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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____
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Learning Objective of the Class: Introduction: Students to understand the Review of thermodynamic principles,
Principles of aircraft Propulsion, Types of power plants, working principles of internal combustion Engine, Two
– stroke and four – stroke piston engines, Gas- turbine engines, Cycle analysis of reciprocating engines and jet
engines , advantages and disadvantages.(Syllabus)

A Brief Review of Thermodynamics

To get started, we need to characterize the medium that flows through the duct. In gas turbine engines the medium
is a perfect gas, often air. The perfect gas law that relates the pressure, density, and the absolute temperature of
the gas may be derived rigorously from the kinetic theory of gases. Prominent assumptions in its formulation are
(1) Intermolecular forces between the molecules are negligibly small and
(2) The volume of molecules that occupy a space is negligibly small and may be ignored. These two assumptions
lead us to
Where R is known as the gas constant, which is inversely proportional to the molecular weight of the gas

The thermodynamic relations for a perfect gas in terms of specific heats at constant pressure and volume are

The zeroth law of thermodynamics is an observation. When two objects are separately in thermodynamic
equilibrium with a third object, they are in equilibrium with each other.

First Law of Thermodynamics: Any thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a state variable
called the internal energy (E). Between any two equilibrium states, the change in internal energy is equal to the
difference of the heat transfer into the system(Q) and work done(w) by the system.

E2 - E1 = Q - W

The second law states that there exists a useful state variable called entropy S. The change in entropy delta S is
equal to the heat transfer delta Q divided by the temperature T.
delta S = delta Q / T

The ratio of specific heats is given by a special symbol𝛾due to its frequency of appearance in compressible flow
analysis
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____
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Principles of Propulsion

Steam Engines :Steam is generated from water by burning cheap crude oil .Sealed condensers return the steam
from the cylinders to the boiler with only 1 % loss .Constant pressure in the boilers is maintained by electric
gauges, which automatically ignite the burners when pressure begins to fall .Take-off pressure can be generated
in 1 min .It was capable of STOL operation due to the ease of reversing thrust .The strangest feature of the flight
was its relative silence .The advantages of this engine were the elimination of audible noise and destructive
vibration; greater efficiency at low engine speeds and also at high altitudes where lower air temperatures assisted
condensation; reduced likelihood of engine failure; reduced maintenance and fuel costs .However, steam
reciprocating engine turned out to be unsuitable for scaling up to the needs of large aircraft.

Stirling Engines :A Stirling engine is a heat engine having either air or other gas as a working fluid .It operates
by cyclic compression and expansion of the working fluid, at different
temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work .Stirling engines have
many advantages like high power density and low cost, quieter, less polluting, gain efficiency with altitude due
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____
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to lower ambient temperatures; more reliable due to fewer parts and the absence of an ignition system, produce
much less vibration (airframes last longer), and safer, less explosive fuels may be used .However, they have low
power density compared to the commonly used piston engines and gas turbine .This issue made them critical for
use as aircraft
engines.
Nuclear Engines: A nuclear aircraft is an aircraft powered by nuclear energy .Research into them was pursued
during the Cold War by the United States and the Soviet Union as they would presumably allow a country to keep
nuclear bombers in the air for extremely long periods of time, a useful tactic for nuclear deterrence .Neither
country created any nuclear aircraft in production numbers .One design problem, never adequately solved, was
the need for heavy shielding to protect the crew from radiation sickness .Also, in consideration, was the ecological
impact of a crash during operations.

Internal Combustion

Wankel
Engine
intermittent
Piston Engine
Shaft engines
Internal Combustion

Turboprop
continuous
Turboshaft

Ramjet
Athodyd
Scramjet
Reaction
engines
Turbojet
Turbine
engines
Turbofan

 Wankel Engine :The Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion engine which uses a rotary design to
convert pressure into a rotating motion
 Piston Engine: A Piston engine, also often known as a reciprocating engine, is a heat engine that uses one or
more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion .Piston engines may be classified into
five groups

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
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In-Line: An in-line engine has cylinders lined up in one row .It typically has an even number
of cylinders .The biggest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be
designed with a narrow frontal area for low drag.
Rotary Engine :Rotary engines have all the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase like a radial engine, but
the difference is that the crankshaft is bolted to the airframe, and the propeller is bolted to the engine case.
Radial Engine: Radial engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged in a circle around a
centrally located crankcase .Each row must have an odd number of cylinders in order to produce smooth
operation.
V-Type :Cylinders in V-type engine are arranged in two in-line banks, tilted 30-60 apart
from each other .The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled.
Opposed-Type: An opposed-type engine has two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally
located crankcase:
Other Classifications of IC Engines
Based on fuel used
Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel
Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel
Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used

Based ignition of fuel

Spark ignition engine: Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine cylinder.
Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark plug. The spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture.
Such combustion is called constant volume combustion.

