Module1 Introduction

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A Brief Review of Thermodynamics
To get started, we need to characterize the medium that flows through the duct. In gas turbine
engines the medium is a perfect gas, often air. The perfect gas law that relates the pressure, density,
and the absolute temperature of the gas may be derived rigorously from the kinetic theory of gases.
Prominent assumptions in its formulation are
(1) Intermolecular forces between the molecules are negligibly small and
(2) The volume of molecules that occupy a space is negligibly small and may be ignored. These
two assumptions lead us to
Where R is known as the gas constant, which is inversely proportional to the molecular weight of
the gas
The thermodynamic relations for a perfect gas in terms of specific heats at constant pressure and
volume are
The zeroth law of thermodynamics is an observation. When two objects are separately in
thermodynamic equilibrium with a third object, they are in equilibrium with each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics: Any thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a

state vajiable called the internal energy (E). Between any two equilibrium states, the change in
internal energy is equal to the difference of the heat transfer into the system(Q) and work done(w)
by the system.
E2 - E1 = Q - W
The second law states that there exists a useful state variable called entropy S. The change in
entropy delta S is equal to the heat transfer delta Q divided by the temperature T.
delta S = delta Q / T
The ratio of specific heats is given by a special symbol𝛾𝛾due to its frequency of appearance in
compressible flow analysis
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Principles of Propulsion
Steam Engines :Steam is generated from water by burning cheap crude oil .Sealed condensers
return the steam from the cylinders to the boiler with only 1 % loss .Constant pressure in the boilers
is maintained by electric gauges, which automatically ignite the burners when pressure begins to
fall .Take-off pressure can be generated in 1 min .It was capable of STOL operation due to the ease
of reversing thrust .The strangest feature of the flight was its relative silence .The advantages of this
engine were the elimination of audible noise and destructive vibration; greater efficiency at low
engine speeds and also at high altitudes where lower air temperatures assisted condensation;
reduced likelihood of engine failure; reduced maintenance and fuel costs .However, steam
reciprocating engine turned out to be unsuitable for scaling up to the needs of large aircraft.
Stirling Engines :A Stirling engine is a heat engine having either air or other gas as a working
fluid .It operates by cyclic compression and expansion of the working fluid, at different
temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work .Stirling
engines have many advantages like high power density and low cost, quieter, less polluting, gain
efficiency with altitude due to lower ambient temperatures; more reliable due to fewer parts and the
absence of an ignition system, produce much less vibration )airframes last longer(, and safer, less
explosive fuels may be used .However, they have low power density compared to the commonly
used piston engines and gas turbine .This issue made them critical for use as aircraft
engines.
Nuclear Engines: A nuclear aircraft is an aircraft powered by nuclear energy .Research into
them was pursued during the Cold War by the United States and the Soviet Union as they would
presumably allow a country to keep nuclear bombers in the air for extremely long periods of time,
a useful tactic for nuclear deterrence .Neither country created any nuclear aircraft in production
numbers .One design problem, never adequately solved, was the need for heavy shielding to protect
the crew from radiation sickness .Also, in consideration, was the ecological impact of a crash during
operations.
Internal Combustion
Wankel
Engine
intermittent
Piston Engine
Shaft engines
Internal Combustion
Turboprop
continuous
Turboshaft
Ramjet
Athodyd
Scramjet
Reaction
engines
Turbojet
Turbine
engines
Turbofan
• Wankel Engine: The Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion engine which uses a rotary
design to convert pressure into a rotating motion
• Piston Engine: A Piston engine, also often known as a reciprocating engine, is a heat engine
that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. Piston
T
engines may be classified into five groups
In-Line: An in-line engine has cylinders lined up in one row .It typically has an even number
of cylinders. The biggest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be
designed with a narrow frontal area for low drag.
Rotary Engine: Rotary engines have all the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase like a radial
engine, but the difference is that the crankshaft is bolted to the airframe, and the propeller is bolted
to the engine case.
Radial Engine: Radial engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged in a circle around a
centrally located crankcase .Each row must have an odd number of cylinders in order to produce
smooth operation.
V-Type :Cylinders in V-type engine are arranged in two in-line banks, tilted 30-60 apart
from each other .The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled.
Opposed-Type:An opposed-type engine has two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally
17T8 18T
located crankcase:
18T
Other Classifications of IC Engines

Based on fuel used
Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel
Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel
Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used
Based ignition of fuel

Spark ignition engine: Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine
cylinder. Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark plug. The spark plug produces a spark and ignites
the air- fuel mixture. Such combustion is called constant volume combustion.
Compression ignition engine: In compression ignition engines air is compressed in to the engine
cylinder, Due to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 C. At this stage diesel
is sprayed in to the cylinder in fine particles. Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited.
This type of combustion is called constant pressure combustion
Based on working cycle

