Thermal Radiation:

Properties and Processes

12
12.1. Theories of Radiation—Maxwell’s theory—Max Planck’s theory. 12.2. Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation. 12.3. Black body
Radiation. 12.4. Spectral and Total Emissive Power. 12.5. Surface Absorption, Reflection and Transmission. 12.6. Black body
Radiation Laws—Black body spectral emissive power—Wien’s displacement law—Stefan Boltzmann law—Radiation function and band
emission. 12.7. Emissivity—Hemispherical and total emissivity—Spectral emissivity—Directional emissivity—Kirchhoff’s law—Gray and
diffuse surfaces : Gray Lambert body approximation. 12.8. Radiation From a Surface—Solid angle—Spectral intensity of radiation (Ibλ)—
Radiation intensity (Ib). 12.9. Radiosity. 12.10. Solar Radiation—Solar radiation on the earth—Atmospheric emission—Green house effect—
Selective surfaces. 12.11. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.

Thermal radiation or radiation heat transfer is a distinct 12.1. THEORIES OF RADIATION

separate mechanism from conduction and convection for
transfer of heat energy. It refers to the heat energy
emitted by the bodies because of their temperatures. All
bodies at a temperature above absolute zero tempera-
ture emit energy by a process of electromagnetic
radiation. The intensity of such radiation depends upon
the temperature and nature of the surface. The energy
transfer by radiation does not require any medium
between hot and cold surfaces. The energy transfer by
radiation is the fastest (at the speed of light) and it does
not suffer any attenuation even in the vacuum. In fact,
the heat transfer through an evacuated space can occur
only by radiation. When a person sits infront of a fire,
he gets most of the heat energy by radiation as shown
in Fig. 12.1. Further, it is also interesting that the
radiation heat transfer can also occur between two bodies
separated by a medium that is colder than the both
bodies. For an example, the energy emitted by sun
reaches the earth surface after travelling through space
and extremely cold air layers at high altitudes.
Fire at
Air at 5°C
500°C
Body
at
37°C
Radiation
Fig. 12.1. Radiation heat transfer between two bodies
separated by a colder medium
The actual mechanism of radiation propagation is not
fully understood, but two theories; Maxwell theory and
Max Planck’s theory are in use. Both concepts are used
in study of thermal radiation.
12.1.1. Maxwell’s Theory
According to Maxwell electromagnetic theory, the energy
is transferred from a hot body to cold body in the form
of electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves
possess the energy emitted by a body as a result of the
change in electronic configuration of atoms or molecules.
These electromagnetic waves transport energy like other
waves and these electromagnetic waves travel with the
speed of light.
The electromagnetic waves are characterised by
their frequency ν and wavelength λ, in a medium as:
c
λ= ...(12.1)
ν
where c is the speed of light in the medium. In vacuum,
c = c0 = 2.998 × 108 m/s. This concept is useful in studies
for the prediction of the radiation properties of the
surfaces and materials.
12.1.2. Max Planck’s Theory
According to Max Planck’s concept, the propagation of
thermal radiation takes place in form of discrete quanta
called photons, each quantum having an energy of
hc
E = hν = ...(12.2)
λ
402
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 403

Where h is Planck’s constant = 6.6256 × 10–34 J-s,
ν is frequency of photons, and c is a constant. It is also
revealed that the energy of the photons is inversely
proportional to its wavelength. Therefore, the shorter
wavelength radiation possesses the larger photon
energy. This theory is used to predict the magnitude of
emitted energy by a body at a given temperature under
ideal conditions.
12.2. SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
The radiation energy in form of electromagnetic waves,
is emitted at all wave length from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. A
portion of radiation spectrum is shown in Fig. 12.2. The
bulk of thermal energy emitted by a body lies in wave-
length between λ ≈ 0.1 and λ ≈ 100 µm. For this reason,
this portion of the spectrum is generally referred as
thermal radiation. The sun emits thermal radiation at
an effective surface temperature of 5760 K and bulk of
this energy lies between λ = 0.1 to λ = 3 µm, therefore,
this spectrum is referred as the solar radiation. The
radiation energy emitted by the sun is in wavelength
between λ = 0.4 to λ = 0.76 µm, is visible to human eye,
therefore, this spectrum is referred as the visible radia-
tion (light). Almost half of the solar radiation is light,
falls in the visible range and remaining being ultraviolet
and infrared.

Thermal radiation
Infrared Solar
Visible (0.4 – 0.76 m)
0.76 – 100 m 0.1 – 3 m –2
Ultraviolet (0.4 – 10 m)

