BENEFICIAL INSECTS

Pollinators of crops (Bees, wasps, butterflies, moths, hoverflies, beetles)

Many plants depend on insects to transfer pollen as they forage. Plants attract insects in various
ways, by offering pollen or nectar meals and by guiding them to the flower using scent and visual
cues. This has resulted in strong relationships between plants and insects. Value of crop production
from pollination by native insects is estimated to be about $3 billion in US alone.

When we talk about pollinators the ones that come to mind are honey bees and butterflies, but there
are also many other insects that perform this job for flowering plants, as well. There are flies, wasps,
beetles and even some other insects that most people know nothing about, such as Hem iptera and
thrips. There are many important pollinating insect species in the orders: Hymenoptera (bees,
wasps, and ants), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles).

As adults these insects feed on pollen and nectar from flowers. They forage from plant to plant and
may initiate pollination by transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma. Female bees and pollen
wasps provision their nests with pollen and nectar that they actively collect onto their bodies. Their
larvae then feed on the collected pollen and nectar. Yucca moth larvae do not feed on pollen or
nectar but on the seeds of yucca plants. The adults pollinate the yucca plant by actively collecting
pollen onto their palps and then placing the collected pollen on a receptive stigma to ensure proper
seed set for their offspring.

Economic value of insect pollination worldwide is estimated at U.S. $217 billion

(Science Daily, Sept. 15, 2008). German scientist found that the worldwide economic value of the
pollination service provided by insect pollinators, bees mainly was dollar153 billion in 2005 for the
main crops that feed the world. This figure amounted to 9.5% of the total value of the world
agricultural food production. The study also determined that pollinator disappearance would
translate into a consumer loss of food estimated between dollar 190 to 310 billion.

Predators of pests (Dragonflies, beetles, bugs, lacewings, wasps)

 The arthropod predators of insects and mites include beetles, true bugs, lacewings, flies , midges,
spiders, wasps, and predatory mites. Insect predators can be found throughout plants, including the
parts below ground, as well as in nearby shrubs and trees. Some predators are specialized in their
choice of prey, others are generalists. Some are extremely useful natural enemies of insect pests.
Unfortunately, some prey on other beneficial insects as well as pests.

Major characteristics of arthropod predators:

 Adults and immature stages are often generalists rather than specialists.
 They generally are larger than their prey.
 They kill or consume many preys.
 Males, females, immature stages and adults may be predatory.
 They attack immature and adult prey.
Important insect predators include lady beetles, ground beetles, rove beetles, flower bugs and other
predatory true bugs, lacewings and hover flies. Spiders and some families of mites are also predators
of insects and mite pests. Natural enemies play an important role in limiting potential pest
populations. We have seen what happens when pesticides devastate the natural enemies of potential
pests. Surveys of agricultural systems give an indication of the potential number and diversity of
predators in a crop.

For example, over 600 species of predators in 45 families of insects and 23 families of spide rs and
mites have been recorded in cotton. Eighteen species of predatory insects (not including spiders and
mites) have been found in potatoes in the northeastern United States.

Parasites of pests (Hymenoptera and Diptera)

Parasitoids are insects with an immature stage that develops on or in an insect host, and ultimately
kills the host. Adults are typically free-living, and may be predators. They may also feed on other
resources, such as honeydew, plant nectar or pollen. Because parasitoids must be adapted to the life
cycle, physiology and defenses of their hosts, many are limited to one or a few closely related host
species. Crop losses averted by beneficial insects from predators or parasites of agricultural pests
are estimated to be $4.5 billion. The most valuable insect parasites belong to the following groups:

 Tachinid Flies (Diptera)

 Ichneumonid Wasps (Hymenoptera)
 Braconid Wasps (Hymenoptera)
 Chalcid Wasps (Hymenoptera)
These parasites live in or on one host insect pest which is killed after the parasite completes its
development. Parasite (also called parasitoid) adults are free-living; the immature stage lives on or
inside a host and kills the host before the host completes its development. Parasites lay one or more
eggs on the outside of the host body or they insert the eggs inside their host. The immature parasite
feeds on the host and requires only a single individual prey to complete its development.

Free-living adults may feed on nectar from flowering plants or obtain nutrients by piercing the body
of host insects and withdrawing fluids (host-feeding). Parasites are often considered more effective
natural enemies than predators because many have a narrower host range, require only one host to
complete development, have an excellent ability to locate and kill their host and can respond rapidly
to increases in host populations.

