flourishing trade.
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 Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton  Major imports for the traders were horses, gold,
fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, and sweet wine.
cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products,
pearls and precious stones.
13. Harshavardhana
After the decline of Gupta Empire, there was disorder
on political front in India. In the beginning of 7th Administration in Harshavardhana’s Reign:
century BC, Harshavardhan established a large The administration during Harsha’s reign was similar to
kingdom in Northern India. that of the Guptas. Hiuen Tsang has described it in
much detail.
Sources for Study of Harshavardhana’s Reign:  The administration was more feudal and
 Harshacharita written by Bana, his court poet. decentralized during Harsh’s reign as compared to
 Travel accounts left by Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese that of the Guptas.
traveller.  Harsha probably began the practice of granting
 Other important sources are dramas written by land to officers in lieu of salary.
Harsha himself: Ratnavali, Nagananda,  The maintenance of Public records was a
Priyadarshika. characteristic feature of Harshavardhan’s
 Madhuben plate inscription. administration.
 Sonpat inscription.  The archives were called nilopitu, and were
 Banskhera inscription- has Harsha’s signature. handled by special officers. The records of good as
well as bad events that occurred during the the
Pushyabhuti Dynasty: time have been recorded in them.
 It’s founder was Pushyabhuti. They were  Taxation was light and forced labour was also rare.
feudatories of the Guptas and were known as  One-sixth of the crop produce was collected as
Vardhans. land tax.
 They became independent after the Hun invasion.  The king made frequent visits of inspection
 Their capital was Thaneshwar, to the north of throughout his dominion.
Delhi.  Harshavardhans Army consisted of four divisions-
 An important king of Vardhan Dynasty was foot, chariot, horse and elephant. It was much
Prabhakaravardhan. more than that of the Mauryans.
 After his death, his elder son Rajyavardhan  There was provision of cruel punishments, similar
assumed the throne. He was treacherously to the Mauryan times.
murdered by Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal.  Harshavardhan had diplomatic relations with
 Thereafter, Harshavardhan succeeded his brother. China.
Extent of Harshavardhan’s Empire: Economy and Society during Harsha’s rule:

 Harsha ruled over a vast territory consisting of  There was fourfold Varna system in place
eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, comprising- Brahmins, kshtriya, Vysya, and Sudra.
Orissa under their control. Nepal had accepted his  Brahmins received land grants from the king,
overlordship. Harsha defeated the ruler of Kannauj Kshtriyas were the ruling class, Vysyas were
and made Kannauj his new capital. involved in trading and Sudras practiced
 Most important battle fought by Harshavardhan agriculture. There were many sub-castes.
was against Chalukyan ruler Pulakeshin II with the  Position of Women: Women lost the privileges of
ambition to extend his empire beyond Narmada. Swayamvar(the choice of choosing the husband),
Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin mentions that Widow remarriage was not permitted, especially
Harsha was defeated. among higher castes. The practice of Dowry and
Sati became prevalent.
 Burial of dead: dead were disposed either by
cremation, water burial or exposure in the woods.
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 During Harshavardhana’s reign, trade and prohibited animal slaughter for food in his
commerce declined, as depicted by an decrease in kingdom. He also erected various Stupa and
trade centres. established travellers’ resthouse all over his
 This decline also affected handicraft and kingdom. He conducted a gathering of
agriculture. This also led to rise of self-sufficient representatives of all religions once in every five
village economy. years. Two of them are important:
Developments in Art & Culture during Kannauj Assembly:

Harshavardhana’s Reign:  It was presided over by Hiuen Tsang.
 The architecture during Harsha’s period was based  20 kings, 1000 scholars of Nalanda University, 3000
on Gupta style primarily. Hiuen Tsang refers to a 8 Brahmins and Jains attended this assembly at
feet tall copper Buddha statue. He also talk of a Kannauj.
multistory monastery at Nalanda. In Chhattisgarh  It continued till 23 days.
at Sirpur, a brick temple of Lakshman is surviving  Here Hiuen Tsang explained and established
example of architecture during Harsh’a period. superiority of values of Mahayana doctrine over
others.
 Learning: Harsha was great patron of learning  However, violence broke out and an assassination
and himself authored three plays- Ratnavali, attempt was made on Harsha’s life.
Priyadarsika, Nagananda. He also patronised
Nalanda university. Harsha’s biographer was Allahabad Assembly also known as Prayag
Banabhatta, who wrote Harshacharita and Assembly:
Kadambari. In Harshavardhana’s court other  It was held for 75 days where quinquennial
notable figures were Matanga Divakara and distribution by the king to the people happened.
Barthrihari( poet, philosopher and grammarian).  Hiuen Tsang was invited by Harshavardhan to
withdraw this sixth distribution of alms and
Religion during Harsha’s Reign: gifts(Maha Moksha Parishad) at Prayag.
 Harshavardhan was a Shaiva follower in the  Hiuen Tsang writes that Harsha actually gave away
beginning but gradually embraced Buddhism. He everything in the royal treasury.
was a tolerant ruler. It is believed that Hiuen Tsang
converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. Harsha
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14. Six Schools of Indian Philosophy

