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Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, Conduction Through a Cylindrical Wall
convection, and radiation.
T1 Q
BASIC HEAT TRANSFER RATE EQUATIONS
Conduction
T2
Fourier’s Law of Conduction
r1
Qo =- kA dT , where
dx k
oQ = rate of heat transfer (W)
r2
k = the thermal conductivity [W/(m•K)]
A = the surface area perpendicular to direction of heat
transfer (m2) Cylinder (Length = L)
h = the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid Critical Insulation Radius
[W/(m2•K)] h∞
k
A = the convection surface area (m2) rcr = insulation
h3
Tw = the wall surface temperature (K)
T∞ = the bulk fluid temperature (K)
r insulation
Radiation k insulation
Thermal Resistance (R)
The radiation emitted by a body is given by
Qo = fvAT 4, where Qo = DT
Rtotal
ε = the emissivity of the body Resistances in series are added: Rtotal = RR, where
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2•K4)
A = the body surface area (m2) Plane Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): R = L , where
kA
T = the absolute temperature (K) L = wall thickness
ln d r2 n
r
CONDUCTION 1
Cylindrical Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): R = ,
Conduction Through a Plane Wall 2rkL
where
L = cylinder length
- kA ^T2 - T1h
Q
Qo = , where
L
A = wall surface area normal to heat flow (m2) T3
L = wall thickness (m) LA LB
T1 = temperature of one surface of the wall (K)
T2 = temperature of the other surface of the wall (K) 1 LA LB 1
h1 A kA A kB A h2 A
Q
T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2
84 HEAT TRANSFER
To evaluate Surface or Intermediate Temperatures: Transient Conduction Using the Lumped Capacitance
T - T2 T2 - T3 Method
Qo = 1
RA = RB The lumped capacitance method is valid if
Steady Conduction with Internal Energy Generation Biot number, Bi = hV % 1, where
The equation for one-dimensional steady conduction is kAs
o
d 2T + Qgen = 0, where h = the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid
dx 2 k [W/(m2•K)]
V = the volume of the body (m3)
Qo gen = the heat generation rate per unit volume (W/m3) k = thermal conductivity of the body [W/(m•K)]
As = the surface area of the body (m2)
For a Plane Wall
Fluid
h, T∞
T(x) Body
Ts1 Ts2 As
ρ, V, c P, T
Q gen k
Q"1 Q"2
Constant Fluid Temperature
x If the temperature may be considered uniform within the body
at any time, the heat transfer rate at the body surface is given
−L 0 L by
Qo = hAs ^T - T3h =- tV ^cP h b dT l, where
dt
Qo gen L2
T ^ xh = d1 - x 2 n + c s2 - s1 m b x l + c s1 - s2 m
2 T T T T
2k 2 L 2 T = the body temperature (K)
L
T∞ = the fluid temperature (K)
Qo 1" + Qo 2" = 2Qo gen L, where ρ = the density of the body (kg/m3)
cP = the heat capacity of the body [J/(kg•K)]
Qo " = the rate of heat transfer per area (heat flux) (W/m2) t = time (s)
Qo 1" = k b dT l and Qo 2" = k b dT l The temperature variation of the body with time is
dx - L dx L
T - T3 = _Ti - T3i e-bt, where
For a Long Circular Cylinder
hAs where b = 1x and
Ts b=
x = time constant ^ sh
tVcP
o
1 d b r dT l + Qgen = 0
r dr dr k
T ]r g =
Qo genr02
f1 - r 2 p + Ts
2
4k r0
Qo l = rr02Qo gen, where
Qo l = the heat transfer rate from the cylinder per unit length of
the cylinder (W/m)
HEAT TRANSFER 85
Variable Fluid Temperature CONVECTION
If the ambient fluid temperature varies periodically according Terms
to the equation D = diameter (m)
T3 = T3, mean + 1 _T3, max - T3, min i cos ^~t h h = average convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid
2
[W/(m2•K)]
L = length (m)
The temperature of the body, after initial transients have died Nu = average Nusselt number
away, is c n
Pr = Prandtl number = P
k
b ; 1 _T3, max - T3, min iE um = mean velocity of fluid (m/s)
T= 2 cos =~t - tan- 1 c ~ mG + T3, mean u∞ = free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
~2 + b2 b
µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid [kg/(s•m)]
Fins ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
For a straight fin with uniform cross section
(assuming negligible heat transfer from tip), External Flow
In all cases, evaluate fluid properties at average temperature
Qo = hPkAc _Tb - T3i tanh _ mLci, where between that of the body and that of the flowing fluid.