HARMFUL INSECTS
Harmful insects are the species that cause damage to humans and their livestock, cropsand possessions
worldwide. Some are directpests in that they attack the body of the hostorganism (plant or animal) and
either sucksap or blood or eat the tissues. Indirect pestsare mostly concerned with the transmissionof
pathogens or parasites causing disease. Insome cases it is the adult insect that causes the damage, in others
it is the larval stage (caterpillar, maggot, etc.). Sometimes it isboth adult and larva that are pests, and
theymay act in concert or separately.
1. Medical Pests
 Triatoma Spp. (Domestic Assasin Bug), Pediculus humanus (Human Louse), Xenopsylla
cheopsis (Tropical Rat Flea), Anopheles spp (Mosquito), Phlebotomus spp (Sand flies),
Glossina spp. (Tsetse).
2. Animal/Veterinary Pests
These fall into two categories: the direct pests that damage the host animal by feeding on its blood
or tissues, and the indirect pests that act as vectors or intermediate hosts (or both) of parasites or
pathogens, causing disease. Damage to livestock varies in extent, usually according to the age and
health of the host. Young animals, old animals in poor health and animals kept in insanitary
conditions are more likely to suffer heavy infestations, and these will have an adverse effect on the
animal. Low levels of infestation will still cause irritation and will upset the host.
The more important species to be regarded as veterinary pests are reviewed below:
• Bovicola bovis (Red Louse)- worldwide on cattle.
• Columbicola columbae (Pigeon Louse) - worldwide on pigeon.
• Damalinia spp. - several species are found on sheep, cattle, horses and goats.
• Felicola subrostrata (Cat Louse) – worldwide on cats but not common.
• Lipurus - a typical bird-biting louse found on poultry.
• Menopon gallinae (Chicken Shaft Louse) - worldwide on chickens.

Musa domestica Culicoides spp. (Biting midges), Simulium ornatum (Black flies), Stomoxys
calcitrans (Dog fly), Ctenocephalides felis (Cat flea).

3. Crop pests
 Aphids.
 Caterpillars.
 Cutworms.
 Grasshoppers and locusts.
 Thrips.
 Weevils.
 Whiteflies.
  Mites.
4. Storage pests
Primary Storage Pest
 Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae, S. zeamais, S.granarius
 Khapra beetle: Trogoderma granarium
 Lesser grain borer/Hooded grain borer/paddy borer beetle: Rhyzopertha dominica
 Angoumois grain moth or Grain moth: Sitotroga cerealella
 Pulse beetle: Callosobruchus chinensis, C. maculatus
 Tamarind/Peanut bruchid: Caryedon serratus
 Cigarette beetle: Lasioderma sericorne
 Drug store beetle: Stegobium paniceum
 Sweet Potato weevil: Cylas formicarius
 Potato tuber moth: Pthorimaea operculella
Secondary Storage Pest
 Rust red flour beetle: Tribolium castaneum
 Long headed flour beetle: Latheticus oryzae
 Saw toothed grain beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis
 Rice moth: Corcyra cephalonica
 Fig or Almond or Warehouse moth: Ephestia cautella
 Indian meal moth: Plodia interpunctella

Note: Ticks (किर्ना), Lice/louse (जुम्रन), Mite (सल ु े), Flea (उकियनाँ), Bug (उडुस)
ु सल