X rays
Microwave  rays

 (m) 5 4 3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

–1

(s ) 10
11
10
12
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17

Fig. 12.2. Typical spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

The visible spectrum (light) consists of narrow The radiation emitted by bodies at atmospheric
bands of colour from violet (0.40–0.44 µm) to red (0.63– temperature falls into infrared region, (0.76 ≤ λ
0.76 µm) as shown in Table 12.1 below : ≤ 100 µm). The bodies emit radiation in the visible range
TABLE 12.1. Wavelength ranges of usually at temperature above 800 K. The ultraviolet
different colours in light radiation is low wavelength (0.1 ≤ λ ≤ 0.4 µm) radiation
in the thermal radiation range. These rays are harmful,
Colour Wavelength band since they can kill micro-organisms and cause serious
Violet 0.40–0.44 µm damage to human, and other living beings. The solar
Blue 0.44–0.49 µm radiation contains about 12% ultraviolet rays and it
Green 0.49–0.54 µm would be extremely harmful, if it will reach to earth’s
surface. Fortunately, the ozone (O3) layer in the
Yellow 0.54–0.60 µm
atmosphere absorbs most of the ultraviolet solar
Orange 0.60–0.63 µm
radiation. Ultraviolet rays remaining in the sunlight is
Red 0.63–0.76 µm still sufficient to cause sun burn, skin cancer etc.
The colour of a surface depends on its ability to
reflect the radiation in certain wavelength. For an 12.3. BLACK BODY RADIATION
example, a surface that reflects a fraction of radiation
in the wavelength ranges from 0.63 µm to 0.76 µm, while A black body is defined as a body which is a perfect
absorbing rest of the visible radiation appears red to emitter and absorber of radiation. It has an ideal surface
human eye. Similarly, if a surface reflects all the with the following properties :
radiation in the visible range (0.4 µm to 0.76 µm) appears
1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation
white and a surface that absorbs all the light incident
from all directions at all wavelengths.
on it, appears black.
 404 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

2. At a specified temperature and wavelength, where ε = emissivity, a surface characteristics,

nobody can emit energy more than a black
body.
3. Although the radiation emitted by a
blackbody depends upon wavelength and tem-
perature, but it is independent of direction.
4. A black body neither reflects nor transmits
any amount of incident radiation.
In actual, no surface has all the properties
mentioned above for a blackbody. The term black is
different from visual observations. A surface is coated
with lampblack appears to be black-in colour to the
human eye in visible range of spectrum, but turns out
to be black for thermal radiation in certain range of
wavelength. On the other hand, the ice and snow appear
quite bright to human eye but almost black to thermal
radiation at all wavelength from λ = 0 to λ = ∞.
Consider a radiation beam enters the cavity of
an enclosure as shown in Fig. 12.3. It experiences many
reflections within the enclosure and almost entire beam
is absorbed by the cavity and the black body behaviour
is experienced.
λ = wavelength of radiation, µm,
T = absolute temperature of the surface, K.
Spectral or monochromatic emissive power.
The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface
at a given temperature also varies with the wavelength.
The spectral or monochromatic emissive power is
defined as amount of radiation energy emitted by a
surface at an absolute temperature T, per unit time,
per unit surface area and per unit wavelength dλ about
the wavelength λ. It is designated as Eλ and measured
in W/m2. µm.
E
E(T)
dE
0 
d

Fig. 12.4. Area under the curve for a given temperature

Fourth reflection and
partial absorption
Third reflection and
partial absorption
Second reflection and
partial absorption
Fig. 12.3. The concept of a blackbody radiation
represents the total emissive power of the surface
Radiation beam
The radiation is emitted over the wavelength
ranges from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. The emissive power of surface
over the wavelength ranges from λ to λ + d λ is given by
Isothermal dE = Eλdλ
enclosure
where dE = emissive power in given wave band
between λ to λ + dλ, (W/m2)
First reflection and Eλ = monochromatic emissive power,
partial absorption (W/m2.µm).
The total emissive power of a surface over entire
spectrum of wavelength is

12.4. SPECTRAL AND TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER

E= z
0
∞
Eλdλ ...(12.4)

All surfaces at a temperature above absolute zero
temperature emit energy in all directions over a wide
range of wavelength. At a given temperature, the total
amount of heat energy emitted by a surface in all
direction over entire wavelength per unit area, per unit
time is called the emissive power. The emissive power
depends on characteristics and temperature of the
surface. It is designated as E and measured in W/m2,
and
E = f(ε, λ, T) ...(12.3)
12.5. SURFACE ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND
TRANSMISSION
The irradiation is the total radiation energy incident
per unit area per unit time over entire wave length from
all directions. It is denoted by G and measured in W/m2.
For most of the surfaces, when the radiation
incidents on a body, part of it is absorbed, part of it is
reflected and remaining part is transmitted as shown
in Fig. 12.5.
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 405
Incident radiation Normal
2 Incident
G, W/m Reflected Reflected
ray  rays
G