Compression ignition engine: In compression ignition engines air is compressed in to the engine cylinder, Due
to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 C. At this stage diesel is sprayed in to the cylinder
in fine particles. Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is called constant
pressure combustion

Based on working cycle

Four stroke cycle engine - When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is called four
stroke cycle engine.
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
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Two stroke cycle engine. - When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is called two
stroke cycle engine

IC ENGINE COMPONENTS
Internal combustion engine consists of a number of parts which are given below
1. Cylinder: It is a part of the engine which confines the expanding gases and forms the
combustion space.
2. Cylinder block: It is the solid casting body which includes the cylinder and water
jackets.
3. Cylinder head: It is a detachable portion of an engine which covers the cylinder and
includes the combustion chamber, spark plugs or injector and valves.
Cylinder liner or sleeve: It is a cylindrical lining either wet or dry type which is
inserted in the cylinder block in which the piston slides.

4. Piston: It is a cylindrical part closed at one end which maintains a close sliding fit in
the engine cylinder.
5. Piston ring: It is a split expansion ring, placed in the groove of the piston. It reduces contact area between
cylinder wall and piston wall preventing friction losses and excessive wear.

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6. Crankshaft: It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion of the flywheel.
7. Flywheel: It stores energy during power stroke and returns back the energy during the idle strokes, providing
a uniform rotary motion of flywheel.
8. Crankcase: The crankcase is that part of the engine which supports and encloses the crankshaft and camshaft.
It provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil.
9. Camshaft: It is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper times.
10. Timing gear: Timing gear is a combination of gears, one gear of which is mounted at one end of the camshaft
and the other gear at the crankshaft.
11. Inlet manifold: It is that part of the engine through which air or air-fuel mixture enters into the engine
cylinder. xv) Exhaust manifold: It is that part of the engine through which exhaust gases go out of the engine
cylinder
12. Top dead centre - When the piston is at the top of its stroke, it is said to be at the top dead centre (TDC)
13. Bottom dead centre - when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, it is said to be at its bottom dead centre
(BDC)
14. Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine cylinder is known as
scavenging.
Four Stroke Cycle Engine (Petrol/Diesel)

The four stroke cycle engines consists of four strokes namely suction, compression, power and exhaust take place
inside the engine cylinder. This engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of exhaust
gases. The opening and closing of the valve is controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft. The camshaft is driven by
crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains. The camshaft runs at half the speed of the crankshaft. The
events taking place in I.C. engine are as follows:
1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke 3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke

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Suction stroke: During suction stroke inlet valve opens and the piston moves downward. Only air (diesel or CI
engines) or a mixture of air and fuel (Petrol or SI engines) are drawn inside the cylinder. The exhaust valve
remains in closed position during this stroke. The pressure in the engine cylinder is less than atmospheric pressure
during this stroke.

Compression stroke: During this stroke the piston moves upward. Both valves are in closed position. The charge
taken in the cylinder is compressed by the upward movement of piston. If only air is compressed, as in case of
diesel engine, diesel is injected at the end of the compression stroke and ignition of fuel takes place due to high
pressure and temperature of the compressed air. If a mixture of air and fuel is compressed in the cylinder, as
in case of petrol engine, the mixture is ignited by a spark plug.

Power stroke: After ignition of fuel, tremendous amount of heat is generated, causing very high
pressure in the cylinder which pushes the piston downward. The downward movement of the piston at this
instant is called power stroke. The connecting rod transmits the power from piston to the crank shaft and crank
shaft rotates. Mechanical work can be taped at the rotating crank shaft. Both valves remain closed during power
stroke.

Exhaust stroke: During this stroke piston moves upward. Exhaust valve opens and exhaust gases
go out through exhaust valves opening. All the burnt gases go out of the engine and the cylinder becomes ready
to receive the fresh charge. During this stroke inlet valve remains closed.
Two stroke cycle engine (petrol engine)

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power and exhaust are
completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of
engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air
tight in which the crankshaft rotates.

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Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression):
When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are normally
almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the cylinder. Further
upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is
drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited
by a spark plug. Thus, during this stroke both suction and compression events are completed.

Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust): Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which
forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the suction port, trapping the
fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the previous upward stroke. Further downward movement of the
piston uncovers first the exhaust port and
then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder through the transfer port driving
out the burnt gases through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture up around
the cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases . During the downward stroke of the piston power
and exhaust events are completed.

Comparison between Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines

Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

One power stroke for every two revolutions One power stroke for each revolution of the
of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead of
engine. valves.
Crankcase is not fully closed and air tight. Crankcase is fully closed and air tight.
Top of the piston compresses the charge. Both sides of the piston compress the charge.
Size of the flywheel is comparatively
Size of the flywheel is comparatively larger.
smaller.
Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.
Weight of engine per hp is comparatively
Weight of engine per hp is high.
low.
Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively low.
Removal of exhaust gases comparatively
Removal or exhaust gases easy.
difficult.
Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.

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For a given weight, engine would give only For same weight, two stroke engine gives
half the power of two stroke engine. twice the power that of four stroke engine.
All types of speed are possible (high and
Mostly high speed engines are there.
low).
It can be operated in both direction
It can be operated in one direction only.
(clockwise and counter clockwise).

Cycle Analysis of Petrol Engine

Stage 0: is the beginning of the intake stroke of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric pressure and the gas
volume is at a minimum. Between Stage 0 and Stage 1 the piston is pulled out of the cylinder with the intake
valve open. The pressure remains constant, and the gas volume increases as fuel/air mixture is drawn into the
cylinder through the intake valve.

Stage 1: begins the compression stroke of the engine with the closing of the intake valve. Between Stage 1 and
Stage 2, the piston moves back into the cylinder, the gas volume decreases, and the pressure increases
because work is done on the gas by the piston.

Stage 2 is the beginning of the combustion of the fuel/air mixture. The combustion occurs very quickly and the
volume remains constant. Heat is released during combustion which increases both the temperature and the
pressure, according to the equation of state.

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Stage 3 begins the power stroke of the engine. Between Stage 3 and Stage 4, the piston is driven towards the
crankshaft, the volume in increased, and the pressure falls as work is done by the gas on the piston.

Stage 4 the exhaust valve is opened and the residual heat in the gas is exchanged with the surroundings. The
volume remains constant and the pressure adjusts back to atmospheric conditions.

Stage 5 begins the exhaust stroke of the engine during which the piston moves back into the cylinder, the volume
decreases and the pressure remains constant. At the end of the exhaust stroke, conditions have returned to Stage
1 and the process repeats itself.

During the cycle, work is done on the gas (Energy is absorbed) by piston between stages 2 and 3.
Work is done by the gas (Energy is rejected) on the piston between stages 4 and 5.

Cycle Analysis of Diesel Engine

Stage 0: is the beginning of the intake stroke of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric pressure and the gas
volume is at a minimum. Between Stage 0 and Stage 1 the piston is pulled out of the cylinder with the intake
valve open. The pressure remains constant, and the gas volume increases as air is drawn into the cylinder through
the intake valve.

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Stage 1: begins the compression stroke of the engine with the closing of the intake valve. Between Stage 1 and
Stage 2, the piston moves back into the cylinder, the air volume decreases, and the pressure increases
because work is done on the air by the piston.

Stage 2 Diesel is injected at the end of the compression stroke and ignition of fuel takes place The combustion
occurs very quickly and the Pressure remains constant. Heat is released during combustion which increases both
the temperature

Stage 3 begins the power stroke of the engine. Between Stage 3 and Stage 4, the piston is driven towards the
crankshaft, the volume in increased, and the pressure falls as work is done by the gas on the piston.

Stage 4 the exhaust valve is opened and the residual heat in the gas is exchanged with the surroundings. The
volume remains constant and the pressure adjusts back to atmospheric conditions.

Stage 5 begins the exhaust stroke of the engine during which the piston moves back into the cylinder, the volume
decreases and the pressure remains constant. At the end of the exhaust stroke, conditions have returned to Stage
1 and the process repeats itself.

During the cycle, work is done on the air (Energy is absorbed) by piston between stages 2 and 3.
Work is done by the gas (Energy is rejected) on the piston between stages 4 and 5.

Comparison of Diesel Engine with Petrol Engine

Diesel engine Petrol engine

It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
spark plug. plug.
Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to
Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.
22:1

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It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosene
It uses diesel oil as fuel.
as fuel.
Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
It has got no fuel injection pump and
It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and injector injector, instead it has got carburetor and
ignition coil.
Fuel is injected in combustion chamber Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
where burning of fuel takes places due to combustion chamber when it is ignited by
heat of compression. an electric spark.
Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to 38% Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%
Engine weight per horsepower is
Engine weight per horse-power is high.
comparatively low.
Operating cost is low. Operating cost is high.
Compression pressure inside the cylinder
Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 and temperature
kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C
is about 500°C.