PROTECTION MEASURES AGAINST INSECT PESTS

Insect Control
Insect control is also important to keep the pests from spreading to other crops, and it may help
reduce the incidence of disease by killing insect vectors. Insects attacking vegetables can be
divided into three categories:
 Soil Insects
 Chewing Insects
 Sucking Insects
Soil Insects
Soil insects include wireworms, white grubs, fire ants, cutworms, seed maggots and the sweet
potato weevil. These insects can be damaging because they feed on the roots, stems and tubers of
plants. Often soil insects, especially cutworms, are common in uncultivated soil sites that have had
grass and weeds growing the previous season. These undisturbed areas often harbor high
populations of soil insects. Once seeds or transplants are planted, soil insects are difficult to control
and may begin feeding immediately on the crop. There is a real need for producers to inspect fields
for soil insects prior to planting. One or two soil insects per square foot of soil can cause serious
damage.
Oftentimes soil insects are clumped in a field, that is, they may be in one area and not in another.
Low areas or those areas with the most vegetation often hold the most insects. Controlling soil
insects is much easier if done prior to planting. Most insecticides for the control of soil insects
should be applied 6 weeks before planting and incorporated into the top 6 inches of the soil. Liquid
or granular materials may be used. These can either be broadcast or banded in the row. Sometimes
producers will apply insecticides at planting. Make sure to read the label for proper rates and
application techniques. Some insecticides may interfere with seed germination and should not be
placed in the furrow in contact with the seed.
Chewing Insects
Many chewing insects have a complete life cycle. Therefore, depending on species, there may be
one or two damaging stages. Grasshoppers have a chewing-type mouthpart but have an incomplete
life cycle. Chewing insects include all species of beetles, grasshoppers and moths and butterfly
larvae (most often called worms).
Chewing insects damage foliage, stems and fruit. They may become as numerous as to completely
defoliate plants. Eggs of most insects are laid on the plant, and the larvae upon hatching begin to
feed. Others may invade the crop by “marching in” or by flying into the field.
Control of chewing insects is basically twofold. One, the grower must watch for eggs and small
larvae that begin to feed; two, he must watch for the adults and control them when necessary.
Control of these insects is important in the early infestation of the plant. Often, the insect after
hatching may bore into the fruit or stem and be hidden from pesticide applications.
These insects often become numerous because producers do not begin treatment early enough. It
is vital that fields be watched and these insects controlled at the earliest possible moment.
Sometimes a single application timed properly will control a generation. However, repeated
applications are needed to control others like the corn earworm in sweet corn.
Sucking Insects
Sucking insects include aphids (“plant lice”), stink bugs, squash bugs, leafhoppers and spider
mites. Spider mites are not insects but are just as damaging and numerous as are some insects.
Sucking insects have an incomplete life cycle. After hatching from the egg, they may begin to feed
and move about on the plant.
They are usually attracted to the most succulent part of the plant. Aphids usually are found in the
terminal or on flowers. Stink bugs and squash bugs readily feed on the tender fruit. These insects
damage the plant by reducing the vigor or by injecting a toxin or disease-causing organisms into
the plant. Heavy feeding may cause flowers to abort or the leaves to turn yellow and fall off.
Feeding on the fruit may cause catfacing injury, hard spots or twisted and misshapen fruit.
Control is easiest to obtain soon after the insects hatch from eggs. This is when the insects are the
smallest and most vulnerable to the pesticide. Look for egg clusters, so that timing of the
insecticide can be more accurate. Most true bugs have large eggs that can be seen without the aid
of a magnifying glass. They are often on the undersurface of leaves and laid in tight groups and
glued together, or in the case of squash bugs, they may be laid singly but in a loose fitting group
and not glued together.
1. Physical method
Physical method mainly focus on altering the environmental parameters like temperature,
moisture, light etc. that helps to control the insect population.
Physical control methods in crop protection comprise techniques that limit pest access to
the crop/commodity, induce behavioral changes, or cause direct pest damage/death. The
primary action may have a direct impact, for example, when insects are killed immediately
by mechanical shock. In other instances, the desired effect is attained through stress
responses.
E.g. Heat or steam sterilization of soil is commonly used in greenhouses for control of
soil-borne pests and diseases. In soil solarization, clear plastic mulch is applied to bare soil
for an extended period of time (4–6 weeks) during the warmest, sunniest time of year to
disinfest soil. The clear plastic allows the sun’s energy to heat the soil below to
temperatures over 100°F. This method is not selective, so heat sensitive beneficial
organisms will also be destroyed.
Ditches or moats with steep vertical walls are occasionally used as barriers to keep
crawling insects (e.g., chinch bugs or white fringed beetles) from migrating out of one field
and into another. Pitfall traps are dug at 3-5 meter intervals in the ditch and filled with
kerosene or creosote to kill the pests.
Grazing animal
When choosing a grazing animal, consider the species of weed, the maturity of the weed,
the availability of animals for grazing and the nutritional requirements of the animal. Each
animal species tends to have a characteristic, preferred diet. Goat eat shrubs (upright grass
and fodder), Cattle eat ground grass.
Insects can be sterilized by exposing them to non-lethal levels of ionizing radiation (X-rays
or gamma rays). Exposure to radiation also damages chromosomes (usually by breakage
or mutation). Since cells with damaged chromosomes cannot divide correctly, they do not
form normal gametes or produce viable offspring. Although the susceptibility of each
insect species is different, a proper dose of radiation administered at an appropriate stage
of development (usually to pupae) can often induce sterility without causing other
deleterious side effects.
Summer fallow
Summer fallow is used to control weeds, conserve moisture and nutrients, and retain crop
residue to protect against soil erosion. It also help to expose soil under sun for longer time
that helps to kill soil borne insects.
2. Mechanical method
Mechanical Control Methods
Mechanical method mainly consists of use of machines, equipment or tools to kill the insects.
Preventive devices often are easy to use, although their effectiveness varies. Here are examples
of such devices:
• Cheesecloth or spun bound polyester row covers for plant beds, hot beds and cold frames
to prevent insect egg laying.
• Mesh covers for tomatoes and other plants to keep out large insects and birds.
• Aluminum foil mulch to repel aphids.
Black light traps are effective tools for monitoring insect species in a given area, but usually
provide little protection for the crop. Light traps attract both harmful and beneficial insects
that ordinarily would not be found in the area. Attracted insects may not be caught in the traps,
but may remain in the area, and the harmful ones may cause damage later. Also, some species
such as wingless insects and those insects only active in the daytime are not caught in the traps.
Consequently, the value of black light traps is questionable. Where black lights are used, it is
recommended that they be placed 50 to 75 feet away from the area which is to be protected.
Tillage can help minimize damage from soil-dwelling insects by directly killing the insect,
exposing insects to predation by birds or other predators, and by helping the plant grow more
rapidly (this is not a guaranteed outcome). The principle behind this approach is that the sun
will warm up the soil around the plants faster and allow them to outgrow the pest’s feeding.