During later Vedic period, the concepts related to
nature of soul and cosmic principle, or the Atman and 2. Yoga School of Indian Philosophy
Brahman developed in form of six different schools of  This system was described in Yogasutra written
philosophies. these are known as ‘Shada Darshan‘. by Patanjali around 2nd century BC.
Apart from these orthodox systems which consider the  Yoga means the union of two principal entities.
Vedas as the final authority, there is another school of  It works towards systematic release of Purusha
philosophy which developed prior to these six schools. from Prakriti by purifying and controlling changes
 Note that, in total there are three Nastika Schools in mental mechanism.
in Indian Philosophy – Charvaka, Jaina, and  The techniques of Yoga control mind, body and
Buddhism. sense organs. Hence, it is considered a means to
attain mukti/ freedom.
Charvaka School :  Yoga admits existence of God as a guide and
 It is an Nastika system, which do not believe in the teacher.
Vedas and the God.  It says that freedom can be attained by practicing
 Charvaka system believes only in materialism. yama(self-control), niyama(observation of rules),
 Brihaspati is considered as the founder of Charvaka asana(fixed postures), pranayama(breath control),
School. pratyahara(choosin an object), dharna(fixing the
 It is mentioned in Vedas and Brihadaranyaka mind), dhyana(concentration), Samadhi(complete
Upanishad. dissolution of self by merging mind and object).
 It is also known as Lokayata Philosophy or the
philosophy of the masses. 3. Nyaya School of Philosophy
 It considers that there no other world after death.  It is described in Nyaya Sutras authored
Therefore, there is no existence other than this by Gautama.
material world.  It is a technique of logical thinking.
 Charvaka does not recognises God, soul and  It considered valid knowledge as real knowledge,
heaven since they cannot be perceived. that is knowledge of an object as it exists.
 They consider the whole universe as consisting  Nyaya system considers God as one who creates,
only 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air. sustains and destroys the universe.
Other Nastika Philosophy systems are: Jain and
Buddhism, which also do not recognize the authority of 4. Vaisheshika School of Indian Philosophy
Veda and presence of God.  The propounder of this system of philosophy
Here, we are giving basic characteristics details of the 6 was Kanada.
(Six) ‘Aastika’ schools of Indian Philosophy. These are:  A significant work on Vaisheshika is
“Prashastapada“.
1. Samkhya School of Indian Philosophy  It is a realistic and objective philosophy of
 Its propounder was Kapila, who universe.
authored Samkhya Sutra.  It considers the reality to have many bases or
 Samkhya System considers reality to be constituted categories, which are attribute, action, substance,
by two principle: Purush(male) and genus, distinct quality and inference.
Prakriti(female).  Vaisheshika believe that objects of universe are
 Prakriti and Purusha are supposed to be composed of 5 elements: earth, water, air, fire and
completely independent and absolute. ether.
 Purusha: is mere consciousness and cannot be  It considers God to be the guiding principle.
changed or modified.  It considers that living beings are rewarded or
 Prakriti has three attributes- Thought, movement punished according to law of karma.
and change/transformation.  Vaisheshika considers the creation and destruction
 Samkhya philosophy establishes relationship of universe is a cyclic process and occurs according
between Purusha nad Prakriti to explain creation to the wishes of God.
of Universe.  It explains the phenomenon of the universe by the
 It also explains phenomenon of evolution. atomic theory, where the combination of atoms
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and molecules into matter. It explains the  His philosophical views are known as Advaita
mechanical process of formation of universe. Vedanta. Advaita means non-dualism(belief in one
reality).
5. Mimansa School of Indian Philosophy  Ramanuja is considered another important Advaita
 Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta are Scholar.
associated with Mimansa school.  Shankaracharya said that ultimate reality is
 The main text of Mimansa is Sutra of Gaimini, Brahman. And there is no distinction between self
written around 3rd century BC. and Brahman.
 It is based on analysis of interpretation, application  Brahama is considered to be existent and
and use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana unchanging highest truth and knowledge. The
portions of the Veda. knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things
 It considers the philosophy of Vedas to be eternal and ultimate existence.
and processes all knowledge, and religion means  Vedanta denies the existence of apparent ego, this
fulfillment of duties prescribed by the Vedas. makes Vedanta unique in all the philosophies in
 Mimansa encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika World.
system.  Vedanta philosophy believes that different
 It emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. religions lead to same goal.
 The essence of the system is Dharma, considered  Its core message is that every action has to be
to be a dispenser of fruits of actions. governed by intellect. The mistakes are made by
 Mimansa lays stress on ritualistic parts of Vedas. the mind but the intellect tells that action is in our
interest or not.
6. Vedanta School of Indian Philosophy  Vedanta allows practitioner to access the realm of
 It refers to the philosophy of the spirit through the means of intellect.
Upnishad(concluding part of Vedas).
 The propounder of Vedanta is Shankaracharya,
who wrote commentaries on Upnishads,
BrahmaSutras and Bhagvad Gita.
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15. Early Medieval Period in India

