Chapter 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Chapter 1
Some Basic Concepts of

Chemistry
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Chemistry
Chemistry is a field of science that studies the composition, properties, and

behavior of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes.
It is considered a central science because it connects and integrates the
principles of physics, biology, and engineering.
Importance and scope of Chemistry
Teligram/@padhleakshay
Chemistry helps us understand the fundamental properties of matter, such as
its composition, structure, and reactivity.
Chemistry plays a critical role in developing new drugs and medicines to treat
diseases.
Chemistry is essential in creating new materials with novel properties, such as
lightweight and durable plastics, high-performance fibers, and advanced
composites.
Chemistry is crucial in understanding the environment and the impact of
human activities on it. YouTube/@padhleakshay
Chemistry is central to the development of new energy technologies, such as
batteries, fuel cells, and solar cells. Chemists design new materials and processes
that can store and convert energy more efficiently.
Matter
Matter is any thing that occupies space, has mass, offer resistance and can

be perceived of directly by our senses. For example, book, pen, pencil, water,
air, all living beings, etc.
Generally matter is classified into three phases:
Solid
The substance which have a definite shape as well as maintain its volume as per
it’s shape, also they have least freedom of movement. e.g., sugar, iron, gold,
wood etc.
Liquid
A substance is a substance which generally possess the shape of a container but
have a fixed volume. Also liquids have the property to flow or to be poured. E.g.,
water, milk, oil, mercury, alcohol etc.
Gas
Substances which do not have a definite volume as well as definite shape.
Gases generally completely fill the container they are kept in. E.g.,
hydrogen, oxygen etc.
YouTube/@padhleakshay
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter can further be classified into following at bulk or macroscopic level:
(a) Mixtures
(b) Pure Substances.
These can be further classified as shown below:

Mixtures :
A mixture is a substance in which two or more substance are present in any ratio.
Primarily, It is of two types: Heterogeneous and Homogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixture-
Two substances are mixed to form a mixture such that there exist one
single uniform phase i.e. composition of substances present is uniform.
Sugar solution and air are thus, the examples of homogeneous mixtures.
Heterogeneous mixtures-
Two or more substances are mixed which result in non-uniform

composition throughout the mixture. Some of the examples are suspensions,
mixture of two solids suppose salt and sugar.
Note:
Any distinct portion of matter that is uniform throughout in composition

and properties is called a Phase.
Pure substances :
A material containing only one type of particle is called a pure substance.

Pure substances are further divided as given below:
Element
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical means.
Elements are made up of atoms that have the same number of protons
in their nucleus.
The elements are further split into three classes based on their physical and
chemical properties i.e. (1) Metals (2) Non- metals and (3) Metalloids.
Compound
A compound is a substance composed of two or more different elements
chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.
Compounds can be formed by chemical reactions between elements or between

other compounds.
Properties OFf Matter
Mass: The amount of matter in an object, usually measured in grams or kilograms.

Volume: The amount of space that matter takes up, usually measured in cubic
meters, liters, or milliliters.
Density: The amount of mass per unit of volume, usually measured in grams per
cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter.
Physical state: Matter can exist in three different physical states: solid, liquid, or
gas.
Melting point: The temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas.
Solubility: The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent, such as water.
Conductivity: The ability of a substance to conduct heat or electricity.
Reactivity: The ability of a substance to react chemically with other substances.
Q: How is matter classified at macroscopic level?
Definition of SI Base Units

Metre : The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/(299792458) of a second.
Kilogram : The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram.
Second : The second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation

corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
Ampere : The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two

straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
and placed 1 metre apart
-7 in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 × 10 newton per metre of length.
Kelvin : The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of

the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Mole : The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12; its symbol
is “mol”.
Candela : The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz
and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian.
Q :Classify following substances as elements, compounds and

mixtures – water, tea, silver, steel, carbon dioxide and platinum.
Q : Write seven fundamental quantities and their units

Precision and Accuracy

Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity
accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result.
Let the true value of a quantity is 3.9 and its measurements taken by two boys
are 3.6 and 3.8. Here 3.8 is more accurate as it is closer to the true value. Similarly
3.85 is more precise than 3.9.
Significant Figures
The total number of digits in measuring of any physical quantity with certainty
is called significant figures.
There are certain rules for determining the number of significant figures.
All digits are significant except zero in the beginning of a number. For example,
in 285 cm, there are three significant figures.
Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant if such zeros
follow the decimal point. For example, 0.03 has one significant figure.
Zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant. For example, 0.200
g has three significant figures.
Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant
figures.
Counting the numbers of object, for example, 2 balls or 20 eggs, have infinite
significant figures as these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing
infinite number of zeroes after placing a decimal i.e., 2 = 2.000000 or
20 = 20.000000
Notes : In additions or subtractions, the final result should be reported to the

same number of decimal places as that of the term with the least number of
decimal places.
Laws of Chemical Combination