3. Cultural method
Many cultural practices can be used to reduce the potential for, or actual damage of plants
caused by insects:
• Plowing and cultivating exposes soil insects to adverse weather conditions, birds
and other predators. In addition, deep plowing will bury some insects and prevent their
emergence.
• Crop rotation can be effective against insects that develop on a narrow range of
food plants and also against insects with short migration ranges. Movement of crops to
different sites will isolate such pests from their food source. If an alternate site is not
available, then change the sequence of plants grown in the field. Do not plant members of
the same plant family in the same location in consecutive seasons. For example, do not
follow melons with cucumbers or squash.
• Proper use of fertilizers and water will induce healthy plant growth and increase
the capability of plants to tolerate insect damage. However, excessive amounts of organic
matter or manure can encourage millipedes, pillbugs, white grubs and certain other pests.
• Changes in planting or harvesting time often will reduce plant damage or keep
insect pests separated for susceptible stages of the host plant. Delayed planting, until the
soil is warm enough for corn and bean seeds to germinate quickly, reduces seed maggot
damage. Hot caps or row covers placed over plants used during the early season not only
will preserve heat, but also will protect plants from damaging wind, hail and insects. In
 some situations, a healthy transplant will overcome insect damage more easily than a small
plant developing from seed in the field.
• Removing soil residues and disposing of weeds and other volunteer plants
eliminates food and shelter for many insect pests such as cutworms, webworms, aphids,
white grubs, millipedes and spider mites. When plants stop producing, till them into the
soil or take them to the compost pile.
• Companion planting (an orderly mixing of crop plants) is a cultural practice
aimed at diversifying insect populations. Numerous claims have been made about the
ability of certain plants to protect certain other plants from insect damage. However, no
data from scientific studies are available to prove the value of companion plantings.
4. Biological method
Generally, biological control can be defined as the direct or indirect use of parasites,
predators or pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi protozoans) to hold pest insect populations
at low levels to avoid economic losses. Biological control methods fall into three
categories:
• Introduction of natural enemies which are not native to the area (these enemies must
then establish and perpetuate themselves).
• Enlarging existing populations of natural enemies by collecting, rearing and then
releasing them back into the environment.
• Conservation of beneficial organisms by such means as the judicious use of
pesticides and the maintenance of alternate host insects, so parasites and predators can
continue to develop.
Many beneficial organisms occur naturally around crops, but often they are not numerous
enough to control a pest before it inflicts severe damage. In fact, parasites and predators
appear to be most effective when a pest population has stabilized or is relatively low. Their
influence on an increasing pest population usually is minimal since any increase in parasite
and predator numbers depends on an even greater increase in pest numbers. Pathogens,
however, seem to be most effective when pest populations are large. Consequently, the
nature of the host insect-natural enemy relationship makes it impossible to have an insect-
free environment and at the same time maintain sizable populations of beneficial insects.
The following is a list of some of the more popular biocontrol agents:
• Bacillus thuringiensis: (Dipel, Thuricide, Biological Worm Killer). This bacterial
insecticide provides effective control of the larvae of several moths and butterflies. The
bacterial spores are harmless to warm blooded animals and beneficial insects.
• Bacillus popilliae: (Milky Spore, Doom, Japedimic). This bacterial insecticide
controls grubs of Japanese beetles in the eastern U.S., and some testing has been done for
control of white grubs (Phyllophaga spp. and Cotinis spp.) in Texas. It has not been
effective against the principal white grub species in Texas.
• Nosema locustae: A spore (Protozoan) used to control grasshoppers. The material
is sprayed on the plants which grasshoppers ingest. The spores germinate inside the
grasshopper, causing death. Control is extremely slow and growers may not be satisfied
with results. Baits have proven more effective.
 • Trichogramma wasp: Adult wasps are available from several sources. The tiny
wasps attack the eggs of more than 200 pest species, including cutworms, armyworms,
fruit worms and many moth and butterfly eggs deposited in orchards and field crops. Wasps
should be released when the moths are first seen, but a sequence of releases throughout the
season is preferable to a single, large release. Results will depend on the timing of the
releases, selection of Trichogrammaspecies and placement of wasps near host egg masses.
• Green lacewings (Chrysopa): The larvae, known as aphid lions, prey on many
vegetable pests including aphids, spider mites, leafhoppers, thrips, moth eggs and small
larvae. Adult lacewings feed on honeydew, nectar and pollen. Introduced lacewings must
have a readily available supply of food, or they will leave. Eggs are sometimes available.
• Praying Mantis: Egg cases, containing about 200 individual eggs, are available
from a number of sources. The mantis is a voracious predator. In addition, it is cannibalistic
immediately after hatching, so few nymphs survive the first week of life. However, the
mantis is a poor searcher for food and usually waits for prey to come to it. This greatly
influences the kinds of insects it captures and kills. Food preferences include grasshoppers,
crickets, bees, wasps and flies.
• Lady beetles: Adult beetles are available from several sources. Aphids are the
preferred hosts, but lady beetles will eat mealy bugs, spider mites and certain other soft
bodied pests and eggs. They do not, however, kill grubs, caterpillars and other beetles.
Unless an ample supply of live aphids or other hosts are available at the release point, lady
beetles will disperse and leave the area. In some cases, most of the beetles will leave the
area regardless of the availability of food. Lady beetles can be encouraged to remain on a
plant by using small meshed screen cages (remove cages before they devour all of their
food supply). In hot dry weather these beetles enter a nonactive (aestivation) state in which
feeding and reproduction cease. Little control from lady beetles can be expected during
this
5. Genetic method
Developing resistant cultivars by traditional breeding methods can be a slow and uncertain
process. But new advances in biotechnology now make it possible to pluck genes from one
organism and insert them into the cells of a completely different species. For example,
the delta-endotoxin gene from Bacillus thuringiensis, an insect pathogen, has already been
isolated and inserted into crop plants (notably cotton and tobacco). Cells of the genetically
engineered plants can produce their own toxin, making them "resistant" to certain insect
herbivores (e.g., Lepidoptera). Although gene-splicing techniques are still in their infancy,
they offer exciting new possibilities for expanding the diversity of resistant plant
genotypes.
Breeding plants (or animals) for resistance to insects is really just another form of
biological pest control. Rather than finding insects to attack the pests, breeders look for
genetic traits (or combinations of traits) that reduce an organism's susceptibility to attack
or injury by its insect pests. This idea was first tested in the 1870's by C. V. Riley, an
entomologist who successfully fought a French outbreak of phylloxera (an aphid-like pest
of grapes) with resistant North American rootstocks.
In general, there are three approaches that plant breeders use to develop resistant cultivars:
 Antibiosis: Plants produce a wide variety of defensive compounds (allelochemicals) that
protect them from herbivores. These compounds may reduce growth, inhibit reproduction,
alter physiology, delay maturation, or induce various physical or behavioral abnormalities
in herbivores. By purposely selecting for plants with high levels of allelochemicals, or by
breeding such plants with less resistant ones, it is often possible to develop new cultivars
that resist pest injury yet still retain desirable horticultural characteristics.