Semitransparent Absorbed
material G

Transmitted, G
(c) Reflection which is between
diffuse and specular
Fig. 12.5. Reflection, Absorption and transmission
(a real surface).
of incident radiation
Absorptivity. The total or average or hemispheri- Fig. 12.6. Types of reflections from a surface
cal absorptivity α is defined as fraction of radiation If the surface has some roughness, the incident
energy incident on the surface from all directions, over radiation is scattered in all directions after reflection,
entire wavelength spectrum, that is absorbed by the such reflection is called the diffuse reflection as shown
surface. Mathematically in Fig. 12.6 (b).
Gα The reflection from real surfaces is neither
α= ...(12.5) specular nor diffuse but combination of diffuse and
G
where, Gα = energy absorbed by the surface, W/m2, and specular behaviour as shown in Fig. 12.6 (c).
G = irradiation, W/m2. Transmissivity. When radiation is incident on
a semi-transparent surface, a part is reflected, a part is
A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, hence
absorbed and remaining is transmitted. Hence the
its absorptivity is considered unity. But real surfaces
transmissivity, τ is the fraction of incident energy
do not absorb all energy incident on it.
transmitted through the surface. Mathematically
Reflectivity. When radiation is incident on a non
black surface, a fraction is always reflected by the Gτ
τ= ...(12.7)
surface. The reflectivity of a surface is defined as the G
fraction of radiation energy incident on a surface from where Gτ is energy transmitted by the surface.
all directions over entire wavelengths, that is reflected. With above considerations, for a surface, the sum
It is designated as ρ and is expressed as : of absorbed, reflected and transmitted radiation energy
is equal to the radiation energy incident on the surface;
Gρ
ρ= ...(12.6) Gα + Gρ + Gτ = G ...(12.8)
G
Dividing each term in above relation by G, we
where Gρ is energy reflected by the surface. If the surface
get
is perfectly smooth and the angle θ of incident and
reflected rays is equal, then the reflection is called the α+ρ+τ=1 ...(12.9)
specular (or mirror like) reflection as shown in Monochromatic irradiation. The irradiation
Fig. 12.6 (a). G defined above is total hemispherical property. Thus
α, ρ, and τ are average properties of a surface for all
Incident
Normal directions and all wavelengths. However, for a specific
Normal
Incident
ray
 wavelength or direction, the irradiation is referred as
ray monochromatic irradiation. It is also called spectral
Reflected irradiation and is defined as the radiant heat flux
Reflected
ray rays incident on a surface per unit wavelength about a
wavelength λ from all directions. It is denoted by Gλ
q q and measured in W/m2.µm. Mathematically it is
expressed as :
dG
Gλ = ...(12.10)
(a) Specular or mirror-like (b) Diffuse reflection dλ
reflection of incoming ray. Total hemispherical irradiation may be evaluated
as:
 406 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

G= z
0
∞
Gλ dλ
The spectral absorptivity, reflectivity and
...(12.11)
Example 12.1. The spectral distribution of surface
irradiation is shown in Fig. 12.7.

transmissivity of a surface are defined in a similar

manner as
1000
1. Spectral absorptivity αλ is the fraction of

G W/m . m
monochromatic irradiation absorbed.

2
500
2. Spectral reflectivity ρλ is the fraction of
monochromatic irradiation reflected.
3. Spectral transmissivity τλ is the fraction of 0 5 10 15 20 25
monochromatic energy transmitted. , m

G λ, α G λ, ρ G λ, τ Fig. 12.7. Spectral distribution of irradiation

αλ = ρλ = αλ = ...(12.12)
Gλ Gλ Gλ What is the total irradiation ?
where Gλ,α, Gλ,ρ and Gλ,τ are the absorbed, reflected and Solution
transmitted portion of spectral irradiation Gλ. Similar Given : Spectral distribution of the surface
to average properties, the sum of spectral properties is irradiation.
always equal to unity as : G λ 1 = 0, G λ 2 = 1000 W/m2.µm, G λ 3 = 0.
αλ + ρλ + τλ = 1 ...(12.13) To find : Total irradiation on the surface.
The average absorptivity, reflectivity and Analysis : Total irradiation on the surface may
transmissivity of a surface can also be expressed in terms be obtained by using eqn. (12.11).

z
of their spectral counterparts as :

z z
∞
∞ ∞ G= Gλdλ
α λ G λ dλ ρ λ G λ dλ 0

z z
0 0 Evaluating the integral into parts
α= , ρ=

z z
∞ ∞
G λ dλ G λ dλ 5 µm 20 µm
0 0

z
G= Gλdλ + Gλ dλ
0 5 µm

z z
∞
τ λ G λ dλ

z
25 µm ∞
0
τ= ∞ ...(12.14) + Gλ dλ + Gλ dλ
20 µm 25 µm
G λ dλ
0 Each integral represents area under the curve,
Opaque body. For an opaque surface, there is first and third integral has trapezoid and its area
no transmission thus the reflectivity and absorptivity 1
= × height × width.
are : 2
α+ρ=1 ...(12.15) 1
Thus, G = × 1000 × (5 – 0) + 1000 × (20 – 5)
and αλ + ρλ = 1 ...(12.16) 2
White body. A body is called white body which 1
+
× 1000 × (25 – 20) + 0
reflects almost all radiation incident upon it and does 2
not absorb or transmit any part of it. For white body : = 2500 + 15000 + 2500
α=0; τ=0 ...(12.17) = 20,000 W/m2. Ans.
thus ρ≡1
Black body. A black body neither reflects nor
12.6. BLACK BODY RADIATION LAWS
transmits any part of the incident radiation but it 12.6.1. Black body Spectral Emissive Power
absorbs all of it, i.e.,
The spectral or monochromatic emissive power for a
ρ = 0 ; τ = 0 and α = 1 ...(12.18) black surface is highest at every wavelength at any given
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 407