After Harshavardhan, new kingdoms and dynasties believed to be a clan of Rajputs. Nagabhatta was
emerged. They were big landlords or warrior chiefs the first great ruler of this dynasty. He ruled from
who emerged close to 7th century. The Kings about 725 Ad to 740 AD. He defeated the Arab
acknowledged them as Samanthas, and received gift Muslim rulers of Sind and prevented them from
from these samanthas, who provided the militray capturing the central India. He was succeeded by
support to the kings in need. Devaraja, Vatsaraja and Nagabhata II. At its peak,
 They often declared themselves as ‘maha- the Gurjara-Pratihara empire included parts of
samanthas’ and ‘maha-mahadaleshvara’. For eastern Punjab, awadh, Agra, gwalior, and
instance, the Rashtrakutas in Deccan, who were Rajasthan.
initially they were subordinate to Chalukyas of  Mihir Bhoja ruled from 840-890 AD, he took the
Karnataka. In mid 8th century they gained control empire to its peak glory by extending the
over the land. boundaries of empire further. He made Kannauj an
 There were Brahmin rulers like the Kadamba important centre in India. Mihir Bhoja maintained
Mayurasharman in Karnataka and Gurjara- large army. He was a patron of art and learning.
Pratihara Harichandara in Rajasthan. Himself a vaishnavite, he was tolerant to other
 “Tripartite Struggle” between the Rashtrakutas, religions.
Palas and Gurjara- Pratihara fought to control  Mahendrapala succeeded Bhoja and maintained
Kanauj, towards the end of 8th century AD. This the empire.
struggle for supremacy among the Palas, Partihars
and rashtrakutas was significant event in these The Rashtrakutas
centuries. Dantiduga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty
 Genrally, the period between 750 AD and 1200 AD with his capital at Malkhand or Malkhed, in present
is referred to as the Rajput Period. This period has day gulbarga district in Karataka. The Rashtrakutas
been characterised by a lack of unity in the built the famous Kailasa Temple at ellora which is
kingdoms amid foreign invasions. remarkable rock-cut architecture.
The Palas of Bengal Other important Rulers of the time:
The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 AD. He The Solankis of Gujarat
was succeeded by his son Dharmapala who revived  Initially, they were feaudatopries of the Pratiharas,
Nalanda University. He also founded the Vikramsila later around 10th century, they asserted their
University(present day Bhagalpur district in Bihar). independence under their chief, Mularaja. The
 He was succeeded by Devapal during 815-855 AD. Solanki capital was Anhilwara. Another significant
He built the famous the Mahabodhi temple at ruler of this dynasty was Bhima. He witness the
Bodh Gaya. The Palas patronised Buddhism even Gujarat invasion led by Mahmud of Ghazni.
while it was on decline in other parts of India. They  The greatest ruler of the Solanki dynasty was
were the followers of Mahayana and Vajrayana Kumarpala, after whose death, the kingdom
schools of Buddhism. Proto-Bengali literature and declined.
art flourished during their rule. The UNESCO world
Heritage site, Somapura Mahavihara(now in The Sisodias of Mewar
Bangladesh) was constructed during the Pala  Bappa Rawal was the founder of the Sisodia
reign. They ruled over parts of modern day Bengal kingdom. He set up Chittor as his capital. Mewar
and Bihar. reached the height of its power under the rule of
 The Palas were succeeded by Sena dynasty of Rana Kumbha and his grandson, Rana Sanga. Rana
Bengal. In the court of Lakshman Sena the author Kumbha had defeated the Muslim ruler of Malwa
of Gita Govind, Jayadeva was the court poet. and built Vijay Stambh to commorate the victory in
Chittor.Kumbha was a great warrior, musician,
The Pratiharas of Kannauj poet and a builder. His successor Maharana Pratap
 Also known as Gurjara Pratihara because they fought many battles against Muslim rulers and did
probably originated from Gujarat region. Mihir not submit to them.
Bhoja was the most important ruler of this dynasty.
Kannauj became their capital for a while. They are
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16. Pallava Dynasty –