Antixenosis: A physical or chemical property of a plant can make it so unpalatable that

it is largely protected from herbivore attack. This type of resistance is often known as
nonpreference. It may involve the presence of feeding repellents (or the absence of feeding
attractants), or it may involve physical traits such as hairs, waxes, or a thick, tough
epidermis that do not provide the pest with a desirable feeding substrate. Alfalfa, for
example, has been bred with hairy leaves to deter feeding by the spotted alfalfa aphid.
Tolerance: Some plant genotypes are simply able to "tolerate" injurious insects better
than others. Tolerant cultivars may be exposed to the same pest populations as susceptible
ones, but they do not suffer as much injury. Many varieties of field corn, for example,
have fairly narrow, brittle stalks. When attacked by European corn borers, these stalks are
further weakened and break easily in a windstorm. This wind damage, known as lodging,
makes the corn hard to pick with mechanical harvesters. Plant breeders have largely
resolved this problem by breeding for corn with thicker, stronger cornstalks. These
tolerant cultivars are still attacked by corn borers, but they "stand up" to the injury and
insure a harvestable crop.
6. Regulatory method
Licensing, certification and plant quarantine service are important regulatory tools used in
some commodities to ensure that infested or contaminated material is not sold
commercially or used as breeding stock. Maintaining disease-free mother plants in
strawberries, for example, can often prevent the spread of insect-borne disease during the
growing season. Certified seed or plant material is produced under strict guidelines
established by commodity organizations in their own interests. In Nepal, crop insect-pest
are controlled under provision of Plant Protection Act, 2064 (2007).
7. Chemical method
Conventional insecticides are among the most popular chemical control agents because
they are readily available, rapid acting, and highly reliable. A single application may
control several different pest species and usually forms a persistent residue that continues
to kill insects for hours or even days after application. Because of their convenience and
effectiveness, insecticides quickly became standard practice for pest control during the
1960's and 1970's. Overuse, misuse, and abuse of these chemicals have led to widespread
criticism of chemical control and, in a few cases, resulted in long-term environmental
consequences.
There are mainly two types of pesticides:-
1. Contact type
Most insecticides are absorbed directly through an insect's exoskeleton. These compounds
are known as contact poisons because they are effective "on contact". Other insecticides
act as fumigants. They are released in the vapor state (as gases) and enter the insect's body
through its tracheal system. E.g. Cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, Deltamethrin etc.
2. Systemic pesticides
Systemic insecticides are a special type of stomach poison. These compounds are absorbed
by the tissues of a plant (or animal) without ill effects. Insect pests ingest the insecticide
when they feed on the treated organism. Systemic insecticides are sometimes included in
the diets of domestic animals to protect them from internal parasites (e.g., cattle grubs and
other bot flies). E.g. Fipronil, acephate, imidacloprid, dinotefuran etc.
Insects can be sterilized by exposing them to certain chemical agents (chemosterilants) or
to non-lethal levels of ionizing radiation (X-rays or gamma rays). Chemosterilants are
really a form of chemical control. They usually work by blocking the onset of sexual
maturity, by inhibiting the production of eggs and/or sperm, or by damaging the
chromosomes. These compounds will be covered more fully in the section on semio-
chemical insecticides.