temperature and it is given by Max Planck’s distribution
law, based on quantum theory, as :
Ebλ(T) =
λ {exp [C 2 /(λT)] − 1}
where C1 and C2 are constant ;
C1 = 2πhc02 = 3.742 × 108 W.µm4/m2, and
C2 = hc0/kB = 1.438 × 104 µm.K ;
kB = 1.3805 × 10–23, Boltzmann constant.
T = absolute temperature, K
λ = wavelength, µm ;
Ebλ(T) = spectral black body emissive power at
absolute temperature T, W/m2.µm.
This relation is valid for black body spectral
emission in a vacuum or a gas. For other mediums, the
constant C1 should be replaced by C1/n2, where n is the
index of refraction of the medium.
The Fig. 12.8 is a plot of black body spectral
emissive power Ebλ(T) against the wavelength λ of
radiation for some selected temperatures.
9 dE bλ (T)
10
10
8 Visible spectral region
7
Spectral emissive power, Eb W/m . mm
3. Each curve has a peak value of emissive
power.
C1 4. As temperature increases the peaks shift
5 ...(12.19) toward smaller wavelengths.
5. The peak of the solar radiation (a black body
radiation) at T ≈ 5800 K reaches in visible range of the
spectrum. Therefore, the sun is in tune with our eye.
On the other hand, the surfaces at temperatures
T ≤ 800 K emit almost entirely in the infrared region
and thus the radiation is not visible to eye.
12.6.2. Wien’s Displacement Law
Fig. 12.8 shows spectral blackbody emissive power
distribution over a certain range of wavelength. It is
observed that, for a given temperature, there is a definite
peak, at a particular wavelength. The relationship
between the wavelength λmax and absolute temperature
T at which Ebλ reaches a maximum value is given by
the Wien’s displacement law. “It can be derived from
Planck’s distribution law by applying the condition of
maxima, i.e., differentiating Ebλ with respect to λ and
setting it to zero ;
=
d LM C 1λ−5
=0
OP
N Q
dλ dλ exp [C 2 /(λT)] − 1
lmax T = 2898 mm.K
FG C IJ
H λT K FG − C IJ = 0

10
Solar radiation −6 C1λ−5 exp 2
5C λ
F IJ − 1 L F C I O H λ T K
6
1 2
10 – –
2

exp G
C 2 2

H λT K MNexp GH λT JK − 1PQ
5
5800 K 2
10 2
l

2000 K
4
10 1000 K
Simplifying and rearranging, we get
FG IJ
3
10
C
10
2
exp 2
H K
λT 5λT
FG IJ =
1
800 K
10 C C2
10
0
H K
exp 2 − 1
λT
–1 C2
10
Using x = , we get
–2 300 K λT
10
50 K ex 5
10
–3
100 K
x
= or x = 5(1 – e–x)
–4 e −1 x
10
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 It is a transcendental equation and its solution
Wavelength, l, mm by trial and error method converges to
Fig. 12.8. Spectral black body emissive power C2
x= = 4.9651
The plot indicates the following facts. λ max T
1. The spectral emissive power of a blackbody Substituting constant C2 = 1.438 × 104 µm, we
is continuous function of wavelength. At any given get
temperature, it increases with wavelength, reaches a λmaxT = 2897.6 µm.K. ...(12.20)
maximum value and then decreases with increasing where λmax represents wavelength corresponding to
wavelength. maximum spectral black body emissive power at a given
2. At any given wavelength, the emissive power temperature T. The eqn. (12.20) is valid for entire
increases with increase in absolute temperature. spectrum of wavelength for black body.
 408 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Substituting λmax as 2897.6/T in eqn. (12.19) to between the plate and ambient air is 10 W/m2.K. The
obtain maximum spectral emissive power at surface emissivity of the plate is 0.8. The surrounding
temperature T, and ambient air are at 27°C. Determine the temperature
C 1T 5 of the plate under steady state conditions.
Ebλ(T) =
LM F C I − 1OP Solution
(2897.6) 5 × exp
N H 2897.6 K Q
2
Given : qr = 900 W/m2, hc = 10 W/m2.K
Using C1 and C2 ; ε = 0.8, T∞ = 27°C = 300 K.
3.742 × 10 8 T 5 To find : The temperature of the plate.
Ebλ(T) =
LM F 1.438 × 10 I − 1OP 4

MN GH 2897.6 JK PQ
(2897.6) 5 exp Assumptions :
1. Steady state conditions.
Ebλ max = 12.87 × 10–10 T5 (W/m2.µm) 2. One side of the plate is adiabatic.
...(12.21) 3. Constant properties.
12.6.3. Stefan Boltzmann Law Analysis : The radiant heat flux absorbed by the
The total emissive power of a blackbody Eb may be plate, will be dissipated by convection and radiation.
obtained by integrating Planck’s distribution

z
Thus, qr = hc(Ts – T∞) + ε σ (Ts4 – T∞4)
∞
eqn. (12.19) over entire wavelength as Eb = Ebλ dλ Using the numerical values,

z
0
900 = 10 × (Ts – 300) + 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8
∞ C1
or Eb = 5 dλ ...(12.22) × (Ts4 – 3004)
0 λ [exp (C2 /λT) − 1]

z
It gives, Ts = 354.8 K. Ans.
∞ C1Tdλ
= T4 Example 12.3. A hot water radiator of overall
(λT) 5 [exp (C2 /λT) − 1]
0

Put λT = x, Tdλ = dx, then dimensions 2 × 1 × 0.2 m is used to heat the room at

z
18°C. The surface temperature of radiator is 60°C and
∞ dx
Eb = C1T4 its surface is black. The actual surface of the radiator is
5
0 x [exp (C2 / x) − 1] 2.5 times the area of its envelope for convection for which
dy the convection coefficient is given by hc = 1.3(∆T)1/3
Using C2/x = y, and dx = – C2 . , then
y2 W/m2.K.