After Sangam Age in Tamil country, Kalabhara rule for
250 years. The, Pallava kingdom in Tondaimandalam Administration under Pallava Dynasty:
and capital at kanchipuram.  Sate divided in kottams (administrated by officers
 Origin of Pallava is disputed while many consider of king). They has well trained army. Land grants to
them to natives. Issued earlier inscriptions in temples were called Devadhana. To Brahamanas
Prakrit & Sanskrit. patronised Brahmanism. the land grants were called Brahmadeya. No tax
 Vishnugopa was defeated by Samundragupta in his was charged for these land grants.
Southern expedition.  Irrigation was a responsibility of the State.
 Simhavishnu – real founder of Pallava dynasty. He Construction of irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi
was a great ruler, who defeated Kalabhras, Cholas and Mamandor during Mahendravarman I’s reign.
to extend territory till Kaveri .  The land tax was the primary source of
 Mahendravarman I (600-630 A.D.): Conflict government revenue. The Village Sabhas
between Pallava -Chalukya began. Pulakeshin II maintained he village land records , local affairs
marched against them & captured northern part of and temple management.
kingdom. He was a Jain follower but converted to
Saivism after being influence of Saiva saint, Society under Pallava Dynasty:
Tirunavukkarasar/Appar.  Tamil society under the caste system became rigid.
 He is considered a builder of cave temples, built Brahmins were given a high place. The period saw
temples for Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. He also rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism, while Buddhism
promoted art and music. and Jainism declined.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.) :  The Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alwars led
the Bhakti Movement. They composed tamil
 Also known as Mamalla which means ‘great hymns.
wrestler’. Education and Learning during Pallava Rule:
 Defeated Pulakesin II of western Chalukyas in
 The Ghatika at Kanchipuram was a popular centre
Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi. He captured
of learning. Various noted pupils of Ghatika were –
and destroyed the capital city of Vatapi. He then
Dandin( Sanskrit writer in Narsimhavarman I’s
assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. He led a navla
court), Bharavi( Sanskrit scholar in time of
expedition to sri Lanka.
Simhavishnu), Dharmapala( who later became the
 During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram.
head of Nalanda), Dinganaga( Buddhist writer
He called it big and beautiful with one hundred
), Mayursarman( Founder of Kadamba dynasty
Buddhist monastries with ten thousand buddhist
who studied vedas in Kanchi).
monks. Ghatika at Kanchi was great centre of
 Mahendravarman I
learning.
wrote Mattavilasaprahasanam. Perundevanar
 Narsimhavarman I was the founder of
patronized by Nandivarman II translated
Mamallapuram and monolithic rathas.
Mahabharata into Bharathavenba in tamil.
Narsimhavarman II (695-722 A.D.):  Nayanmars composed Devaram and Alwars comp
osed Nalyradivyaprabandan.
 Also known as Rajasimha.
 His rule was peaceful and offered ample Pallava Dynasty Art and Architecture:
opportunities for development of arts. Shore Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from
temple at Mamallapuram and Kailasanatha at rock. They began Dravidian style of architecture.
Kanchipuram. Pallava temples were constructed in four different
 Dandin was a court poet of Rajasimha. styles:
Narsimhavarman II sent embassies to China.
Maritime trade flourished during his reign.
 Under Mahendravarman I: He introduced rock cut
 Parameshwaravarman II and Nandivarman II were
temples. mandagappattu, Mahendravadi,
the successors of him.
Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli.
 Pallava rule lasted till 9th century
 Under Mamalla: Monolithisc rathas of
A.D. Aparajita was the last Pallava ruler was
Mamallapuram/ Mahabalipuram under
defeated by Aditya I of Chola dynasty.
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Narsimhavarman I. There are five rathas or 5  Under the later Pallava rulers like
Pagodas also known as Panchapandava rathas with Aparajita: Mukteeshswara temple, Matagenswara
mandapas covered with beautiful sculptures on it temple at kanchipuram.
walls. Mandapas at Mahishsurmardini mandap,
Tirumurthi manadapam, Varaha mandapam. Sculpture during pallava reign;
 Under Rajasimha: He introduced structural  At Mamallapuram, there is an Open Art Gallery
temples built by soft sand rocks. Kailasanatha where the ‘descent of ganga’ or ‘Kirtarjunia’/
temple at Kanchipuram is the example of greatest Penance of Arjuna (UNESCO World Heritage site) is
Pallava art. The Shore temple at depicted. This is also known as the ‘Fresco Painting
Mamallapuram was also constructed under him. in Stone’
17. Chalukya Dynasty
The Chalukyas ruled from 543 to 755 A.D. in the area of

Western Deccan. Pulakeshin I was the founder of the
Chalukya dynasty. They remained a dominant power in
the Deccan during sixth to eighth century AD.
 Pulakeshin I established a small kingdom in
western Deccan with Vatapi or Badami as its
capital (located in present day Bijapur district of
Karnataka). He performed Ashwamedha sacrifices
also.
Pulakeshin II (608-642 A.D.)