Due to haphazard use, Insects may become resistant to insecticides in several ways.
Biochemical resistance usually involves changes in the metabolic pathways that insects
normally use to break down plant defenses and other environmental toxins. This
detoxication is facilitated by enzymes (esterases, hydrolases, transferases, and oxidases)
that change the chemical structure of toxicants before they cause physical harm.
Physiological resistance involves functional changes in basic life processes that alter the
way toxicants interact with the body. Some German cockroaches (Blatella germanica),
for example, have become resistant to carbaryl (a carbamate insecticide) as a result of
 genetic changes in the permeability of their cuticle. Behavioral resistance may occur as a
result of any innate change in behavior that reduces an insect's probability of encountering
a toxicant. In some parts of Panama, the mosquitoes that vector malaria (Anopheles
albimanus) have become hypersensitive to certain insecticides. They manage to escape
lethal doses of insecticide by avoiding enclosed areas and refusing to land on treated
surfaces.
When an insect population becomes resistant to one insecticide, it may also become less
susceptible to other toxicants in the same chemical family. This phenomenon, known as
class resistance, is a common problem in all major groups of insecticides
(organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and synthetic pyrethroids). When an
insecticide loses its effectiveness because of pest resistance, users typically replace it with
another compound from a different chemical group.
8. Organic method
Growers have been using soap to control insects since the early 1800’s. Researchers have
not yet determined exactly how soaps work. Some soap simply wash off the outer waxy
coating of the insect cuticle, destroying its watertight nature and causing the insect to dry
up and die. Other soaps have additional insecticidal properties which may affect the
nervous system. These soaps appear to have toxic activity only against plant eating insects,
and thus may spare beneficial insects such as lady beetles, honeybees, lacewings and
predatory mites. Although a number of soaps tested have insecticidal properties, only
Safer’s Insecticidal Soap is currently registered for use on edible crops. It controls such
pests as spider mites, aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies, harlequin bugs, stink bugs and thrips.
Organic growers have been using a spray mixture containing onions, garlic and pepper
mixed together to control insects for many years. Research indicates that of combination
of these materials have been erratic and in many cases ineffective for insect control. Sprays
of food-derived substances do not appear to be good choices as a pesticide. Some success
may be achieved with them, but it is likely to be sporadic. Spraying several times a week
might help to bring infestations under control. Control with one application should not be
expected.
Natural Insecticides
Despite all efforts, non-insecticidal methods at times will fail to prevent excessive insect
damage. At such times, the use of insecticides may be the only alternative left. Insecticides
chosen should have only low toxicity for humans and other warm blooded animals. They
should be used only when needed and according to label directions. A better understanding
of insecticides will enable you to use these materials more effectively and to realize that
they can be an aid without harming you or the environment.
• Pyrethrum: Botanical Insecticide. This slightly toxic insecticide is derived from
the flowers of a species of Chrysanthemum imported mainly from Kenya and Ecuador. The
material causes rapid paralysis of most insects, but the insects usually recover unless the
pyrethrum is used in combination with a synergist or other poison. Pyrethrum, mixed with
synergists such as piperonyl butoxide or piperonyl cyclonene to increase toxicity and
produce longer residual action, is used extensively in crop sprays and dusts. This chemical
is registered for use on most vegetables at any time during the growing season.
• Nicotine: Botanical Insecticide. Pure nicotine is a tobacco extract highly toxic to
warm blooded animals. The insecticide usually is marketed as a 40% liquid concentrate of
nicotine sulfate, which is diluted in water and applied as a spray. Dusts can irritate the skin.
Nicotine is used primarily for piercing-sucking insects such as aphids, whiteflies,
leafhoppers and thrips. Nicotine is more effective when applied during warm weather. It
degrades quickly, so it can be used on many food plants nearing harvest. It is registered for
use on a wide range of vegetable and fruit crops.
• Sabadilla Botanical Insecticide: Sabadilla is obtained from the seeds of a lily-like
plant and acts as both a contact and stomach poison for insects. It is not particularly toxic
to mammals, but does cause irritation of the eyes and respiratory tract. A mask should be
worn when working with this insecticide. This material deteriorates rapidly upon exposure
to light and can be used safely on food crops shortly before harvest. Sabadilla generally is
used as a 5 to 20% dust or as a spray.
• Rotenone: Botanical Insecticide. Rotenone is extracted from the roots of
Derrisplants in Asia and cube plants in South America. This general insecticide is harmless
to plants, highly toxic to fish and many insects, moderately toxic to mammals, and it leaves
no harmful residues on vegetable crops. It acts as both a contact and stomach poison to
insects. It is slow acting, and in the presence of sun and air, its effectiveness is lost within
a week after application. Wear a mask during application because rotenone can irritate the
respiratory tract. Rotenone dusts and sprays have been used for years to control aphids,
certain beetles and caterpillars.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as integrated pest control (IPC) is a broad-
based approach that integrates practices for economic control of pests. IPM simply
represents wise use of physical, mechanical, cultural, regulatory, genetic, biological and
chemical methods of prevention and control of insect-pests preserving environment and
living being's health. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury
level (EIL). The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization defines IPM as "the careful
consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of
appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep
pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or
minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a
healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural
pest control mechanisms. Entomologists and ecologists have urged the adoption of IPM
pest control since the 1970s. IPM allows for safer pest control.
Principles of IPM technique/Major components of IPM programs
An American IPM system is designed around six basic components:

