Data Analysis Overview

Validation Coding Data Machine Tabulation

and Entry Cleaning and
Editing of Data Statistical
Analysis
Chapter Thirteen
 Data Analysis Overview

Step One:
– Validation: Confirming the interviews / surveys occurred
– Editing: Determining the questionnaires were completed correctly
 Data Analysis Overview

Step Two:
– Coding: Grouping and assigning numeric codes to the question responses
 Data Analysis Overview

Step Three:
– Data Entry: Process of converting data to an electronic form
– Scanning the questionnaire into a database
 Data Analysis Overview

Step Four:
– Clean the Data: Check for data entry errors or data entry inconsistencies
– Machine cleaning: Computerized check of the data
 Data Analysis Overview

Step Five:
One-Way Frequency Tables, Cross Tabulations
 Tabulation

• The most basic tabulation is the one-way frequency table:

USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY
FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

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USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY FREQUENCY TABLES
AND CHARTS

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USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY FREQUENCY TABLES
AND CHARTS

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USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY FREQUENCY TABLES
AND CHARTS

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USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY FREQUENCY TABLES
AND CHARTS

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USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY FREQUENCY TABLES
AND CHARTS

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 USING SPSS TO GENERATE ONE-WAY FREQUENCY TABLES AND
CHARTS

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ANALYZING A FREQUENCY TABLE

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 Editing and Skip Patterns

• Editing:
– The process of ascertaining that questionnaires were filled out
properly and completely

• Skip Patterns:
– Sequence in which later questions are asked, based on a
respondent’s answer to an earlier question
 Coding

• Coding:
Grouping and assigning numeric codes to every potential
response to a question

• The Process:
– List responses
– Consolidate responses
– Set codes
– Enter codes
– Keep coding sheet
 Data Entry

• Data Entry:
Converting information to an electronic format

• Intelligent Data Entry:

– A form of data entry in which the information being entered into the
data entry device is checked for internal logic
 Cross-Tabulation Data

Bivariate cross-tabulation:
• Cross tabulation two items: “Business
Category” and “Gender” Are You a Veteran? (All)
You Liked the Chamber's Services (All)
Race/Ethnicity (All)

Count of Respondent Gender

Multivariate cross-tabulation: Business Category Female Male Grand Total
• Additional filtering criteria—“Veteran Computers/Technology 5 7 12
Construction 2 4 6
Status”. Now filtering three items. General Services 1 1
Manufacturing 13 6 19
No Response 1 4 5
Race/Ethnicity (All) Other 15 11 26
Are You a Veteran? Yes Professional 1 3 4
You Liked the Chamber's Services (All) Retail 4 4 8
Wholesale 1 1 2
Count of Respondent Gender
#N/A 1 1
Business Category Female Male Grand Total
Grand Total 42 42 84
Computers/Technology 1 3 4
Construction 1 1
Manufacturing 5 5
Other 3 2 5
Professional 1 1
Grand Total 9 7 16
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USING MICROSOFT EXCEL TO CREATE CROSS TABULATIONS

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USING SPSS TO CREATE CROSS TABULATIONS

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USING SPSS TO CREATE CROSS TABULATIONS

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USING SPSS TO CREATE CROSS TABULATIONS

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USING SPSS TO CREATE CROSS TABULATIONS

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USING SPSS TO CREATE CROSS TABULATIONS

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 Descriptive Statistics
Effective means of summarizing large data sets.
Key measures include: mean, median, mode, standard deviation, skewness,
and variance.
Significant discrepancies in “Mean”
and Median” should cause you to
look further into this data.

Years in Business

Mean 22.4
Standard Error 2.6
Median 15.0
Mode 5.0
Standard Deviation 23.1
Sample Variance 534.5
Kurtosis 3.8
Skewness 2.1
Range 98.0
Minimum 2.0
Maximum 100.0
Sum 1770.5
Count 79.0
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 Measure of Central Tendency

• Mean:
– The sum of the values for all observations of a variable divided by
the number of observations

• Median:
– In an ordered set, the value below which 50 percent of the
observations fall

• Mode:
– The value that occurs most frequently
 Measures of Dispersion

• Variance:
– Sums of the squared deviations from the mean divided by the
number of observations minus one
– Same formula as standard deviation

• Range:
– Maximum value for variable minus the minimum value for that
variable

• Standard Deviation: Calculate by

– Subtracting the mean of a series from each value in a series
– Squaring each result then summing them
– Dividing the result by the number of items minus 1
– Take the square root of this value
 Statistical Significance

• Mathematical differences

• Statistical significance

• Managerially important differences

 Hypothesis Testing: Key Steps
• Step One: Stating the hypothesis
– Null Hypothesis: status quo proven to be true
– Alternative Hypotheses: another alternative proven to the true.
• Step Two: Choosing the appropriate test statistic
– Test of means, test or proportions, ANOVA (Analysis of variance), etc.
• Step Three: Developing a decision rule
– Determine the significance level
– Need to determine whether to reject or fail to reject the null
hypothesis
• Step Four: Calculating the value of the test statistic
– Use the appropriate formula to calculate the value of the statistic.
• Step Five: Stating the conclusion
– Stated from the perspective of the original research question
Types of Errors in Hypothesis Testing

• Type I error:
– Rejection of the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is true

• Type I error:
– Acceptance of the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is false

Tests are either one- or two-tailed. This decision depends on the nature
of the situation and what the researcher is demonstrating.
One- and
Two-Tailed One-Tailed Test:
• “If you take the medicine, you will get better”
Tests

Two-Tailed Test:
• “If you take the medicine, you will get either better or worse.”
Issues With Type I and II Errors

Actual State of the Fail to Reject Ho Reject Ho

Null Hypothesis

Ho is true Correct (1- a) Type I error ( a)

no error

Ho is false Type II error ( b) Correct (1- b)

no error
Commonly Used Statistical Hypothesis Tests

• Independent samples

• Related samples

• Degrees of freedom

• p Values and significance testing

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