Advantages of diesel engines

 Desirable fuel type: low flammability and worldwide availability of Jet-A or diesel fuel is valued in all
applications.
 Fuel efficiency brake-specific fuel consumption) of diesel engines is typically lower petrol-powered aviation
engine
 Lower fuel cost and higher fuel availability
 Single-lever power operation: no mixture, no alternate air, no auxiliary fuel pump,
 Less toxic emissions: diesel and jet fuels contain no toxic substances such as lead, benzene or scavengers.
 Dramatically reduced fire hazard: diesel fuels have much lower flammability.
 Good reliability and low maintenance cost: no carburetor icing, spark-plug problems, and no vapor lock

Disadvantages of diesel engines

 Unreliable starting at low temperatures
 Higher weight
 Higher operating temperature

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Classifications of rockets
Rockets can be classified based on propulsion methods using one of the following methods
 Chemical (solid, liquid, and hybrid.)
 Electrical (electrostatic, electro thermal, and electromagnetic.)
 Solar (solar sail rocket, solar-heated rocket.)
 Nuclear (nuclear fission rocket, nuclear fusion rocket, photon rocket.)
 Combination of rocket engine and air-breathing engine (like ramjet, turbojet, or turbofan engine

Classification of aircrafts

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Aircraft Power plants must be:
• Reliable, as losing power in an airplane, is a substantially greater problem than in road vehicles

• Operate at extreme temperature, pressure, and speed

• Light weight as a heavy engine increases the empty weight of the aircraft and reduces its payload

• Powerful, to overcome the weight and drag of the aircraft

• Small and easily streamlined to minimize the created drag

• Field repairable to keep the cost of replacement down. Minor repairs should be relatively inexpensive
and possible outside of specialized shops

• Fuel efficient to give the aircraft the range and manoeuvrability the design requires

• Capable of operating at sufficient altitude for the aircraft

• Generate the least noise

• Generates the least emission

Types of IC Propulsion

• Reaction Based Propulsion

• Non Reaction Based Propulsion

Classification of Reaction Based Engines:

• Air Breathing Engine: A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. The air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.

• Non Air Breathing Engine: A separate oxidizer tank is used for combustion
•
Classification of Non Air Breathing Engines
• Chemical propulsion

• Electric Propulsion

• Nuclear propulsion

• Solar propulsion

Comparison with IC Engine:

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FIG: BRYTON CYCLE

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FIG: TURBOJET ENGINE

FIG: TURBOJET ENGINE WITH AFTER BURNER.

Advantages of Turbojet

• Suitable for longer distance flights at higher speeds and altitudes

• Lower frontal area and shorter landing gears

• Lower weight per unit thrust at design speed and altitude

• Pressure rise through inlet diffuser is significant

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• Reheat can be employed for increased thrust

Turbo Propeller

Advantages of Turbo Prop:

• Due to higher thrust at low speed shorter runway is required

• The SFC is low based on thrust

• Propulsive efficiency is high

• Thrust reversal is achieved easily

Limitation:
• Application is limited to lower speed and altitude

• Engine is heaver and more complicated

• Use of Centrifugal compressor increases frontal area

• Higher weight per unit thrust

• Propeller lose aerodynamic efficiency as speed increases

Turbo Fan:

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Advantages
• Short take off due to increased thrust at low speed

• Comparatively quiet engine

• Weight per unit thrust is lower than Turbo Prop

• Thrust generated is higher compared to Turbojet

Disadvantages/Limitation:
• Frontal Area is larger than Turbojet

• Separate Thrust reversers are needed for hot and cold gas

• TSFC is higher compared to the Turboprop Engine

• Turbofan engine is heavier than Turbojet engine

Learning Outcome of the Class: Students came to know about the Review of thermodynamic principles,
Principles of aircraft Propulsion, Types of power plants, working principles of internal combustion Engine,
Two – stroke and four – stroke piston engines, Gas- turbine engines, Cycle analysis of reciprocating engines
and jet engines , advantages and disadvantages.

Assignment Questions on the Topic: Explain the working principle of turbojet, turbo propeller and turbofan engines.

University Questions (If any) on the Topic: Wait for question bank along with University Questions.

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Learning Outcome of the Class:

Assignment Questions on the Topic:

University Questions (If Any) on the Topic:

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