a. Acceptable pest levels-The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that
wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be
expensive and unsafe. IPM programmes first work to establish acceptable pest
levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls if those thresholds are crossed.
 These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one
site to have a weed such as white clover, but not at another site. Allowing a pest
population to survive at a reasonable threshold reduces selection pressure. This
lowers the rate at which a pest develops resistance to a control, because if almost
all pests are killed then those that have resistance will provide the genetic basis of
the future population.
b. Preventive cultural practices-Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions
and maintaining healthy crops is the first line of defense. Plant quarantine and
'cultural techniques' such as crop sanitation are next, e.g., removal of diseased
plants, and cleaning pruning shears to prevent spread of infections. Beneficial fungi
and bacteria are added to the potting media of horticultural crops vulnerable to root
diseases, greatly reducing the need for fungicides.
c. Monitoring-Regular observation is critically important. Observation is broken into
inspection and identification. Visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and other
methods are used to monitor pest levels. Record-keeping is essential, as is a
thorough knowledge of target pest behavior and reproductive cycles. Since insects
are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on area temperatures.
Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree-days.
The degree days of an environment determines the optimal time for a specific insect
outbreak. Plant pathogens follow similar patterns of response to weather and
season.
d. Mechanical controls-Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical
methods are the first options. They include simple hand-picking, barriers, traps,
vacuuming and tillage to disrupt breeding.
e. Biological controls-Natural biological processes and materials can provide control,
with acceptable environmental impact, and often at lower cost. The main approach
is to promote beneficial insects that eat or parasitize target pests. Biological
insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g.—Bt,
entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fall in this
category. Further 'biology-based' or 'ecological' techniques are under evaluation.
f. Chemical control is the use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are used only when
needed and in combination with other approaches for more effective, long-term
control.
g. Responsible use-Synthetic pesticides are used as required and often only at specific
times in a pest's life cycle. Many newer pesticides are derived from plants or
naturally occurring substances (e.g.—nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile
hormone analogues), but the toxophore or active component may be altered to
provide increased biological activity or stability. Applications of pesticides must
reach their intended targets. Matching the application technique to the crop, the
pest, and the pesticide is critical. The use of low-volume spray equipment reduces
overall pesticide use and labor cost.
Steps used in IPM technique for agriculture
1. Proper identification of damage and responsible "pest"
Cases of mistaken identity may result in ineffective actions. If plant damage due to
over-watering are mistaken for a fungal infection, a spray may be used needlessly and
the plant still dies. If a beneficial insect is eating aphids on a sickly plant, the insect
might be killed because of "circumstantial evidence", and make the problem worse.
2. Learn pest and host life cycle and biology
At the time you see a pest, it may be too late to do much about it except maybe spray
with a pesticide. Oftentimes, there is another stage of the life cycle that is susceptible
to preventative actions. For example, weeds reproducing from last year's seed can be
prevented with mulches.
3. Monitor or sample environment for pest population
Preventative actions must be taken at the correct time if they are to be effective. For
this reason, once you have correctly identified the pest, you begin monitoring before
becomes a problem. for example, in school cafeterias where roaches may be expected
to appear, sticky traps are set out before school starts. Traps are checked at regular
intervals so you can see them right away and do something before they get out of hand.
Some of the things you might want to monitor about pest populations include: pest
present/absent? distribution - all over or only in certain spots? increasing or
decreasing in numbers?
4. Establish action threshold (economic, health or aesthetic)
In some cases, a certain number of pests can be tolerated. Soybeans are quite tolerant
of defoliation, so if you have only a few caterpillars in the field and their population is
not increasing dramatically, there is no need to do anything. Conversely, there is a point
at which you MUST do something. For the farmer, that point is the one at which the
cost of damage by the pest is MORE than the cost of control. This is an economic
threshold. Tolerance of pests varies also by whether or not they are a health hazard (low
tolerance) or merely a cosmetic damage (high tolerance in a non-commercial situation).
Personal tolerances also vary - many people dislike any insect; some people cannot
tolerate dandilions in their yards.
5. Choose appropriate combination of management tactics/methods
-Physical, mechanical, cultural, regulatory, genetic, biological and chemical
methods
6. Evaluate results
Did your actions have the desired effect? Was the pest prevented or managed to your
satisfaction? Was the method itself satisfactory? Were there any unintended side
effects? What will you do in the future for this pest situation?
 IPM and the 'Economic Injury Level' Concept
The basic goal of IPM is to control populations of pests so as to minimize economic
losses resulting from their damage. A key concept used for decision making in IPM is
the concept of the Economic Injury Level (EIL). This concept was first introduced by
Stern et al. (1959), who defined it as “The lowest population density of a pest that will
cause economic damage; or the amount of pest injury which will justify the cost of
control.” IPM decision-making—whether or not to take action to suppress a pest
population—in nonorganic systems is dependent on this concept. The EIL is usually
expressed as a pest density, but actually it is a level of injury that is indexed by pest
numbers. Insect numbers (counts) are used because they typically correlate well with
injury—both current and future—and it is often easier to count insects than to quantify
injury. Because the results of control measures against insect pests are delayed
somewhat after the detection of economically damaging populations, a second concept
important to IPM decision-making is required: the Economic Threshold. The Economic
Threshold (ET) is the pest abundance at which the EIL is likely to be equalled or
exceeded unless the decision to implement control measures is taken; it typically occurs
at a pest abundance below the EIL. Pest abundances or injury levels that reach the ET
trigger the implementation of reactive control measures because those populations are
predicted to result in economic losses if not controlled, whereas pest abundances or
injury levels below the ET do not merit intervention. These concepts are illustrated in
Fig. 1.