Eb = –
C 1T 4
C2 4 z ∞

0
y 3 dy
ey − 1
Calculate the rate of heat loss from the radiator
by convection and radiation.
Solution
Its integration yields to :
∞ Given : Radiation and convection heat transfer
C1 1
Eb =
C2 4
T4 × 6 ∑
n=1
n4
from a radiator.
Radiator Dimensions :
∞ 4
1 π
We have ∑
n=1
=
n 4 90
H = 2 m, L = 1 m,
Ts = 60°C = 333 K,
w = 0.2 m
T∞ = 18°C = 291 K
C1 6π 4 For convection As = 2.5 Arad
which gives Eb = 4
T4
C2 90 hc = 1.3(∆T)1/3.
Eb = σ T4 ...(12.23) To find : Rate of heat transfer by convection and
C1 π 4
3.742 × 10 π4 8 radiation.
where σ= × = × Assumptions :
C2 4 15 (1.438 × 10 4 ) 4 15
= 5.672 × 10–8 W/m2.K4 ...(12.24) (i) The radiator as a blackbody.
The constant σ is called the Stefan Boltzmann (ii) Steady state conditions.
constant. (iii) Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
Example 12.2. One side of metallic plate is insulated, Analysis : The area of the radiator ;
while the other side absorbs a radiant heat flux of Arad = 2 × {2 × 1 + 2 × 0.2 + 1 × 0.2} = 5.2 m2
900 W/m2. The convective heat transfer coefficient
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 409

Radiation heat transfer rate ; Substituting the values,

Qrad = Arad σ (Ts4 – T∞4)
3.742 × 10 8
= 5.2 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (3334 – 2914) Ebλ =
LM F 1.438 × 10 I − 1OP
4

MN GH 1.2 × 2923 JK PQ
= 1511.2 W (1.2) 5 × exp
The convection heat transfer coefficient,
hc = 1.3(∆T)1/3 = 2.53 × 106 W/m2.µ
µm. Ans.
= 1.3 × (60 – 18)1/3 (ii) The wavelength at which the emissive power
= 4.51 W/m2.K is maximum :
The convection heat transfer area, Using Wien’s displacement law, eqn.(12.20)
As = 2.5 × Arad = 2.5 × 5.2 = 13 m2 λmax T = 2897.6 µm.K
The convection heat transfer rate ; 2897.6
λmax = = 0.9913 µm. Ans.
Qconv = hc As(Ts – T∞) 2923
= 4.51 × 13 × (60 – 18) = 2462.24 W (iii) Maximum spectral emissive power, by
The total heat transfer rate from the radiator, eqn.(12.21)
Q = Qrad + Qconv Ebλ max = 12.87 × 10–10 T5 W/m2.µm
= 1511.2 + 2462.24 = 12.87 × 10–10 × (2923)5
= 2.746 × 108 W/m2.µ µm. Ans.
= 3973.67 W. Ans.
(iv) Total emissive power

z
Example 12.4. Calculate the following quantities for
∞
an industrial furnace (black body) emitting radiation at Eb = Ebλ dλ = σ T4
2650°C. 0

(i) Spectral emissive power at λ = 1.2 µm, = 5.67 × 10–8 × (2923)4

(ii) Wavelength at which the emissive power is = 4.139 × 106 W/m2. Ans.
maximum, (v) Total emissive power with ε = 0.9
(iii) Maximum spectral emissive power, E = εEb = ε σ T4
(iv) Total emissive power, = 0.9 × 4.139 × 106
(v) Total emissive power of the furnace, if it is = 3.725 × 106 W/m2. Ans.
treated as gray and diffuse body with an emissivity of
0.9. Example 12.5. The average solar radiation flux on the
earth’s atmosphere is 1353 W/m2 and it is known as solar
Solution constant. Calculate the temperature of sun (a black body),
Given : An industrial furnace as black body 1.392 × 106 km in diameter, when it has mean distance
radiating at of 1.496 × 108 km from the earth’s atmosphere.
T = 2650°C = 2923 K. Solution
To find : Given : Average solar constant for determination
(i) Ebλ at λ = 1.2 µm of temperature of sun
(ii) λmax (Q/A)sun = 1353 W/m2
(iii) Ebλ max D = 1.392 × 109 m
(iv) Eb (Total emissive power) s = 1.496 × 1011 m
(v) ε Eb.
Analysis : (i) The spectral emissive power at 6 n2
D = 1.392 × 10 km
λ = 1.2 µm : dA2
f2
The Planck’s distribution law, eqn. (12.19)
2
C1 s
Ebλ = 5
λ [exp (C2 /λT) − 1] f1

where C1 = 3.742 × 108 W.µm4/m2 dA1 n1

C2 = 1.438 × 104 µm.K. Fig. 12.9
 410 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

