CLO 3chapter10

EE351: Signals and Systems
CLO # 3 Chapter # 10
The z-Transform
by
Dr. Ahmad Kamal Hassan
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
November 23, 2022

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 1 / 31
Outline
1 Introduction
2 The Response of LTI Systems to Complex Exponentials
3 The Region of Convergence for the z-Transforms
4 The Inverse z-Transform
5 Properties of z-Transform
6 Analysis and Characterization of LTI Systems Using z-Transforms
7 The Unilateral z-Transform

Introduction
z-Transform: z-transform maps a function of discrete time n to a function
of z.
Z
x[n] X (z) (1)
↔
∞
X
X (z) = x[n]z −n (2)
n=−∞
> z-Transform is the discrete time counterpart of Laplace transform and

it also plays an important role in the investigation of the stability or
instability of systems.
> z −1 corresponds to a unit delay in digital systems.
> This fact, combined with the algebraic properties that z-Transform
share with discrete time Fourier transforms, leads to a very important
set of tools for the design of discrete time LTI systems of given
specifications and study of digital filters, a PLO that will be
developed in EE452 (Digital Signal Processing).
The Response of LTI Systems to Complex Exponentials
It is advantageous in the study of LTI systems to represent signals as linear
combinations of basic signals that possess the following two properties:
1 The set of basic signals can be used to construct a broad and useful
class of signals.
2 The response of an LTI system to each signal should be simple
enough in structure to provide us with a convenient representation for

the response of the system to any signal constructed as a linear
combination of the basic signals.
The importance of complex exponentials in the study of LTI systems is
because the response of an LTI system to a complex exponential input is
the same complex exponential with only a change in amplitude; i.e.,
z n → H(z)z n (3)
where the complex amplitude factor H(z) is given by:
∞
X
H(z) = h[n]z −n (4)
n=−∞
The Response of LTI Systems to Complex Exponentials
Complex exponentials are eigenfunctions of LTI systems, let us consider
> A DT LTI system with impulse response h[n] and input as x[n] = z n
> From the convolution sum we have.
y [n] = h[n] ∗ x[n] (5)
X∞
= h[k]x[n − k] (6)
k=−∞
X∞
= h[k]z n−k (7)
k=−∞
∞
X
= z n
h[k]z −k (8)
k=−∞
= z n H(z) (9)
> A signal for which the system output is a constant times the input is
referred to as an eigenfunction of the system, and the amplitude
factor is referred to as the system’s eigenvalue.
The z-Transform
> The z-transform1 of a general signal x[n] is defined as:
∞
X
X (z) = x[n]z −n (10)
n=−∞
where z is a complex variable written in polar form as z = re jω , where

r is the magnitude of z and ω is the angle.
> Expressing z = re jω in (10) yields:
∞
X
jω
X (re ) = {x[n]r −n }e −jωn (11)
n=−∞
where r −n may be decaying or growing in time depending on the

value of r being greater than or less than unity respectively.
> If the magnitude of z is unity, the z-transform leads to the Fourier
transform, i.e.,
X∞
jω
X (z)|z=e jω = X (e ) = x[n]e −jωn (12)
n=−∞
1 AK Hassan
P∞ EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 ∞
P 6 / 31
The z-Transform
> Like the Laplace transform, the basis functions for the z- transform
are damped or growing sinusoids of the form z −n = r −n e −jw
Figure: The z-transform basis functions.
> Region of Convergence (ROC): Set of all z values for which the
sum in the z-Transform definition converges.

The z-Transform
> The frequency variables of the Laplace transform s = σ + jωand the
z-transform z −n = r −n e −jw are complex variables with real and
imaginary parts and can be visualised in a two dimensional plane.
Figure: Illustration of (a) the S-plane and (b) the Z-plane.

The z-Transform
>
Figure: Illustration of mapping a frequency of f Hz to an angle of φ radians.

> Figure above illustrates that an angle of 2π , i.e., once round the unit
circle, corresponds to a frequency of Fs Hz where Fs is the sampling
frequency. Hence, a frequency of f Hz corresponds to an angle φ as
2π
φ= f radians (13)
Fs
The z-Transform
> Remember discrete time sinusoidal sequences for increasing frequency
by a factor of π radians.

The z-Transform
Find the z-Transform of
> Example 10.1 > Example 10.2
> Example 10.3. A signal that is sum of two real exponentials.

1 1
x[n] = 7( )n u[n] − 6( )n u[n] (14)
3 2

The Region of Convergence for the z-Transforms
*(Self-Study the details of this section from the Text Book)
We explore some specific constraints on the ROC for various classes of

signals.
Several of these properties have been discussed in the Laplace Transforms
and similar conclusions can be drawn.
> Property 1: The ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane
centered about the origin.
> Property 2: The ROC does not contain any poles..
> Property 3: If x[n] is of finite duration, then the ROC is the entire
z-plane, except possibly z = 0 and/or z = ∞.
Example: Find the z-Tranform of δ[n], δ[n − 1], and δ[n + 1].