Law of conservation of mass
In a chemical reaction the mass of reactants consumed and mass of the
products formed is same, that is mass is conserved.
This is a direct consequence of law of conservation of atoms. This law was
given by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789.
Law of Constant
The law of definite proportions states that the mass proportions of the
elements in a composite sample are always the same.
It was given by, a French chemist, Joseph Proust.
Law of Multiple Proportions
The law of multiple proportions states that when two elements are combined
to form more than one compound, the weight of one element is proportional
to the fixed weight of the other element as a whole number.
This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803.
Law of Reciprocal Proportions
The law states that if two different elements are combined with the fixed mass
of the third element, their combined mass ratio is the same, or a simple multiple
of their combined mass.
This Law was proposed by Richter in 1792
Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

The law developed by Gay Lussac in 1808 establishes that "the relationship
between the volume of a gaseous reactant and a product can be represented by
a simple whole number."
Avogadro Law
In 1811 , Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.

Dalton's Atomic Theory
John Dalton in 1808 published “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” in which he

proposed atomic theory of matter. The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are as
follows :
Matter is made up of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in all respect, i.e., they possess same size,
shape, mass, chemical properties etc.
Atoms of different elements are different in all respects, i.e., they possess different
sizes, shapes, masses, chemical properties etc.
Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, simple, whole
number ratio to form compounds.
Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. Dalton’s theory
could explain the laws of chemical combination.
Q: Write Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.
Atomic Mass and Molecular Mass
Atomic Mass
Atomic mass can be defined as a mass of a single atom which is measured

in atomic mass unit (amu) or unified mass (u) where,
1 a.m.u. = 1/12th of the mass of one C-12 atom

Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a

molecule. It is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by
the number of its atoms and adding them together.
Molecular mass expressed in grams is known as gram molecular mass.
Molecular mass of methane,
(CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u) = 16.043 u
The Mole
One mole is the amount of substance that contains as many as entities as
number of atoms in exactly 12.00 g of C-12.
23
Number of carbon atoms in 12 g of C-12 = 6.022 × 10
Chemical Formulae
Symbolic representation of compound is called chemical formula. It is of
following types :
Empirical Formula
An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various

atoms present in a compound
Molecular Formula
The molecular formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms
present in a molecule of a compound.
Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) x n
Measurement of Concentration
The concentration of a solution reflects the relative proportion of solute

and solvent present in the solution. The various concentration terms are
weight percent (% w/W) = (Weight of solute / Weight of solution) x 100
Volume percent (% V/V) = (Volume of solute / Volume of solution) x 100
Molality (m) – It is defined as number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent.
m = {Number of moles of solute/Mass of solvent (in kg)} x 100
Molarity (M) : It is defined as number of moles of solute present in 1 L of solution.
M = {Number of moles of solute/Volume of solution (in litre)} x 100
Mole fraction : Suppose, n is the moles of solute and N is the moles of solvent, then,
(i). Mole fraction of solute (Xsolute) =n/(n+N)
(ii). Mole fraction of solvent (Xsolvent) =N/(n+N)
Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1
Normality : It is defined as gram equivalent of solute dissolved in one litre solution.
N = {Gram equivalent of solute / Volume of solution (litre)} x 100
Q : What is 1 molal solution?

Stoichiometry

The study of chemical reactions and related calculations is called stoichiometry.
The coefficient used to balance the reaction is called the stoichiometric
coefficient.
Points to remember :
The stoichiometric coefficients is the ratio of moles of molecules of atoms that
reacts not the mass.
Only when all reactants are present in a stoichiometric ratio can the
stoichiometric ratio be used to predict the number of moles of product formed.
The actual quantity of product formed is always less than the quantity
predicted by the theoretical calculation
Q:What is stoichiometry?
Limiting Reagent
Limiting reagent is the reactant which is completely consumed in a reaction. YouTube/@padhleakshay

To estimate the amount of product, limiting reagent should be known.
N 2 (1 mole) + 3H 2(3 mole) ⟶ 2NH3 (2 mole)
It means 1 mole of N2 react with 3 mole of H 2 to produce 2 mole of NH3.
*me after learning all points