To find : The temperature of sun. = Convection flux + Radiation flux

Assumptions : (Emissive power)
(i) The negligible emissive power of earth in Q
αsun sun = h(T – T∞) + ε σ (T4 – T∞4) ...(1)
comparison of sun. A
(ii) Due to large distance, all rays of sun falling (a) When the plate is coated with white paint :
on the earth’s surface. αsun = 0.12 ; αplate = 0.9 or εplate = 0.9
(iii) Sun has spherical surface. (By Kirchhoff ’s law)
Analysis : The energy radiated by sun (black body) 0.12 × 700 = 10 × (T – 298) + 0.9 × 5.67
4 4 × 10–8 × (T4 – 2984)
Qsun = Asun σ Tsun = π (Dsun)2 σ Tsun
4 84 = 10 T – 2980 + 5.103
= π × (1.392 × 109 m)2 × 5.67 × 10–8 Tsun
× 10–8 T4– 402.43
4
= 3.45 × 1011 Tsun ...(1) or T4 + 195.963 × 106 T – 67.929 × 109 = 0
The sun is considered as source at a distance It is a non linear equation and its numerical
s = 1.496 × 1011 m from earth’s surface.
(Newton Raphson method) solution gives ;
Mean area, which receives solar radiation
T = 303.40 K or 30.4°C. Ans.
A = 4πs2 = 4π × (1.496 × 1011)2
(b) When plate is coated with black paint :
= 2.812 × 1023 m2
αsun = 0.96 ; αplate = 0.95
The solar flux incidence on the earth is :
Using these values in eqn. (1) ;
Q sun 3.45 × 10 11 Tsun
4
q= or 1353 = 0.96 × 700 =10 × (T – 298) + 0.95 × 5.67
A 2.812 × 10 23 × 10–8 × (T4 – 2984)
or 4
Tsun = 1.102 × 1015 672 = 10 T – 2980 + 5.3865
or Tsun = 5762.2 K. Ans. × 10–8 T4 – 424.787
or T4 + 185.65 ×106 T – 75.6852 × 109 = 0
Example 12.6. Calculate the equilibrium temperature
It is a non linear equation and its numerical
for a plate, exposed to a solar flux of 700 W/m2 and
convection environment at 25°C, with convection (Newton Raphson method) solution gives ;
coefficient of 10 W/m2.K. If the plate is coated with T = 337.65 K or 64.65°C. Ans.
(a) White paint : αsun = 0.12 ; αplate = 0.9. 12.6.4. Radiation Function and Band Emission
(b) Flat black paint : αsun = 0.96 ; αplate = 0.95. Eqn. (12.23) gives the total amount of radiant energy
(N.M.U., Nov. 2000) emitted by a blackbody at temperature T over
Solution wavelength λ = 0 to λ = ∞. There are often situations,
Given : A plate exposed to solar flux and (Fig. 12.10) when it is necessary to evaluate the energy
convection environment ; over certain wavelength band, like 0 to λ or λ1 to λ2.
Solar flux = 700 W/m2,
l1
T∞ = 25°C = 298 K, h = 10 W/m2.K,
(a) αsun = 0.12 ; αplate = 0.9
T
ò0
Ebl dl

(b) αsun = 0.96 ; αplate = 0.95.

To find : The equilibrium temperature in above
two cases.
Assumptions :
1. Steady state conditions.
2. Plate surface is gray, opaque and diffused.
Analysis : Making the energy balance for the
plate : 0 1 l
Considering T is the temperature of plate, then Fig. 12.10. Radiation emission from a black body
Solar flux on the plate in spectral band of 0 to λ1
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 411

The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per 3000 0.273248 7700 0.843671 50000 0.998994
unit area, over a wavelength band from λ = 0 to λ is 3100 0.295797 7800 0.848042 55000 0.999259
determined as : 3200 0.318120 7900 0.852258 60000 0.999444

z
3300 0.340130 8000 0.856325 65000 0.999579
λ1
E b, 0 − λ 1 = Ebλ dλ (W/m2) ...(12.25) 3400 0.361755 8100 0.860251 70000 0.999678
0 3500 0.382937 8200 0.864040 75000 0.999754
The eqn. (12.25) is evaluated numerically by using 3600 0.403628 8300 0.867699 80000 0.999812
3700 0.423794 8400 0.871232 85000 0.999857
eqn. (12.19). But the integration does not have simple
3800 0.443406 8500 0.874645 90000 0.999893
closed form solution and therefore, performing 3900 0.462446 8600 0.877943 95000 0.999922
integration is not practical solution. Therefore, a 4000 0.480902 8700 0.881129 100000 0.999946
dimensionless quantity f0 – λ called the black body 4100 0.498767 8800 0.884210
radiation function is used, which is defined as : 4200 0.516040 8900 0.887188

z
4300 0.532723 9000 0.890068
λ 4400 0.548823 9100 0.892853
Ebλ dλ 4500 0.564348 9200 0.895548
0
f0 – λ = ...(12.26) 4600 0.579309 9300 0.898156
σ T4
4700 0.593718 9400 0.900680
The function f0 – λ represents fraction of radia-
tion energy emitted from a black body at temperature T The fraction of radiation energy emitted by a
in the wavelength band from λ = 0 to λ. A table of black body at a temperature T over a finite wavelength
band from λ = λ1 to λ = λ2 (Fig. 12.11) is evaluated as :

z
computed black body radiation function f0 – λ as a
function of λT is given in Table 12.2. λ2
E bλ 1 − λ = Ebλ dλ
2 λ1
TABLE 12.2. Black body radiation functions

λT
(µm K)
f0–λ λT
(µm K)
f0–λ λT
(µm K)
f0–λ = z
0
λ2
E bλ dλ − z
0
λ1
E bλ dλ ...(12.27)

l2
100
200
0.000000
0.000000
4800
4900
0.607589
0.620937
9500
9600
0.903124
0.905490
T
òl E
1
bl dl