 The Aihole inscription composed in sanskrit by his
court poet Ravikirti has praises of Pulakeshin II. He
is said to have overthrown Kadambas at Banavasi,
and compelled the Gangas of Mysore to
acknowledge his suzerinity. Pulakeshin II defeated
Harshavardhan’s army at Narmada checking his
advance in Deccan.
 He fought twice with the Pallavas, in his first Administration under Chalukya Dynasty:
expedition, he defeated King Mahendravarman I The Chalukya Kingdom was a highly centralized
and wrested the Krishna-Godavari region from him administration unlike the Pallavas and Cholas. There
(later this region came to be known as Vengi). was no village autonomy.
 In his second battle with Pallava King Chalukyas had great Maritime power, Pulakeshin II had
Narsimhavarman II, he was defeated near Kanchi. 100 ships under his control along with a small standing
Narsimhavarman II captured the Chalukyan capital army.
Vatapi. The Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus who gave
 During the reign of Pulakeshin II, Chinese scholar importance to Vedic rites and rituals. While, they also
Hiuen Tsang visited the Chalukya Kingdom. respected other religions.
Hiuen Tsang mentions about decline of Buddhism in
Vikramaditya II:
western Deccan, while Jainism progressed. Ravikirti,
 He overran the Pallava capital kanchi thrice and the court poet of Pulakeshin II who wrote the Aihole
completely defeated the Pallava dynasty. inscription was a Jain.
Kirtivarman II: Chalukya Dynasty Art and Architecture:
 He was the last Chalukyan ruler. He was defeated  They developed Vesara style, reached its peak
by Dantidurga, the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty. under Rashtrakuta and Hoysalas. Strutural temples
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at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal. Cave temple 3. Pattadakal temples of Chalukya Dynasty:

architecture is exemplified in Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik. There are total ten temples in Pattadakal.
 Chalukyan painting – Badami cave temple and  Four temples in Northern Nagara style – Papanatha
Ajanta caves (including reception to Persian temple
embassy depicted in Ajanta painting).  Six temples in Dravidian style – Sangamesvara
temple, Virupaksha temple( it is like Kailashnath
1. Aihole temples of Chalukya Dynasty: (town of temple of Kanchipuram).
temples because 70 temples)  In seventh century, Arab armies that invaded
 Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple) with low, flat Persia and forcibly converted large number of
roof with pillared hall. Zoroastrians. In eighth century early, many fled by
 Durga temple resembling a Buddhist Chaitya . sea to western Chalukyan India and were given
 Huchimalligudi temple asylum. The descendants of these Zoroastrians are
 Jain temple/ Jinendra at Meguti by Ravikirti. members of present-day Parsi community.
2. Badami temples of Chalukya Dynasty:

 Muktheeswara temple and Melagulti Sivalaya.
There are four rock-cut temples at Badami.
18. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty

 Next important ruler of Rashtrakuta Dynasty was
History of Rashtrakuta Dynasty, Art and Govinda III who won over several North Indian
Architecture Kingdoms. He extended the Rashtrakuta empire
 The Rashtrakutas rose to power between 6th and from banaras to broach and from Kannauj to cape
10th centuries among the dynasties of south India. comorin. It was during his time that the tripartite
According to popular belief they were of Kannada struggle for control over Kannauj was at peak
origin. Their capital was Malkhed near Sholapur. between the Palas , the Pratiharas and the
The geographical position of Rashtrakutas led to Rashtrakutas.
their being involved in alliances as well as wars
with both their northern and southern Longest reigning king of Rashtrakuta Dynasty,
neighbouring kingdoms. It has been recorded that Amoghvarsha I
the earlier rulers of Rashtrakuta dynasty were He was the successor of Govinda III. Amoghvarsha
Hindus but later rulers were Jains. is considered the greatest ruler of Rashtrakuta
Dynasty who ruled for 64 long years. He was a
Dandidurga, the founder of Rashtrakuta devout Jain, who was initiated into Jainism by
Dynasty: Jinasena. Amoghvarsha was a patron of art and
 The founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty was himself authored “Kavirajamarga” in Kannada
Dantidurga(752-756 AD) who defeated Gurjaras language. Amoghvarsha I is credited with
and captured Malwa from them. He later Annexed establishment of the Rashtrakuta capital at
Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. At Malkhand or Malkhed situated in present day
that time in history if Indian Sub-continent, the Gulbarga district of Karnataka. It remained the
Pala dynasty and the Pratihara dynasty of Malwa. capital of Rashtrakuta empire till its collapse.
Krishna I of Rashtrakuta Dynasty
 Krishna I was son of Dantidurga. He was a great
He assumed the title of Viranarayana after
conquerer who defeated the Ganga dynasty and defeating the Eastern Chalukyas. His reign was
the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He further peaceful otherwise, which supported and enriched
expanded the boundaries of the Rashtrakuta the arts, literature and religion in the empire. He
empire. He is most remembered for commissioning was a religiously tolerant ruler who took keen
the Rock-cut monolithic Kailash Temple at Ellora. interest in arts and literature while maintaining
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peace in his empire, for this reason he is often  Amoghavarsha patronized Jaina scholars. His
referred as the “Ashoka of South”. teacher Jinasena wrote ‘Parsharvabhudaya’
containing verses about Parsharvanath. Under his
Krishna II of Rashtrakuta Dynasty: patronage, the kannada literature began to
 Krishna II was the successor of Amoghavarsha I. His develop. Infact, Amoghavarsha’s Kavirajamarga is
reign saw revolts from Eastern Chalukyas, and the forst poetic work in Kannada.
hence the size of empire was reduced.  Under the Rashtrakutas, Gunabhadra wrote
‘Adipurana’, based on life of Jain saints. Sakatayana
Krishna III, the last prominent ruler of wrote grammar ‘Amogavritti’. Viracharya, the
Rashtrakuta Dynasty: mathematician wrote ‘Ganitsaram’.
He consolidated the empire which had become  Two great poets of Kannada language during the
scattered due to series of weak kings prior to him. Rashtrakuta regime were Pampa and Pnna. Pampa
Krishna III defeated the Cholas in Battle of wrote ‘Vikramasenavijaya’. Ponna wrote
Takkolam and captured Tanjore. He expanded ‘Santipurana’.
further to Rameshwaram. He also built
Architecture under Rashtrakuta dynasty:
Gandmartandamitya and Krishneshwara temple at
 The Rashtrakuta
Rameshwaram. During his reign the great kannada
architecture is
poet Ponna rote Shantipurana.
exemplified by
Ellora and
The last ruler of Rashtrakuta dynasty was Karka II. Elephanta.
 The cave
Administration under Rastrakutas: architecture
 The provinces under Rastrakutas were known as reached its
‘rashtras’ and they were under control of excellence in
‘rashtrapatis’. These rashtras were divided into the Kailashnath temple at Ellora.It was built under
‘vishyas’ that were governed by ‘vishayapatis’. Krishna I. This temple is carved out a massive block
Next Subdivision under the Vishyas was bhukti of rock that is 200 feet long and hundred feet
which consisted of fifty to seventy villages under width and height. It has four parts in all- the main
bhogapati(directly appointed by the central shrine, entrance gateway, intermediate shrine for
government). The Village assemblies played a Nandi and a mandapa surrounding the courtyard.
significant role in carrying out the administration of The height od the Kailash Temple at Ellora is 25
village. feet, endowed with elephant and lion figures. The
three-tiered Shikhara resembles Shikara of
Society and Economy of Rashtrakutas:
Mammalapuram Rathas. The most significant part
 Vaishnavism and shaivism both were prominent of the temple is its scultures which make this
religions in the Rashtrakuta reign. While one third Kailash Temple an architectural marvel. It has
of the population was following Jainism. There sculpture of Durga slaying buffalo demon. Another
were many properous Buddhist settlements in sculpture has Ravana attempting to lift Mount
Kanheri, Sholapur and Dharwar. Kailash. There are scenes from Ramayan carved
 The centres of learning also flourished at places in out on the walls of the temple. This temple is
under Rashtrakutas. A college at Salatogi in Bijapur considered a piece of Dravidian style of
district was run by income from endowments Architecture.
made by rich people and villagers on occasion of
functions and festivals.
 The trade and commerce between Deccan and
Arabs. The Rashtrakutas maintained good relations
with Arab traders.
Art and Culture during Rashtrakutas :

 They patronized Sanskrit literature. Under the
Rashtrakutas, Trivikrama wrote ‘Nalachampu’,
Halayudha wrote ‘Kavirahasya’ under the reign of
Krishna II.
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The Elephanta Caves of Rashtrakutas: The Elephanta Caves

 Elephanta caves situated at an island near
Mumbai, were originally known as Sripuri. The
Portuguese later named it so due to the large
Elephant sculture it had. There is a close similarity
between the Ellora temple and Elephanta caves
depicting continuity of craftsmen. The entrance of
the elephanta caves has huge figures of dwra-
palakas at the entrance. The wall surrounding the
prakara around the Sanctum has sculptures of –
Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareeshvara,
Somaskanda and Trimurthi(six metre in height,
representing the three aspects of Shiva- creator,
Elephanta caves Dwarpalak preserver, destroyer).
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19. The Chola Empire