Four stroke cycle engine - When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is
called four stroke cycle engine.
Two stroke cycle engine. - When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is
called two stroke cycle engine
IC ENGINE COMPONENTS
Internal combustion engine consists of a number of parts which are given below
1. Cylinder: It is a part of the engine which confines the expanding gases and forms the
combustion space.
2. Cylinder block: It is the solid casting body which includes the cylinder and water
jackets.
3. Cylinder head: It is a detachable portion of an engine which covers the cylinder and
includes the combustion chamber, spark plugs or injector and valves.
Cylinder liner or sleeve: It is a cylindrical lining either wet or dry type which is
inserted in the cylinder block in which the piston slides.
4. Piston: It is a cylindrical part closed at one end which maintains a close sliding fit in
the engine cylinder.
5. Piston ring: It is a split expansion ring, placed in the groove of the piston. It reduces contact
area between cylinder wall and piston wall preventing friction losses and excessive wear.
6. Crankshaft: It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion of the flywheel.
7. Flywheel: It stores energy during power stroke and returns back the energy during the idle
strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion of flywheel.
8. Crankcase: The crankcase is that part of the engine which supports and encloses the crankshaft
and camshaft. It provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil.
9. Camshaft: It is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper times.
10. Timing gear: Timing gear is a combination of gears, one gear of which is mounted at one end
of the camshaft and the other gear at the crankshaft.
11. Inlet manifold: It is that part of the engine through which air or air-fuel mixture enters into the
engine cylinder. xv) Exhaust manifold: It is that part of the engine through which exhaust gases
go out of the engine cylinder
12. Top dead centre - When the piston is at the top of its stroke, it is said to be at the top dead
centre (TDC)
13. Bottom dead centre - when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, it is said to be at its bottom
dead centre (BDC)
14. Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine cylinder is
known as scavenging.
Four Stroke Cycle Engine(Petrol/Diesel)
The four stroke cycle engines consists of four strokes namely suction, compression, power and
exhaust take place inside the engine cylinder. This engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of
charge and outlet of exhaust gases. The opening and closing of the valve is controlled by cams,
fitted on camshaft. The camshaft is driven by crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains.
The camshaft runs at half the speed of the crankshaft. The events taking place in I.C. engine are as
follows:
1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke 3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke
Suction stroke: During suction stroke inlet valve opens and the piston moves downward. Only air
(diesel or CI engines) or a mixture of air and fuel (Petrol or SI engines) are drawn inside the
cylinder. The exhaust valve remains in closed position during this stroke. The pressure in the engine
cylinder is less than atmospheric pressure during this stroke.
Compression stroke: During this stroke the piston moves upward. Both valves are in closed
position. The charge taken in the cylinder is compressed by the upward movement of piston. If only
air is compressed, as in case of diesel engine, diesel is injected at the end of the compression
stroke and ignition of fuel takes place due to high pressure and temperature of the compressed air.
If a mixture of air and fuel is compressed in the cylinder, as in case of petrol engine, the mixture
is ignited by a spark plug.
Power stroke: After ignition of fuel, tremendous amount of heat is generated, causing very high
pressure in the cylinder which pushes the piston downward. The downward movement of the
piston at this instant is called power stroke. The connecting rod transmits the power from piston to
the crank shaft and crank shaft rotates. Mechanical work can be taped at the rotating crank shaft.
Both valves remain closed during power stroke.
Exhaust stroke: During this stroke piston moves upward. Exhaust valve opens and exhaust gases
go out through exhaust valves opening. All the burnt gases go out of the engine and the cylinder
becomes ready to receive the fresh charge. During this stroke inlet valve remains closed.
Two stroke cycle engine (petrol engine)
In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power and
exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no
valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called ports in the cylinder.
The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the crankshaft rotates.
Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression):

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which
are normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already
in to the cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also uncovers
the suction port. Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the
end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a spark plug. Thus, during this stroke
both suction and compression events are completed.
Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust): Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of
the gases which forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes
the suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the previous upward
stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and
then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder through the
transfer port driving out the burnt gases through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown
deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust
gases . During the downward stroke of the piston power and exhaust events are completed.
Comparison Between Two Stroke And Four Stroke Engines
Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

One power stroke for every two revolutions One power stroke for each revolution of the
of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead of
engine. valves.
Crankcase is not fully closed and air tight. Crankcase is fully closed and air tight.
Top of the piston compresses the charge. Both sides of the piston compress the charge.
Size of the flywheel is comparatively
Size of the flywheel is comparatively larger.
smaller.
Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.
Weight of engine per hp is comparatively