300 0.000000 5000 0.633777 9700 0.907782

400 0.000000 5100 0.646127 9800 0.910002
500 0.000000 5200 0.658001 9900 0.912153
600 0.000000 5300 0.669417 10000 0.914238
700 0.000002 5400 0.680392 11000 0.931929
800 0.000016 5500 0.690940 12000 0.945138
900 0.000087 5600 0.701079 13000 0.955179
1000 0.000321 5700 0.710824 14000 0.962938
1100 0.000911 5800 0.720192 15000 0.969021
1200 0.002134 5900 0.729196 16000 0.973855 l1 l2 l
1300 0.004317 6000 0.737852 17000 0.977741
1400 0.007791 6100 0.746173 18000 0.980901 Fig. 12.11. Black body radiation in wavelength band
1500 0.012850 6200 0.754174 19000 0.983494 λ = λ1 to λ = λ2
1600 0.019720 6300 0.761869 20000 0.985643 In terms of black body radiation function

z z
1700 0.028535 6400 0.769268 21000 0.987437
λ2 λ1
1800 0.039344 6500 0.776386 22000 0.988947 Ebλ dλ − E bλ dy
1900 0.052111 6600 0.783234 23000 0.990227 fλ 1 − λ 2 = 0 0
2000 0.066733 6700 0.789823 24000 0.991319 σ T4

z z
2100 0.083058 6800 0.796164 25000 0.992256
λ2 λ1
2200 0.100895 6900 0.802268 26000 0.993064
Ebλ dλ Ebλ dλ
2300 0.120037 7000 0.808144 27000 0.993765 0 0
= −
2400 0.140266 7100 0.813803 28000 0.994376 σT 4
σ T4
2500 0.161366 7200 0.819253 29000 0.994911
2600 0.183132 7300 0.824504 30000 0.995381 or fλ 1 − λ 2 = f0 − λ 2 − f0 – λ 1 ...(12.28)
2700 0.205370 7400 0.829563 35000 0.997044
2800 0.227904 7500 0.834439 40000 0.998008 where f0 − λ 1 and f0 − λ 2 are the black body radiation func-
2900 0.250577 7600 0.839139 45000 0.998605 tions corresponding to λ1T and λ2 T, respectively.
 412 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Example 12.7. The temperature of a filament of an Analysis : The total radiation emitted from the
incandescent light bulb (a black body) is maintained at sun in visible spectrum
2500 K. Calculate the fraction of radiant energy emitted
by the filament in the visible spectrum. Also calculate
the wavelength at which the emission from the filament
z 0.7 µm

0.4 µm
Ebλdλ = σ T4[f0 – 0.7 – f0 – 0.4]
= 5.67 × 10–8 × (5800)4
reaches a maximum value.
× [0.4914 – 0.1245]
Solution = 23.54 × 10 W/m2. Ans.
6

Given : Radiation from a filament of an incan-

Example 12.9. Determine (a) the wavelength at which
descent light bulb in visible range.
the spectral emissive power of a tungsten filament
T = 2500 K  at 1400 K is maximum, (b) the spectral emissive power

λ1 = 0.4 µm  For visible range. at that wavelength, and (c) the spectral emissive power
 at 5 µm.
λ2 = 0.76 µm 
To find : Solution
(i) Fraction of radiation energy emitted in visible Given : For a radiating surface
range. Ts = 1400 K.
(ii) Wavelength corresponding to maximum To find :
emissive power. (a) λmax corresponds to peak emissive power,
Analysis : (i) The black body radiation function (b) Peak spectral emissive power corresponding
corresponds to λ1T and λ2T are : to λmax
λ1T = (0.4 µm) × (2500 K) (c) Spectral emissive power at λ = 5 µm.
= 1000 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.000321 Assumption : Black body radiation and σ = 5.67
λ2T = (0.76 µm) × (2500 K) × 10–8 W/m2. K4.
Analysis : (a) The wavelength corresponds to
= 1900 µm K → f0 − λ 2 = 0.052111
maximum emissive power.
fλ 1 − λ 2 = f0 − λ 2 − f0 − λ 1 λmaxT = 2897.6 µm.K
= 0.052111 – 0.000321 = 0.05179 2897.6
or λmax = = 2.07 µm. Ans.
It indicates that only 5.18% of the radiation 1400
energy emitted falls in the visible range. Ans. (b) Spectral emissive power at λ = λmax can be
(ii) Wavelength corresponding to maximum obtained from eqn. (12.21) ;
emissive power is obtained by using Wien’s Ebλ, max = 12.87 × 10–10 T5
displacement law = 12.87 × 10–10 × (1400)5
λmaxT = 2897.8 µm.K = 69.23 × 103 W/m2.µ µm. Ans.
2897.8 (c) Monochromatic emissive power at 5 µm.
or λmax = µm = 1.16 µm. Ans. λT = 5 × 1400
2500
= 7000 µm.K → f0 – λ = 0.808144
Example 12.8. Solar radiation has approximately same
spectral distribution as an ideal radiating body at Ebλ = σ T4 . f0 – λ
temperature of 5800 K. Determine the amount of solar = 5.67 × 10–8 × (1400)4 × 0.808144
radiation, which is in the visible range of 0.4 µm to = 1.76 × 105 W/m2.µ µm. Ans.
0.7 µm, use following data : Example 12.10. A window glass 0.3 cm thick has a
Range Black body radiation function monochromatic transmissivity of 0.9 in the range of
0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.4 f0 – 0.4 = 0.1245 0.3 µm to 2.5 µm and nearly zero elsewhere. Estimate
0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.7 f0 – 0.7 = 0.4914. the total transmissivity of the window for (a) near black
(Pune Univ., Dec. 1999) solar radiation at 5800 K, and (b) black room radiation
at 300 K.
Solution
Solution
Given : Solar radiation at Ts = 5800 K, and
blackbody radiation functions with wavelengths. Given : Transmission through a glass window
To find : Amount of solar radiation in visible τλ = 0.9, λ1 = 0.3 µm, λ2 = 2.5 µm
spectrum. (a) T = 5800 K, (b) T = 300 K.
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 413

