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The Gunn-diode: Fundamentals and fabrication

Conference Paper · October 1998

DOI: 10.1109/COMSIG.1998.736992 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 The Gunn-diode: Fundamentals and Fabrication
Robert van Zyl, Willem Perold, Reinhardt Botha*
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, 7600
e-mail: rrvanzyl@firga.sun.ac.za
*
Department of Physics, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth, 6000
e-mail: phajrb@upe.ac.za
Abstract — A short tutorial on the Gunn-diode is presented.
The principles underlying Gunn-oscillations are discussed
briefly and illustrated by relevant simulations. The simulation
of a typical Gunn-diode in a cavity is also presented. In
conclusion, the fabrication process of low power Gunn-diodes
is discussed.
Keywords — Gunn-diode, Gunn-effect, transferred electron-
effect, GaAs, energy band, Monte Carlo particle simulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
JB (Ian) Gunn discovered the Gunn-effect on 19 February
1962. He observed random noise-like oscillations when
biasing n-type GaAs samples above a certain threshold. He
also found that the resistance of the samples dropped at
even higher biasing conditions, indicating a region of
negative differential resistance. As will be explained later,
this leads to small signal current oscillations.
In Figure 1 part of the famous page from one of Gunn’s
laboratory notebooks is shown with the entry “noisy” on the
line for 704 volt. Describing it as the “most important
single word” he ever wrote, it laid the foundation for what
was to become a major mode of a.c. power generation.
Due to their relative simplicity and low cost, Gunn diodes
remain popular to this day. It is, however, also true that
Fig. 1. A page from one of Gunn’s laboratory notebooks on which
he made made the discovery of the Gunn-effect (taken from [1]).
relatively few electronic engineers understand clearly the
principles behind the Gunn-effect. The aim of this paper is
to give the reader an overview of the underlying theory of
the Gunn–effect and how it is utilised in Gunn-diodes to
produce a.c. power [2], [3]. Concepts which will be
discussed include the negative differential mobility
phenomenon in GaAs, Gunn-domain formation and the
basic Gunn-diode structure. A typical simulation of a Gunn-
diode in a cavity will also be presented.
The University of Stellenbosch, in conjunction with the
University of Port Elizabeth, is currently fabricating GaAs
Gunn-diodes for research purposes. The aim is to optimize
Gunn-diodes for a.c. output at W-band frequencies. A
review of this manufacturing process will be given.
The simulations in this paper have been performed by a
Monte Carlo particle simulator developed at the University
of Stellenbosch. A short review of the Monte Carlo
simulation of semiconductors is given in [4].
II. THE GUNN-EFFECT IN THE STRICT SENSE
A. The Energy Band for GaAs
To understand the Gunn-effect it is necessary to have some
insight in the behaviour of electrons in a crystal lattice, and
most importantly, the allowed energy states electrons can
occupy. These are dictated by the energy band structure of
a semiconductor which relates an electron’s energy as a
function of its wave vector k.
The band structure for GaAs is shown in Figure 2. Both the
valence (negative electron energy) and conduction (positive
electron energy) bands are shown. Only the conduction
bands need to be considered for the study of electron
dynamics, since electrons in the valence bands are
stationary. Energy bands are very complex structures. It is,
however, clear from Figure 2 that for realistic electron
energies (E <2 eV) only the lowest conduction band curve
need to be taken into account. This curve displays three
distinct “valleys” in the crystal spatial orientations labelled
', L and X. For the purposes of this paper it is sufficient to
consider the central '-valley and satellite L-valley only.
For the study of electron transport, the information near the
local band minima is important, since electrons are usually
located near the bottom of the valleys. For low electron
energies, relative to these band minima, the band structure
can be approximated by a parabolic E-k relation [5].
 (mL*.5@m'* for GaAs) This phenomenon is fundamental to
the Gunn-effect as will be explained later.

The energy gap ) shown in Figure 3 is the energy that an

electron in the '-valley will have to acquire before it could
undergo a transition to the L-valley. For GaAs )=0.36eV.