Weight of engine per hp is high.
low.
Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively low.
Removal of exhaust gases comparatively
Removal or exhaust gases easy.
difficult.
Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.
For a given weight, engine would give only For same weight, two stroke engine gives
half the power of two stroke engine. twice the power that of four stroke engine.
All types of speed are possible (high and
Mostly high speed engines are there.
low).
It can be operated in both direction
It can be operated in one direction only.
(clockwise and counter clockwise).
Cycle Analysis of Petrol Engine
Stage 0: is the beginning of the intake stroke of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric
pressure and the gas volume is at a minimum. Between Stage 0 and Stage 1 the piston is pulled
out of the cylinder with the intake valve open. The pressure remains constant, and the gas volume
increases as fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve.
Stage 1: begins the compression stroke of the engine with the closing of the intake valve. Between
Stage 1 and Stage 2, the piston moves back into the cylinder, the gas volume decreases, and the
pressure increases because work is done on the gas by the piston.
Stage 2 is the beginning of the combustion of the fuel/air mixture. The combustion occurs very
quickly and the volume remains constant. Heat is released during combustion which increases both
the temperature and the pressure, according to the equation of state.
Stage 3 begins the power stroke of the engine. Between Stage 3 and Stage 4, the piston is driven
towards the crankshaft, the volume in increased, and the pressure falls as work is done by the gas
on the piston.
Stage 4 the exhaust valve is opened and the residual heat in the gas is exchanged with the
surroundings. The volume remains constant and the pressure adjusts back to atmospheric
conditions.
Stage 5 begins the exhaust stroke of the engine during which the piston moves back into the
cylinder, the volume decreases and the pressure remains constant. At the end of the exhaust stroke,
conditions have returned to Stage 1 and the process repeats itself.
During the cycle, work is done on the gas (Energy is absorbed) by piston between stages 2 and 3.
Work is done by the gas (Energy is rejected) on the piston between stages 4 and 5.
Cycle Analysis of Diesel Engine
Stage 0: is the beginning of the intake stroke of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric
pressure and the gas volume is at a minimum. Between Stage 0 and Stage 1 the piston is pulled
out of the cylinder with the intake valve open. The pressure remains constant, and the gas volume
increases as air is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve.
Stage 1: begins the compression stroke of the engine with the closing of the intake valve. Between
Stage 1 and Stage 2, the piston moves back into the cylinder, the air volume decreases, and the
pressure increases because work is done on the air by the piston.
Stage 2 Diesel is injected at the end of the compression stroke and ignition of fuel takes place The
combustion occurs very quickly and the Pressure remains constant. Heat is released during
combustion which increases both the temperature
Stage 3 begins the power stroke of the engine. Between Stage 3 and Stage 4, the piston is driven
towards the crankshaft, the volume in increased, and the pressure falls as work is done by the gas
on the piston.
Stage 4 the exhaust valve is opened and the residual heat in the gas is exchanged with the
surroundings. The volume remains constant and the pressure adjusts back to atmospheric
conditions.
Stage 5 begins the exhaust stroke of the engine during which the piston moves back into the
cylinder, the volume decreases and the pressure remains constant. At the end of the exhaust stroke,
conditions have returned to Stage 1 and the process repeats itself.
During the cycle, work is done on the air (Energy is absorbed) by piston between stages 2 and 3.
Work is done by the gas (Energy is rejected) on the piston between stages 4 and 5.
Comparison Of Diesel Engine With Petrol Engine
Diesel engine Petrol engine

It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
spark plug. plug.
Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to
Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.
22:1
It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosene
It uses diesel oil as fuel.
as fuel.
Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
It has got no fuel injection pump and
It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and injector injector, instead it has got carburetor and
ignition coil.
Fuel is injected in combustion chamber Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
where burning of fuel takes places due to combustion chamber when it is ignited by
heat of compression. an electric spark.
Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to 38% Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%
Engine weight per horsepower is
Engine weight per horse-power is high.
comparatively low.
Operating cost is low. Operating cost is high.
Compression pressure inside the cylinder

Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 and temperature
kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C
is about 500°C.
Advantages of diesel engines

• Desirable fuel type: low flammability and worldwide availability of Jet-A or diesel fuel is valued
in all applications.
• Fuel efficiency brake-specific fuel consumption) of diesel engines is typically lower petrol-
powered aviation engine
• Lower fuel cost and higher fuel availability
• Single-lever power operation: no mixture, no alternate air, no auxiliary fuel pump,
• Less toxic emissions: diesel and jet fuels contain no toxic substances such as lead, benzene or
scavengers.
• Dramatically reduced fire hazard: diesel fuels have much lower flammability.
• Good reliability and low maintenance cost: no carburetor icing, spark-plug problems, and no
vapor lock
Disadvantages of diesel engines

• Unreliable starting at low temperatures
• Higher weight
• Higher operating temperature
Classifications of rockets
Rockets can be classified based on propulsion methods using one of the following methods
• Chemical )solid, liquid, and hybrid.(
• Electrical )electrostatic, electro thermal, and electromagnetic.(
• Solar )solar sail rocket, solar-heated rocket.(
• Nuclear )nuclear fission rocket, nuclear fusion rocket, photon rocket.(
• Combination of rocket engine and air-breathing engine )like ramjet, turbojet, or turbofan engine

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A Brief Review of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics: Any thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a

engines may be classified into five groups

Other Classifications of IC Engines

Based ignition of fuel

Based on working cycle

Four Stroke Cycle Engine(Petrol/Diesel)

Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression):

Comparison Between Two Stroke And Four Stroke Engines

Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

Weight of engine per hp is comparatively

Cycle Analysis of Petrol Engine

Cycle Analysis of Diesel Engine

Comparison Of Diesel Engine With Petrol Engine

Diesel engine Petrol engine

Compression pressure inside the cylinder

Advantages of diesel engines

Disadvantages of diesel engines

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