Important Question
Ques 1: 4 L of dinitrogen reacted with 22.7 L of dioxygen and 45.4 L of nitrous oxide

was formed. The reaction is given below:
2N
2 (g) + 02(g) —> 2N
2 0(g)
Which law is being obeyed in this experiment? Write the statement of the law.
sol:
Gases are reacting together to form gaseous products. Ratio of volumes of gases:
N2 : 02: N2 0 = 45.4 : 22.7 : 45.4
=2:1:2
Which is a simple whole number ratio. Hence the experiment proves Gay- Lussac’s law
of gaseous volumes. This law states that gases combine or are produced in a chemical
reaction in a simple whole number ratio by volume provided that all gases are at the
same temperature and pressure.
Ques 2:The density of 3 molal solution of NaOH is 1.110 g mL -1. Calculate the
molarity of the solution.
Sol:
We can use this information to calculate the mass of NaOH present in 1 kg of solvent:
3 mol NaOH / 1 kg solvent * 40.00 g NaOH / 1 mol NaOH = 120 g NaOH / kg solvent
The density of the solution is given as 1.110 g/mL. This means that 1 mL of the
solution has a mass of 1.110 g. We can use this information to calculate the volume
of the solution that contains 1 kg of solvent:
1 kg solvent / 1.110 g/mL = 901.8 mL YouTube/@padhleakshay
So, 901.8 mL of the solution contains 1 kg of solvent, and therefore 120 g of NaOH.
Molarity = moles of solute / volume of solution in liters
120 g NaOH / 40.00 g/mol = 3.00 moles NaOH
Molarity = 3.00 moles / 1 liter = 3.00 M

Therefore, the molarity of the 3 molal NaOH solution with a density of 1.110 g/mL is 3.00 M.
Ques: Volume of a solution changes with change in temperature, then, will the
molality of the solution be affected by temperature? Give reason for your answer.
The molality of a solution is not affected by temperature. This is because

molality is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent,

which is a ratio of two quantities that do not change with temperature.
In contrast, the molarity of a solution is affected by changes in volume with

temperature because it is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution. As the volume of a solution changes with temperature, the molarity will
change accordingly.
Therefore, if the volume of a solution changes with temperature, the molarity will
change, but the molality will remain constant. This is why molality is often used
in scientific experiments or industrial processes where precise control over
concentration is required, particularly when temperature changes are expected or
cannot be avoided.
Ques: If 4 g of NaOH dissolves in 36 g of H20, calculate the mole fraction of each
component in the solution. Also, determine the molarity of solution (specific gravity
of solution is 1 g mL-1).
Sol:
The molar mass of NaOH is 40.00 g/mol, so 4 g of NaOH corresponds to:
4 g NaOH / 40.00 g/mol = 0.1000 moles NaOH
The molar mass of H2O is 18.02 g/mol, so 36 g of H2O corresponds to:
36 g H2O / 18.02 g/mol = 1.999 moles H2O
The total number of moles in the solution is therefore:
0.1000 moles NaOH + 1.999 moles H2O = 2.099 moles
The mole fraction of NaOH is:

X(NaOH) = moles of NaOH / total moles in solution
= 0.1000 moles / 2.099 moles
= 0.0476
The mole fraction of H2O is:

X(H2O) = moles of H2O / total moles in solution
= 1.999 moles / 2.099 moles =
0.9524
1 mL of the solution has a mass of 1 g.
Therefore, the mass of 36 g of the solution is 36 mL.
so to calculate the molarity, we need to convert the volume of the solution to liters:
36 mL / 1000 mL/L = 0.036 L
Molarity = moles of NaOH / volume of solution in liters

= 0.1000 moles / 0.036 L = 2.78 M
Therefore, the mole fraction of NaOH is 0.0476, the mole fraction of H2O is 0.9524,
and the molarity of the solution is 2.78 M
Ques: The reactant which is entirely consumed in reaction is known as limiting reagent.
In the reaction 2A + 4B —> 3C + 4D, when 5 moles of A react with 6 moles of B, then
(i) which is the limiting reagent?
(ii) calculate the amount of C formed.
Sol:
To determine the limiting reagent in the reaction, we need to calculate the number of
moles of C and D that can be produced from the given amounts of A and B.
Number of moles of C produced from 5 moles of A

= (5 mol A) x (3 mol C/2 mol A)
= 7.5 mol C
Number of moles of C produced from 6 moles of B
= (6 mol B) x (3 mol C/4 mol B)
= 4.5 mol C
Therefore, the limiting reagent is B, as it produces a smaller amount of C compared to A.

To calculate the amount of C formed, we need to use the stoichiometric ratio of C
to A and B:

Number of moles of C produced
= (6 mol B) x (3 mol C/4 mol B)
= 4.5 mol C
Molar mass of C = 12.01 g/mol
Amount of C formed
= (4.5 mol C) x (12.01 g/mol C)
= 54.045 g C
Therefore, the amount of C formed in the reaction is 54.045 g.
Ques :Define the law of multiple proportions. Explain it with two examples. How does
this law point to the existence of atoms?
Law of multiple proportions: When two elements combine to form two or more
chemical compounds, then the masses of one of the elements which combine with a
fixed mass of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another, e.g., carbon combines
with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
The masses of oxygen which combine with a fixed mass of carbon in C02 and CO
are 32 and 16 respectively. These masses of oxygen bear a simple ratio of 32 : 16 or 2
: 1 to each other. For example, sulphur combines with oxygen to form two
compounds, namely, sulphur trioxide and sulphur dioxide.
The masses of oxygen which combine with a fixed mass of sulphur in S03 and S02
are 48 and 32 respectively. These masses of oxygen bear a simple ratio of 48 : 32 or
3 : 2 to each other. This law shows that there are constituents which combine in a
definite proportion. These constituents may be atoms. Thus, the law of multiple
proportions shows the existence of atoms which combine to form molecules.
Quse : Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HC1 to give CaCl2 and C02 according to
the reaction given below:
CaC03(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + C02(g) + H2O(l)