B. The transferred electron mechanism

When no bias is applied to a semiconductor, almost all the

Fig. 2. The full energy band structure of GaAs. Both valence
(negative electron energy) and conduction (positive electron energy)
bands are shown [3, p.4].
electrons occupy the '-valley since their respective thermal
energies are usually much less than the energy gap ). If the
sample is biased, the electrons are accelerated by the applied
electric field and may gain sufficient energy to be
transferred to the satellite valley. This phenomenon is
verified by Monte Carlo simulations and illustrated by the
graphs in Figure 4.
It is clear from the graphs in Figure 4 that the mean electron
energy increases for increasing biasing fields. This results
in an ever increasing number of electrons gaining enough
energy (0.36eV for GaAs) to be bridge the gap between the
'- and L-valleys and be transferred from the lower '-valley
to the upper L-valley. Significant population of the L-valley
takes place for biasing exceeding 0.4 MVm-1.

E bias = 0.1 MV/m

0.6
[eV]

0.5 Satellite
valley
0.4
Electron energy

0.3

0.2 Central
valley
Fig. 3. A simplified band structure of GaAs with the central (') and 0.1

one satellite (L) valley shown. The energy gap ()) is the energy 0
needed before an electron can undergo a central to satellite transition. 0 100 200 300 400 500
Electron samples

E bias = 0.4 MV/m

The parabolic two-valley approximation is very simple to 0.6
implement and proves sufficient for most moderate-field
[eV]

0.5 Satellite
applications. A two-valley parabolic approximation to the 0.4
valley
Electron energy

energy band of GaAs is shown in Figure 3. In terms of this

0.3
parabolic approximation, the energy of an electron in each
0.2 Central
valley is given by valley
0.1
h2k 2
E= *
(1) 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
2m Electron samples

with k the magnitude of the wave vector, m* the effective

mass of the electron associated with that valley and S the
reduced Planck constant.

The effective mass of a free electron in a semiconductor

differs from the mass of a free electron in a vacuum due to
the interaction of the electrons with the atoms of the crystal.
An electron in a semiconductor behaves dynamically as a
classical particle with mass m*. It is important to note that
the band structure of the central '-valley has a sharper
curvature than that of the satellite L-valley. From (1) it
follows that the effective mass associated with an electron
in the central valley, m'*, is much less than the effective
mass associated with an electron in the L-valley, mL*.
 E bias = 1.0 MV/m
at point B is subjected to an electrical field EH1. They will
0.6 therefore drift towards the anode with velocity <2 which is
smaller than <4. Consequently, a pile-up of electrons will
[eV]
0.5 Satellite
valley
0.4 occur between A and B, increasing the net negative charge
Electron energy

0.3 in that region. The region immediately to the right of B will

0.2
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400
Electron samples
Fig.4 Valley occupation of electrons in bulk GaAs for three applied
electrical fields, namely 0.1MVm-1, 0.4MVm-1 and 1MVm-1 respectively.
As expected, the mean energy of the ensemble of electrons increase with
stronger applied fields. Significant population of the satellite L-valley
takes place at fields exceeding of 0.4MVm-1.
The electrons that have been transferred from the '-valley
to the L-valley will immediately move slower due to the
increase in their effective mass. The average drift velocity
of the electrons, and consequently the current, will
therefore decrease with an increase in the applied field.
This manifests a region of negative differential resistance
(NDR) for applied fields exceeding 0.4 MVm-1, as shown
in Figure 5.
Central become progressively more depleted of electrons, due to
valley
their higher drift velocity towards the anode than those at B.
500 The initial charge perturbation will therefore grow into a
dipole domain, commonly known as a Gunn-domain. Gunn
domains will grow while propagating towards the anode
until a stable domain has been formed. A stable Gunn-
domain is shown at a time instance t > t0, indicated by the
dashed curve. At this point in time, the domain has grown
sufficiently to ensure that electrons at both points C and D
move at the same velocity, <1, as is clear from the bottom
graph in Figure 6.
V0
Biased GaAs sample of length L
cathode anode