h = the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid
[W/(m2•K)] Flat Plate of Length L in Parallel Flow
P = perimeter of exposed fin cross section (m) tu3 L
k = fin thermal conductivity [W/(m•K)] ReL = n
Ac = fin cross-sectional area (m2)
Tb = temperature at base of fin (K) NuL = hL = 0.6640 Re1L 2 Pr1 3
_ReL < 105i
k
T∞ = fluid temperature (K)
hP NuL = hL = 0.0366 Re0L.8 Pr1 3
_ReL > 105i
m= k
kAc
A Cylinder of Diameter D in Cross Flow
Lc = L + c , corrected length of fin (m)
P tu3 D
ReD = n
Rectangular Fin
NuD = hD = C Re nD Pr1 3, where
k
T∞ , h
P = 2w + 2t ReD C n
Ac = w t 1–4 0.989 0.330
t 4 – 40 0.911 0.385
L w 40 – 4,000 0.683 0.466
Tb
4,000 – 40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000 – 250,000 0.0266 0.805
86 HEAT TRANSFER
For laminar flow (ReD < 2300), combined entry length with Outside Horizontal Tubes
constant surface temperature 0.25
h = C b k l Ra nD, where
NuD = 7.0 + 0.025 Re0D.8 Pr0.8 (constant wall temperature) D
HEAT TRANSFER 87
Heat Exchangers (cont.) Effectiveness-NTU Relations
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for Concentric Tube and C
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Cr = min = heat capacity ratio
Cmax
ln d o n
D
R R fo For parallel flow concentric tube heat exchanger
1 1 Di 1 , where
1 - exp 8- NTU ^1 + Cr hB
fi
UA = hiAi + Ai + 2rkL + Ao + hoAo
f=
Ai = inside area of tubes (m ) 2 1 + Cr
Ao = outside area of tubes (m2) NTU =- ln 81 - f ^1 + Cr hB
Di = inside diameter of tubes (m) 1 + Cr
Do = outside diameter of tubes (m) For counterflow concentric tube heat exchanger
hi = convection heat transfer coefficient for inside of tubes
[W/(m2•K)] 1 - exp 8- NTU ^1 - Cr hB
^Cr< 1h
1 - Crexp 8- NTU ^1 - Cr hB
ho = convection heat transfer coefficient for outside of tubes f=
[W/(m2•K)]
k = thermal conductivity of tube material [W/(m•K)] f = NTU
1 + NTU
^Cr = 1h
Rfi = fouling factor for inside of tube [(m2•K)/W]
NTU = 1 ln c f - 1 m ^Cr< 1h
Rfo = fouling factor for outside of tube [(m2•K)/W] Cr - 1 fCr - 1
For parallel flow in tubular heat exchangers α = absorptivity (ratio of energy absorbed to incident energy)
_THo - TCoi - _THi - TCi i ρ = reflectivity (ratio of energy reflected to incident energy)
DTlm = , where
ln d Ho n
T - TCo τ = transmissivity (ratio of energy transmitted to incident
THi - TCi energy)
∆Tlm = log mean temperature difference (K) Opaque Body
THi = inlet temperature of the hot fluid (K) For an opaque body: α + ρ = 1
THo = outlet temperature of the hot fluid (K)
TCi = inlet temperature of the cold fluid (K) Gray Body
TCo = outlet temperature of the cold fluid (K) A gray body is one for which
88 HEAT TRANSFER
Shape Factor (View Factor, Configuration Factor) One-Dimensional Geometry with Thin Low-Emissivity Shield
Relations Inserted between Two Parallel Plates
Reciprocity Relations
Q12 Radiation Shield
AiFij = AjFji, where
Ai = surface area (m2) of surface i
Fij = shape factor (view factor, configuration factor); fraction
of the radiation leaving surface i that is intercepted by ε3, 1
surface j; 0 ≤ Fij ≤ 1 ε3, 2
A2 , T2 , ε2
Q12 Q12
A1 , T1 , ε1
A2 , T2 , ε2
v `T14 - T24j
Qo 12 =
1 - f1 1 1 - f2
f1A1 + A1F12 + f2A2
HEAT TRANSFER 89