Figure 1. The Economic Injury Level (EIL) is the pest abundance (or level of
damage) at which the dollar cost of crop yield loss to the pest begins to exceed the
dollar cost of controlling the pest. The Economic Threshold (ET) is the pest
abundance (or damage level) at which the EIL is likely to be equalled or exceeded
 if left unmanaged. The ET is almost always lower than the EIL, and is considered
to be the point at which action against the pest is economically justified. The ET is
sometimes called an Action Threshold (AT). Figure credit: Ed Zaborski, University
of Illinois.

ORGANIC PEST MANAGEMENT (OPM) TECHNIQUE

Organic Pest Management (OPM) means an approach to eliminating pests using products derived
only from natural (animal or vegetable) ingredients such as natural oils, minerals from the earth,
and plants.
Recently, haphazard use of pesticides and insecticides has caused major environmental problems,
ultimately affecting human health. Application of eco-friendly, indigenous technical knowledge
can be one of the best options to enhance the crop production system in an organic way (native
knowledge referring to the understanding, skills, practices, and philosophies developed by
societies with long histories of interaction within their natural milieu). Some of the major
documented indigenous technical knowledge applied to control insect pest management in
Nepal are highlighted below:
Cultivation practices — like jarring plant parts to kill insects and removing the infected plant
parts — are followed to control pests and diseases. Application of indigenous instruments, like
hasiya, foruwa, halo, etc., during the crop harvest operation and field preparation also help kill
major insects and pests. In the case of specific pest attacks, like the rice moth which creates clusters
of rice on paddy, pests are combed out with sticks. Another interesting native technique to control
pests is the spreading of cooked rice around the field to attract birds to kill caterpillars. Some
traditional techniques of biological control include putting scarecrows in a field to control from
birds, using cats to control rat infestations, and having mongooses present to control insects/pests
in paddy fields.
To control Sap sucking insects: Traditional practices like planting marigold species as a border
crop can control sap sucking insects like aphids, white flies, and bugs. Limonene is the leading
agent released by marigolds, which results in a reduction of the pest population. Native practices
like applying a mixture of chili powder and water — or chinaberry (Melia azedarach) leaves and
water — can help reduce the presence of aphids.
To control Aphid, Caterpillar, Beetle: Applying a combination of Jholmol (1:7 ratio of Jholmol
and water) and diluted cow urine is another indigenous practice to control pests like aphids,
caterpillars, and beetles. Jholmol works both as a growth promoter and insect repellent. It can be
prepared by mixing cow urine, locally sourced plants with insecticidal or insect repellent properties
like Artemisia vulgaris (common name: titeypati), Azadiracta indica (local name: neem), Papaya
leaves, Ocimim sanctum (tulsii), Chili powder, etc. A diluted form of Jholmol i.e. 1:7 (Jholmol :
water) is applied on the plant parts. It is one of the best traditional practices of pest management
and is an eco-friendly and sustainable way to reduce pest population, controlling a broad range of
pests.
To control Shoot Borer: Protection from stem borer (chillozonellis) attacks can be achieved by
pinching the rice seedling before sowing and mixed cropping onion and sugarcane and spreading
grounded pulp of the khaira leaf on the wheat crop; the scent of the pulp is sufficient to kill the
pests. In the case of paddy, the pulp is introduced into the paddy field through the irrigation
channel.
To control Leaf roller: Mixtures of 1kg turmeric powder with 3-4 liters of cow urine and 15-20
liters of soap water (4gm of soap/ liter) are applied on paddy field to control leaf roller. Application
of neem water is another traditional practice to control leaf roller.
To control Storage pest insects: Grain storage with ash or neem and mixtures of vegetables seed
with ground bojho to prevent from storage pest attack are common traditional practices to control
storage pests. Trial for storage pest control with the application of Acorus calamus (local name:
bojho) seem to turn out well, and research in Entomology Department of Nepal Agriculture
Research Council (NARC) was successful.
Native technical knowledge can significantly contribute to sustainable crop production, but this
knowledge is often forgotten and neglected. There is an ongoing need for documentation, scientific
validation, and certification of native knowledge and practices clarifying its role to increase land
productivity and sustainability.

IPM Versus OPM

The goal of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is to control populations of pests below levels that
result in economic damage. Ideally, this is achieved through the integration of all suitable control
techniques in a compatible manner. The success of IPM in non-organic production systems is often
due to a ready arsenal of efficacious synthetic chemical pesticides. Indeed, many of the IPM
systems developed for non-organic crops are based on the pre-emptive use of pest control materials
(e.g., genetically modified crops, insecticidal seed treatments) or assessment of pest populations
and reaction to them with the use of “therapeutic” materials (chemical or biological) in a timely,
but reactive way.
In contrast, organic farming systems rely on ecologically-based practices such as cultural and
biological pest management, and virtually exclude the use of synthetic chemicals in crop
production. Genetically modified crops are not allowed. Under organic farming systems, the
fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities,
nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition, are used directly and indirectly as farm
management tools and to prevent pest populations from reaching economically-damaging levels.
For example, crops are rotated, planting and harvesting dates are carefully planned, and habitats
that supply resources for beneficial organisms are provided. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are
managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, cover crops, and supplemented
with manure, composts, crop waste material, and other allowed substances.