A + C +
0
0 - B - D L

t = t0

EH2 t > t0

EH1
Fig. 5. The simulated steady-state average drift velocity of Distance from
E0
electrons in bulk GaAs as a function of the applied electric field 0 L cathode
at 300K. The region of NDR is indicated. EL1
EL2

C. The formation of Gunn-domains

The question of exactly how the NDR phenomenon in <4

GaAs results in Gunn-oscillations can now be answered
with the aid of Figure 6.
A sample of uniformly doped n-type GaAs of length L is
biased with a constant voltage source V0. The electrical
field is therefore constant and its magnitude given by
E0 = V0/L. From the bottom graph in Figure 6 it is clear that
the electrons flow from cathode to anode with constant
velocity <3.
It is now assumed that a small local perturbation in the net
charge arises at t = t0, indicated by the solid curve in Figure6.
This non-uniformity can, for example, be the result of local
thermal drift of electrons. The resulting electrical field
distribution is also shown (solid curve).
The electrons at point A, experiencing an electric field EL1,
will now travel to the anode with velocity <4. The electrons
<3
<2
<1
EL2 EL1 E0 EH1 EH2
Electric field
Fig. 6. A graphical illustration of the formation of Gunn-domains.
It is important to note that the sample had to be biased in the
NDR region (see Figure 5) to produce a Gunn-domain.
Once a domain has formed, the electric field in the rest of
the sample falls below the NDR region and will therefore
inhibit the formation of a second Gunn-domain.
As soon as the domain is absorbed by the anode contact
region, the average electric field in the sample rises and
domain formation can again take place. The successive
formation and drift of Gunn-domains through the sample
leads to a.c. current oscillations observed at the contacts. In
this mode of operation, called the Gunn-mode, the
frequency of the oscillations is dictated primarily by the
distance the domains have to travel before being annihilated
at the anode. This is roughly the length of the active region
of the sample, L. The value of the d.c. bias will of course
also affect the drift velocity of the domain, and
consequently the frequency.
The process of domain growth, drift and absorption at the
anode is verified by the simulation results for a 5 µm GaAs
sample shown in Figures 7 and 8. The sample is uniformly
doped with concentration 1015cm-3 and biased at 5V. The
frequency of oscillation is roughly 25GHz.
0 15
oscillators.
The doping profile of the Gunn-diode is shown in Figure 9.
An active region is sandwiched between highly doped anode
and cathode regions. These highly doped regions ensure
good ohmic contacts with the external circuit. A 50% notch
in the doping is included to provide an initial high electric
field near the cathode. The reason for the notch will be
explained later. The oscillator circuit is as the parallel
resonant circuit shown in Figure 10.
The simulated voltage and current waveforms are given in
Figure 11. From these graphs it is evident that the oscillator
generates in the order of 140mW at 70GHz with an
efficiency of 2.4%. These values are typical of Gunn-diode

-1
10
-2
Millions

5
-3
0
-4

-5 -5
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 15

-1
10
-2
Millions

5
-3

0
-4

-5 -5
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 15

-1
10
-2
Millions

5
-3
0
-4

-5 -5
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 15

-1
10
-2
Millions

5
-3

0
-4

-5 -5
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 8 The simulated field distribution for the dipole
distibutions in Figure 7. Note the growth in the peak
value and the subsequent drop in the field throughout
the rest of the sample to below the NDR region shown
in Figure 5.
Fig. 7 The simulated net charge concentration in a 5µm
GaAs sample biased at 5V. The distributions are shown
at four successive time instances to illustrate the
formation, drift and absorption at the anode of a dipole
domain in a Gunn-diode.