Jayasimha II of western Chalukyas and marked
The Imperial Chola Dynasty Empire Tungabhadra was marked boundary between
 After Sangam, the Chola became feaudatories of Cholas and Chalukyas. Rajendra I crossed the
Uraiyur . These later Cholas are termed as Ganges and conquered many on his way to
“Imperial Cholas” because they excercised ocntrol strengthen the Chola empire.To commorate this
over Sri Lanka and Malay Peninsula. thousands of feat, he constructed and founded
inscriptions in temples tell about their Gangaikondacholapuram. He also summoned
administration, society, economy and culture. excavation of a large irrigation tank at
 Muttaraiyar family in Kaveri
delta, were subordinate to
the Pallava kings of
Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya
Chola belonging to Uraiyur
captured the kaveri delta
from Muttaraiyar in mid 9th
century. Vijayalaya built
Thanjavur town with temple
for Goddess
‘Nishumbhsudhini'(Goddess
Durga).
 His son Aditya defeated the
Pallava king Aparajita and
annexed Tondaimandalam.
He was succeeded
by Parantaka I, who
defeated Pandayas and the
ceylonese ruler. But he lost
the Battle of Tokkolam with
Rashtrakutas. Parantaka I built temples, provided Cholagangam. He also sent Naval expedition to
golden roof on Vimana of Nataraja temple at Kadaram or Sri Vijaya(Malay Archipelago) to
Chidambaram. The Uttarmerur inscription confront them for stopping Chola trade with China.
describing village administration under Cholas Chola Empire achieved its peak under Rajendra I.
belong to his reign. He assumed titles like, Mudikondan,
 After 30 years of Parantaka I, Rajaraja I usurped Gangaikondan, KadaramKondan, PanditaCholan.
the throne for duration of 985 AD to 1014 AD. He Rajendra I was a Shivite and gave huge
defeated Chera and Pandayan rulers, extending his endowments to Lord Nataraja temple at
empire upto river Tungabhadra. He led naval Chidambaram. He was tolerant to Vaishnaism and
expedition against Maldives and captured it. Buddhism.
Rajaraja I held titles like: Mummidi Chola,  After Kulottunga I and kulottunga II, Rajendra III
Jayankonda, Sivapadasekara. He was a follower of was last chola who defeated Pandayan King
Shaivism, hence built temple for Shiva, Jatavarman Sundarapandaya II.
Rajrajeshwara temple popularly known as
Bhrihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur in 1010 AD. Chola Art and Architecture :
This temple is part of UNESCO World Heritage Site  The Dravida style of architecture reached its zenith
in India under ” Great living Chola Temples”. He during the Chola empire. The main feature of Chola
also patronized a Buddhist monastery at style of Architecture is a building of five to seven
Nagapattinam. storeys in a typical style known as “Vimana” above
 Rajendra I succeeded his father in 1014-1044 AD. the chief pillared hall with flat roof was placed in
The 1000th Year of his Coronation completed in front of the sanctum known as
2014. He defeated the ceylonese king Mahinda V “mandap”.
and conquered the whole Sri Lanka including the
northern and Southern parts. He also defeated
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was then enclosed with high walls and large

gateways known as “Gopurams”.
The Brihadeshwara temple/ Rajrajeshwara Temple at
Tanjore is classic example of Dravida style of
architecture under Chola empire. Gangai-kondan
Cholapuram temple is another such example.
Cholan craftsmenship extended beyond temple

architecture to include Bronze image making. The
bronze statue of Nataraja is an example of great skills
attained during Cholan period. The bronze statues
This mandap functioned as an audience hall and a under the chola empire were created by the ‘lost wax
place for various ceremonies. Sometimes, a technique’, which allowed the inclusion of various
passage was also constructed around the sanctum intricate features
to enable devotees to walk around it, where many
images of other Gods were placed. This passage
20. List of the Books and Authors in Ancient India

Writer Books Bharatmuni Natyashastra
Valmiki Ramayan Rajashekhara Kavya Mimansa, Bal Ramayan,
Ved Vyasa Mahabharat Prachanda Pandava,
Panini Astadhyayi Bhuvankosh
Bhasa Urbana, Charudatta, Pratigya Bhritarhari Shrangaar Shatak
Yaugandharayana, Harshavardhana Nagananda, Ratnavali,
Swapnavasavadatta Priyadarsika
Yaska Nirukta Shavvarman Katantra
Kapila Maharishi Samkhya Darshana Lakshmidhar Krtyakalpataru
Manu Manu Smriti Vatsyayana Kamasutra
Raja Hala Gatha Saptasati Harisena Brhatkathakosa
Maharishi Charak Charak Samhita Bilhana Vikramankadev charitra
Kalidasa Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Amoghavarsha Kaviraj Marg
Kumarasambhava, Someshvara III Manasollasa
Vikramorvasiyam, Ritusamhara, Narayana Bhatt Hitopadesha
Meghdoot, Malavikagnimitra, Gunadhya Brihat katha manjari
Raghuvansh Haribhadra Suri Kathakosh
Visakhadatta Mudrarakshasa, Mahendravarman Matavilasprahasan
Devichandraguptam I-
Shudraka Mrichhakatikam Banabhatta Kadambari, Harsh charitra
Bharavi Kiratarjunya Bhaskaracharya – II Lilavati
Magha Shishupala Slaughter jimutavahana Daybhag
Bhartrihari Vakyapradeep Kalhana Rajatarangini
kanada Vaisheshik Jayadeva Gita Govinda
Gautam Nyayasutra Vasubandhu Abhidharma Kosha
Kautilya(Chanakya) Arthashastra Vijnaneshwara Mitakshara
Sushruta Sushruta Samhita Pravarasena II Setubandhu
Vishnu Sharma Panchatantra Bhaskaracharya II Algebra, Siddhant Shiromani
Patanjali Mahabhashya Hemachandra Parishistaparvan
Subandhu Vasavadatta Chand Bardai Prithviraj Raso
Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika, Jayanaka Prithviraj Vijay
Vritasamhita Malik Mohammad Padmavat
Rishi Jaimini Mimamsa Jayasi
Bhagbata Astangaheart
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21. Important Inscriptions