What mass of CaCl2 will be formed when 250 mL of 0.76 M HC1 reacts with 1000 g of
CaC03? Name the limiting reagent. Calculate the number of moles of CaCl2 formed in
the reaction.
Sol:
The balanced chemical equation tells us that 1 mole of CaCO3 reacts with 2 moles of HCl
to form 1 mole of CaCl2.
Therefore, the number of moles of HCl required to react with 1 mole of CaCO3 is 2.
Number of moles of HCl present in 250 mL of 0.76 M HCl solution:
Molarity = number of moles of solute / volume of solution in liters

0.76 M = x moles / 0.25 L
x = 0.19 moles of HCl
Number of moles of CaCO3 present in 1000 g of CaCO3:
mass of CaCO3 = number of moles of CaCO3 × molar mass of CaCO3
1000 g = x moles × 100.09 g/mol

x = 9.99 moles of CaCO3
(9.99 moles CaCO3) / 1 × 2 moles HCl / 1 × 1 mole CaCl2 / 1 = 4.995 moles CaCl2
Mass of CaCl2 formed:

mass = number of moles × molar mass
mass = 0.095 moles × 110.98 g/mol = 10.45 g
Therefore, the mass of CaCl2 formed when 250 mL of 0.76 M HCl reacts with 1000 g
of CaCO3 is 10.45 g. The limiting reagent is HCl. The number of moles of CaCl2 formed
is 0.095 moles.
*after studying from these notes
NOTE : Worksheet (Important questions of all typology with answers) is

provided as a seperate PDF on website padhleakshay.com

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Chapter 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

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Chapter 1

Some Basic Concepts of

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Chemistry is a field of science that studies the composition, properties, and

Importance and scope of Chemistry

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Generally matter is classified into three phases:

Matter can further be classified into following at bulk or macroscopic level:

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Two or more substances are mixed which result in non-uniform

Any distinct portion of matter that is uniform throughout in composition

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

A compound is a substance composed of two or more different elements

Compounds can be formed by chemical reactions between elements or between

Properties OFf Matter

Mass: The amount of matter in an object, usually measured in grams or kilograms.

Definition of SI Base Units

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Second : The second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation

Ampere : The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two

Kelvin : The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of

Candela : The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a

Q :Classify following substances as elements, compounds and

Q : Write seven fundamental quantities and their units

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Notes : In additions or subtractions, the final result should be reported to the

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

It was given by, a French chemist, Joseph Proust.

This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803.

Law of Reciprocal Proportions

Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

John Dalton in 1808 published “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” in which he

Atomic Mass and Molecular Mass

Atomic mass can be defined as a mass of a single atom which is measured

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a

Molecular mass expressed in grams is known as gram molecular mass.

Molecular mass of methane,

(CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u) = 16.043 u

Symbolic representation of compound is called chemical formula. It is of

An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

The concentration of a solution reflects the relative proportion of solute

weight percent (% w/W) = (Weight of solute / Weight of solution) x 100

Volume percent (% V/V) = (Volume of solute / Volume of solution) x 100

Molality (m) – It is defined as number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent.

Molarity (M) : It is defined as number of moles of solute present in 1 L of solution.

M = {Number of moles of solute/Volume of solution (in litre)} x 100

(i). Mole fraction of solute (Xsolute) =n/(n+N)

Normality : It is defined as gram equivalent of solute dissolved in one litre solution.

N = {Gram equivalent of solute / Volume of solution (litre)} x 100

Q : What is 1 molal solution?

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Limiting reagent is the reactant which is completely consumed in a reaction. YouTube/@padhleakshay

N 2 (1 mole) + 3H 2(3 mole) ⟶ 2NH3 (2 mole)

It means 1 mole of N2 react with 3 mole of H 2 to produce 2 mole of NH3.

*me after learning all points

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

1 kg solvent / 1.110 g/mL = 901.8 mL YouTube/@padhleakshay

Molarity = moles of solute / volume of solution in liters

120 g NaOH / 40.00 g/mol = 3.00 moles NaOH

Molarity = 3.00 moles / 1 liter = 3.00 M

The molality of a solution is not affected by temperature. This is because