III. SIMULATION OF A MILLIMETER-WAVE oscillators operating at these frequencies.

GUNN-EFFECT OSCILLATOR
A typical application of a Gunn-diode in a cavity will now
be discussed. A high frequency oscillator (70 GHz) has
been chosen since it reveals an important aspect in the
understanding of the high frequency limit inherent to Gunn-
The formation and drift of the dipole domains are illustrated
with the sequence of field distributions in Figure 12. A
“dead zone” is clearly evident near the cathode where no
dipole domains form. Electrons injected at the cathode are
initially confined to the central valley of the conduction
 2

Electric Field [MV/m]

0

-2

-4

-6
t=0
-8

-10
0 0.15 0.25 1.9 2.0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance from cathode [microns] 2

Electric Field [MV/m]

5×1015 cm-3 0
1×1016 cm-3
1.25×1017 cm-3 -2

-4
Fig. 9. The doping profile of the simulated Gunn-diode.The active
region is sandwiched between the highly doped anode and cathode -6
t = 3ps
regions. A notch in the doping appear at the cathode. -8

-10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
2

Electric Field [MV/m]

0

-2

-4

-6
t = 5.6ps
-8

-10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
2

Fig. 10. The circuit schematic for the simulated Gunn-diode in a

Electric Field [MV/m]
0
cavity. The diode is biased with a 3V d.c. power supply. The
-2
oscillator feeds into a 23S load.
-4

6
-6
t = 10ps
Terminal voltage [V] / current [A]

v(t) -8
5

-10
4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
3
i(t) Distance from cathode [microns]

2
Fig. 12. The simulated sequence of fields for the
Gunn-oscillator described in the text clearly shows a
1
dead zone at the cathode.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time [ps] since it forces a high electric field at the notch. This
stronger field will accelerate the electrons faster than would
Fig. 11. The simulated voltage v(t) and current i(t) waveforms for otherwise be the case. The electrons will therefore gain
the Gunn-oscillator desribed in the text. v(t) and i(t) are defined in enough energy for transfer to the L-valley in a shorter time
Figure 10.
and distance.

band. They do not immediately gain enough energy to be

transferred to the upper L-valley. This results in a delayed Another, more successful, method is the injection of “hot”
domain formation and a consequent dead zone in the region or energetic electrons directly into the cathode region. This
of the cathode. is accomplished by inserting a heterojunction between the
cathode contact and the active region of the diode [6]. A
The presence of a dead zone in the diode impacts detailed discussion on hot electron injection is not within the
negatively on the efficiency of the oscillator, because the scope of this tutorial. In essence, when an electron traverses
length of the active region in which the domain can grow, a heterojunction of the correct type, it gains almost
decreases. Smaller domains translate into smaller output immediately a certain amount of energy dictated by the
power. The existence of a dead zone affects high frequency heterojunction. If this energy exceeds the gap, ), transfer to
(< 30 GHz) Gunn-oscillators the most, since the physical the L-valley, and consequently Gunn-domain formation, is
lengths of these diodes are of the order a few micron, possible. Heterojunctions are typically 50nm in length,
roughly the same as the dead zone. Optimising Gunn-diodes implying a drastic reduction in the dead zone and a
invariably involves decreasing the dead zone by subsequent improvement in efficiency.
encouraging domain nucleation as near to the cathode as
possible. IV. FABRICATION OF GaAs GUNN-DIODES
The doping-notch is one way of reducing the dead zone,
The authors are currently in the process of manufacturing
10 GHz Gunn-diodes for research purposes. The aim is to Growth of diode structure
apply the experience gained in this process to the
Anode
development of efficient Gunn-diodes operating at AuGe layer
contact layer