> Property 4: If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0
is in the ROC, then all finite values of z for which |z| > r0 will also be
in the ROC.
> Property 5: If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0

is in the ROC, then all values of z for which 0 < |z| < r0 will also be
in the ROC.
> Property 6: If x[n] is two sided, and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the
ROC, then the ROC will consist of a ring in the z-plane that includes
the circle |z| = r0 .

> Example: Find the z-Transform of
x[n] = b|n| , b>0 (15)

> Fig. below illustrates both cases of b, i.e., b > 0 and b < 0.
> Since this is a two-sided signal, let us divide it into the sum of a
right-sided and left-sided signal, i.e.,
x[n] = bn u[n] + b−n u[−n − 1]

1 −1 1
X (z) = { −1
; |z| > b} + { −1 −1
; |z| < }(16)
1 − bz 1−b z b
> Property 7: If the z-transform X (z) of x[n] is rational, then its ROC
is bounded by poles or extends to infinity.
> Property 8: If the z-transform X (z) of x[n] is rational, and if x[n] is
right sided, then the ROC is the region in the z-plane outside the
outermost pole-i.e., outside the circle of radius equal to the largest
magnitude of the poles of X (z).
Furthermore, if x[n] is causal (i.e., if it is right sided and equal to 0
for n < 0), then the ROC also includes z = ∞.
> Property 9: If the z-transform X (z) of x[n] is rational, and if x[n] is
left sided, then the ROC is the region in the z-plane inside the
innermost nonzero pole-i.e., inside the circle of radius equal to the
smallest magnitude of the poles of X (z) other than any at z = 0 and
extending inward to and possibly including z = 0.
In particular, if x[n] is anticausal (i.e., if it is left sided and equal to 0
for n > 0), then the ROC also includes z = 0.

The Inverse z-Transform
> Inverse z-Transform can formally be obtained using the following
expression I
1
x[n] = X (z)z n−1 dz (17)
2πj
H
where denotes integration around a counterclockwise closed circular
contour centered at the origin and with radius r.
> The above formulation is bit involved. Fortunately, we can resort to
other methods.
> Example: For the inverse z-Transform of
3 − 56 z − 1 1
X (z) = ; |z| > (18)
(1 − 14 z −1 )(1 − 13 z −1 ) 3
1 Use Partial Fraction Expansion to break the problem in

”canonical”(reference) form.
2 Use Table 10.2 for common z-Transform pairs to reach the conclusion.

> Example: Find the inverse z-Transform of
> 1)
X (z) = 4z 2 + 2 + 3z −1 ; 0 < |z| < ∞ (19)
> 2)
1
X (z) = ; |z| > |a| (20)
(1 − az −1 )
1
X (z) = ; |z| < |a| (21)
(1 − az −1 )
> 3)
X (z) = log (1 + az −1 ); |z| > |a| (22)
1 Such expressions can be evaluated using the power series, and,

2 Noting the ROC described
Properties of z-Transform

10.7 Analysis and Characterization of LTI Systems Using z-
Transforms
> One of the important applications of the z-transform is in the analysis
and characterization DT LTI systems.
> Its role for this class of systems stems directly from the convolution
property
Y (z) = H(z)X (z) (23)
where X(z), Y(z), and H(z) are the z-transforms of the input, output,
and impulse response of the system, respectively.
> If the ROC of H(z) includes the unit circle, i.e., z = e jω , H(z) is the
frequency response of the LTI system.
> In the broader context of the z- transform, H(z) is commonly referred
to as the system function or, alternatively, the transfer function.
> Many properties of DT LTI systems can be closely associated with the
characteristics of the system function in the z-plane.
Transforms
10.7.1 Causality
> For a causal LTI system, the impulse response is zero for n < 0 and
thus is right sided.
> Thus, A discrete-time LTI system is causal if and only if the ROC of
its system function is the exterior of a circle, including infinity.
> Also, A discrete-time LTI system with rational system function H(z) is
causal if and only if:
(a) the ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole; and
(b) with H(z) expressed as a ratio of polynomials in z, the order of
the numerator cannot be greater than the order of the denominator.
> Example: A system with system function as
z 3 − 2z 2 + z
H(z) = (24)
z 2 + 14 z + 18
is non-causal because of higher degree of polynomial for numerator.
Transforms
10.7.2 Stability
> The ROC of H(z) is also related to the stability of a system.
> Thus, An LTI system is stable if and only if the ROC of its system
function H(z) includes the unit circle, |z| = 1.
> Also, A causal LTI system with rational system function H(z) is stable
if and only if all of the poles of H(z) lie inside the unit circle-i.e., they
must all have magnitude smaller than 1.

Transforms
10.7.3 LTI Systems Characterized by LCCDE
> The properties of the z-transform can be exploited to directly obtain
the system function for an LTI system characterized by a linear
constant-coefficient difference equation.
> Example: For a causal first order feedback system given by
Figure: A first order feedback discrete-time system.
For α = 0.5 and α = −0.5, find the following

1 The system function H(z) and the z-plane plot.
2 The frequency response.

Transforms
> Consider a general linear constant-coefficient difference equation of
the form
XN M
X
αk y [n − k] = βk x[n − k]. (25)
k=0 k=0
Applying the z-transform to both sides
XN XM
−k
( αk z )Y (z) = ( βk z −k )X (z). (26)
k=0 k=0
And consequently the system function is

PM −k
Y (z) k=0 βk z
H(z) = = PN . (27)
X (z) k=0 αk z
−k
The ROC should be inferred from the preconditions.