Inscription Important Facts
This is the inscription of the Maurya ruler Chandragupta Maurya.
Mahasthan inscription It is obtained from Bengal.
In this, there is a description of the famine during the time of Emperor Ashoka.
It has been received from the Gorakhpur district of present-day Uttar Pradesh.
This is a copper plate.
Sohgaura inscription
This is also a Mauryan article.
It describes the granary.
This is an inscription of 2 BC.
Garuda Pillar This inscription was established in Vidisha by Heliodorus in praise of Vasudeva. At this
inscription time the ruler here was Bhagabhadra.
A messenger named Heliodorus was sent by the Yavana king Antialcidas.
This is an inscription of 2 BC.
Bharhut Lekh
It describes the meeting of Buddha and Ajatashatru.
This inscription is of the Maurya period.
Kandahar inscription In this inscription, Emperor Ashoka has appealed to the daughters-in-law and fishermen
to establish peace.
This is an inscription of 1st b.c.
This inscription describes the Bhagavata Dharma.
Ghosundi inscription This is the oldest inscription in the Sanskrit language.
This inscription describes the worship of Vasudeva and Balarama and the
Ashvamedha Yagya.
This is the inscription of the Shunga ruler Pushyamitra Shunga.
It is written in Sanskrit and Brahmi.
Ayodhya inscription
There is a description of the Ashvamedha Yagya being performed by Pushyamitra
Shunga.
This is an inscription of 1st b.c.
This inscription was engraved by Nayanika, wife of Satavahana ruler Satakarni.
Nanaghat inscription
In this, Satakarni has been called “Dakshina Pathapati”.
There is a description of Satakarni performing Ashvamedha Yagya twice.
This inscription is located in the Udayagiri district of Orissa state.
Hathigumpha It is related to the Chedi ruler Kharavela.
inscription In this inscription, there is a description of the invasion of Kalinga by the Nanda ruler and
the construction of a dam there.
NagarjunaKonda This inscription describes the marriage of King Veera Purushadatta of the Ikshvaku
inscription dynasty with Rudra Bhattarika.
This inscription belongs to the Shaka king Rudradaman.
Junagadh inscription
It mentions the reconstruction of Sudarshan Lake.
This inscription was engraved by Gautami Balashri after the death of his son
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
Nashik inscription
This inscription describes the victories of Satakarni and his devotion to religion.
In this inscription, Satakarni is said to be equivalent to Parashuram.
Panjtar inscription This inscription describes the capture of Kabul valley by the Kushans.
This inscription belongs to the Maurya ruler Dasharatha.
Nagarjuni Guhalekh It describes the events of the reign of the Chedi ruler Kharavela and the Rajasuya Yagya
performed by him.
Junnar inscription This is the inscription of Nahapana.
Karle inscription This is the inscription related to Vasishthiputra Pulumavi.
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Mob:-7783879015 /9122859055

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Pram IAS

Officers Making Officers

1. Indus Valley Civilization

Following are the important geographical facts of can be classified as

and of weights and measures. Daro and two small

i.e. made up of bronzes was found from Mohenjo

Important Sites of IVC

3. Later Vedic Age

Vinaya Pitaka Non-canonical Buddhist texts

Nirvana 4. The method we must follow to stop pain and

Differences between Jainism and

 The Jains place greater emphasis on the concept

 Anga Mahajanapada finds reference in the Mahabharata and

7. Pre Mauryan Dynasties

8. Alexander Invasion Of India

10. Period of Foreign Invaders

11. Gupta Empire/Dynasty

Art and Culture The religion of the Gupta Empire

12. Sangam Age

Other Sources that give details about the Sangam

Extent of Harshavardhan’s Empire: Economy and Society during Harsha’s rule:

Developments in Art & Culture during Kannauj Assembly:

14. Six Schools of Indian Philosophy

15. Early Medieval Period in India

The Palas of Bengal Other important Rulers of the time:

16. Pallava Dynasty –

17. Chalukya Dynasty

The Chalukyas ruled from 543 to 755 A.D. in the area of

Pulakeshin II (608-642 A.D.)

at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal. Cave temple 3. Pattadakal temples of Chalukya Dynasty:

2. Badami temples of Chalukya Dynasty:

18. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Art and Culture during Rashtrakutas :

The Elephanta Caves of Rashtrakutas: The Elephanta Caves

19. The Chola Empire

was then enclosed with high walls and large

Cholan craftsmenship extended beyond temple

20. List of the Books and Authors in Ancient India

21. Important Inscriptions

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