frequencies in excess of 100 GHz. A chronological outline active region layer

doping-notch
of the fabrication process is discussed below with a buffer layer

graphical representation of the process given in Figure 13. substrate

AuGe layer

A. Growth of diode structure Cathode

Define individual contacts by etching

The diode layers have been grown at the Department of
Physics, University of Port Elizabeth, by a process known
as Metalorganic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE). Growth
was performed in a horizontal, laboratory scale quartz
reactor, capable of accepting a 2x2cm2 piece of substrate.
The diode structures were grown on a 250µm GaAs:Si
substrate with doping density n=1.3x1018 cm-3. This was
followed by a 0.6µm buffer layer (n=1.4x1018 cm-3), a
Define individual diodes by etching
0.3µm undoped injection layer (n=1.1x1015 cm-3 ) which 100µm
serves as doping-notch, a 10µm undoped active region
layer (n=2.5x1015 cm-3) and a 0.6µm Si-doped contact layer
(n=1.4x1018 cm-3).

The GaAs substrate was placed on a molybdenum

susceptor, which was heated to 670oC before growth. 400µm
Trimethylgallium and arsine (10% in H2), diluted in a H2
carrier gas, were used as source materials. n-Type doping
Fig. 12. Step-by-step fabrication of low power Gunn-
of the contact layers was achieved by introducing SiH4 gas diodes
into the reactor. Growth rate is approximately 10D per
second.

The doping levels were determined from electrochemical

capacitance-voltage profiling of the grown structures and
Hall measurements on calibration layers. CV-profiling also
provided an independent measurement of layer thicknesses.

Metal contacts were thermally evaporated onto both sides

of the structure to provide good electrical contact with the
external circuitry. These metal contacts consist of three
layers, namely a 80nm layer of AuGe sandwiched between
two layers of 10nm Ni. It was found that these contacts
disintegrate at currents exceeding 20mA, because they are
so extremely thin. Additional AuGe had to be evaporated
onto the existing contacts to a depth of 0.7µm.
B. Etching and scribing of individual diodes
Individual diodes are defined on the grown structures by a
standard photolithographic procedure. A mask defines the
desired metal contacts at the anode (top) side of the
structures. Contacts with a 100µm diameter have been
etched. The unwanted AuGe metal was etched away using
a mixture of iodine crystals, potassium-iodide and water.
The unwanted GaAs was etched away using a mixture of
methanol, phosphoric acid, and H2O2. The GaAs had to be
etched to a depth of at least 10µm to ensure that the active
region is of the same dimensions as the metal contacts. The
individual diodes can now be cut out using a diamond edge
scriber. Each diode is of the order 400µm in diameter.
C. Packaging
Fig. 13. Packaged low power Gunn-diode.
The diodes are now mounted in containers of suitable size.
The packaging of an individual diode is shown in Figure 14.
The diode is bonded to the gold plated copper base of the
bottom external metal contact using a highly conducting
epoxy. The two external contacts are separated by a ceramic
spacer. 25µm gold bonding wires connect the top diode
contact with the top lid. The wire is bonded onto the diode
contact with the same conducting epoxy.
D. Experimental results
Experimental results will be presented at the conference.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The Gunn-effect in bulk GaAs and how this phenomenon is
harnessed in the generation of a.c. power has been
discussed. The fabrication of low power Gunn-diodes has
 been dealt with briefly. It is the desire of the authors that
this tutorial will have brought home an appreciation for
these devices which have served us so well over the past
three decades.

REFERENCES

[1] John Voelcker, “The Gunneffect”, IEEE Spectrum, p.24, July 1989.
[2] BG Bosch, RWH Engelmann, Gunn-effect Electronics, Pitman
Publishing, London, 1975.
[3] JE Carroll, Hot Electron Microwave Generators, Edward Arnold
Publishers, London, 1970.
[4] RR van Zyl, WJ Perold, “The Application of the Monte Carlo Method
to Semiconductor Simulation”, Trans. SAIEE, pp. 58-64, June 1996.
[5] K Tomizawa, Numerical Simulation of Submicron Semiconductor
Devices, Artech House, London, 1993.
[6] Z Greenwald et al, “The Effect of a High Energy Injection on the
Performance of mm Wave Gunn Oscillators”, Solid-State Electronics,
Vol. 31, No. 7, pp. 1211-1214, 1988.

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