Transforms
> Example:
Consider a stable and causal system with impulse response h[n] and
rational system function H(z). Suppose
> it is known that H(z) contains a pole at z = 1/2 and a zero
somewhere on the unit circle.
> The location of all other poles and zeros is unknown.
> For each of the following statements let us determine whether we can
definitely say that it is true, whether we can definitely say that it is
false, or whether there is insufficient information to ascertain the
statement’s truth:
> (a)F{h[n]2−n } converges
> (b)H(e jω ) = 0 for some ω.
> (c) h[n] has finite duration.
> (d) g [n] = n{h[n] ∗ h[n]} is the impulse response of a causal and
stable system.
10.9 The Unilateral z-Transform
> In the preceding sections, we have dealt with what is commonly called
the bilateral z-transform.
> Herein, we introduce the unilateral z-transform, which is of
considerable value in analyzing causal systems and, particularly,
systems specified by LCCDE with nonzero initial conditions (i.e.,
systems that are not initially at rest).
> The unilateral z-transform of a discrete-time signal [n] is defined as
∞
X
χ(z) = x[n]z −n (28)
0
> Example: For the signal given by
(i) x[n] = an u[n]

(ii) x[n] = an+1 u[n + 1]
Evaluate X(z) and χ(z)

> Example: For the unilateral z-transform given by
3 − 56 z −1
χ(s) =
(1 − 14 z −1 )(1 − 13 z −1 )
Evaluate x[n].


Solving Difference Equations Using Unilateral z-Transforms.

> Example: For a causal LTI system having the following difference
equation
y [n] + 3y [n − 1] = x[n]
Evaluate
1 Considering the condition of initial rest and input x[n] = αu[n], find
y[n].
2 Consider the initial conditions of y [−1] = β, also assume the input
x[n] = αu[n], find y[n].
Deliberate on the zero-state response and zero-input response

References and Useful Material
The content presented herein is adopted from

1 Oppenheim, A. V., Willsky, A. S., & Nawab, S. H. (1998). Signals
and Systems, 2nd edition. Pearson. (Text Book)
2 Lathi, B. P., & Green, R. A. (2005). Linear Systems and Signals (Vol.
2). New York: Oxford University Press.
3 Freeman, D. (2011). 6.003 :Signals and Systems, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology: MIT OpenCourseWare.
4 Yao, J., P. (2018). Lecture notes on ELG 3125B: Signals and Systems
Analysis. University of Ottawa.
5 Cuff, P. (2011-12). Lecture notes on ELE 301: Signals and Systems.
Princeton University.
6 Yalcin H. (2015). Lecture notes on EHB 315E Digital Signal
Processing. Istanbul Technical University (ITU).

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EE351: Signals and Systems

November 23, 2022

2 The Response of LTI Systems to Complex Exponentials

3 The Region of Convergence for the z-Transforms

4 The Inverse z-Transform

6 Analysis and Characterization of LTI Systems Using z-Transforms

7 The Unilateral z-Transform

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 2 / 31

> z-Transform is the discrete time counterpart of Laplace transform and

enough in structure to provide us with a convenient representation for

where z is a complex variable written in polar form as z = re jω , where

where r −n may be decaying or growing in time depending on the

Figure: The z-transform basis functions.

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 7 / 31

Figure: Illustration of (a) the S-plane and (b) the Z-plane.

Figure: Illustration of mapping a frequency of f Hz to an angle of φ radians.

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 10 / 31

Find the z-Transform of

> Example 10.1 > Example 10.2

> Example 10.3. A signal that is sum of two real exponentials.

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 11 / 31

*(Self-Study the details of this section from the Text Book)

We explore some specific constraints on the ROC for various classes of

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 12 / 31

> Property 5: If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 14 / 31

x[n] = b|n| , b>0 (15)

x[n] = bn u[n] + b−n u[−n − 1]

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 16 / 31

1 Use Partial Fraction Expansion to break the problem in

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 18 / 31

X (z) = log (1 + az −1 ); |z| > |a| (22)

1 Such expressions can be evaluated using the power series, and,

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 20 / 31

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 23 / 31

Figure: A first order feedback discrete-time system.

For α = 0.5 and α = −0.5, find the following

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 24 / 31

And consequently the system function is

The ROC should be inferred from the preconditions.

> Example: For the signal given by

(i) x[n] = an u[n]

Evaluate X(z) and χ(z)

> Example: For the unilateral z-transform given by

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 28 / 31

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 29 / 31

Solving Difference Equations Using Unilateral z-Transforms.

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 30 / 31

The content presented herein is adopted from

AK Hassan EE351: Chapter # 10 November 23, 2022 31 / 31

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