To find : Transmissivity in range of λ1 = 0.3 µm To find : The effective absorptivity of the surface
to λ2 = 2.5 µm for (i) T = 5800 K, and (ii) T = 300 K. for
Assumptions : (i) Solar radiation, and
(i) Black body behaviour, (ii) Source radiation.
(ii) Stefan Boltzmann constant, Anslysis : (i) For solar radiation
λ1T = 3 µm × 5800 K
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2. K4.
Analysis : The transmissivity of a surface is = 17400 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.98
defined as : and fλ 1 – ∞ = 1 – f0 − λ 1 = 1 – 0.98 = 0.02
Energy transmitted through body Thus 98% solar radiation falls below 3 µm and
τ=
Energy incident on the body the remaining 2% between λ = 3 µm to λ = ∞.
The effective absorptivity of the surface

z z
For a black body

z
3 µm ∞
λ2
τ λ Ebλ dλ α λ 1 G λ dλ + α λ 2 G λ dλ

z
0 3 µm
τ=
λ1
= 0.9 × [ f0 − λ 2 – f0 − λ 1 ] αsolar = ∞
σ T4 G λ dλ
0
(i) At 5800 K For black surface (sun)
λ1T = 0.3 × 5800
= 1740 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.03285 αsolar =
α λ1 z
0
σ T4
3µ
Ebλ dλ
+
α λ2 z
3 µm
∞

σ T4
Ebλ dλ

λ2T = 2.5 × 5800

= α λ 1 f0 − λ 1 + α λ 2 f λ 1 − ∞
= 14500 µm.K → f0 − λ 2 = 0.96597
= 0.4 × 0.98 + 0.8 × 0.02 = 0.408. Ans.
∴ τ = 0.9 × [0.96597 – 0.03285] = 0.834. Ans. (ii) Source condition, Tsource = 527°C = 800 K
(ii) At T = 300 K λ1T = 3 µm × 800 K
λ1T = 0.3 × 300 = 90 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.000 = 2400 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.140266
λ2T = 2.5 × 300 and fλ 1 − ∞ = 1 – f0 − λ 1 = 1 – 0.140266 = 0.859734
= 750 µm.K → f0 − λ 2 = 0.000005 Absorptivity of the surface for source
∴ τ = 0.9 × (0.000005 – 0) αsource = α λ 1 f0 − λ 1 + α λ 2 f λ 1 − ∞
≈ 4.5 × 10–6 ≈ 0.0. Ans. = 0.4 × 0.140266 + 0.8 × 0.859734
= 0.7439. Ans.
Example 12.11. The aluminium paint is used to cover
the surface of a body that is maintained at 27°C. In one
installation this body is irradiated by the sun, in another 12.7. EMISSIVITY
by a source at 527°C. Calculate the effective absorptance
The radiation emitted by a real surface at temperature
of the surface for both conditions, assuming the sun is a
T is always less than that of blackbody. Therefore, the
black body at 5800 K. blackbody emission is considered as reference. The
Take α = 0.4 for 0 ≤ λ < 3 µm. emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiation energy
α = 0.8 for 3µ ≤ λ < ∞. emitted by a surface to that emitted by a black body at
the same temperature. It is a dimensionless quantity, a
Solution property of a radiating surface to measure of how closely
Given : Irradiation on a aluminium painted cover a surface approximates a black surface for which ε = 1.
surface. It is designated as ε and varies between 0 and 1.
Ts = 27°C = 300 K, Tsun = 5800 K The emissivity of a real surfaces is not constant.
Tsource = 527°C = 800 K It varies with temperature of the surface, as well as
α λ 1 = 0.4 for 0 ≤ λ < 3 µm wavelength and direction of the emission. Therefore,
different emissivities may be defined for a surface,
α λ 2 = 0.8 for 3 µm ≤ λ < ∞. depending upon the effect considered.
 414 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

12.7.1. Hemispherical and Total Emissivity The total, normal emissivities for some selected
The emissivity of a surface that is averaged over all materials are shown in Figs. 12.12 and 12.13. and listed
directions is called the hemispherical emissivity and the in Table 12.3. The following observations are listed
emissivity averaged over all wavelengths is called the below :
total emissivity. Thus the total hemispherical emissivity 1. The emissivity of the metallic surfaces is very
ε(T) of a surface is defined as ratio of the radiation heat small having the values as low as 0.02 for
flux emitted over all wavelengths into a hemispherical highly polished gold and silver.
space (all directions) to that which would have been 2. The presence of oxide layers may improve the
emitted by a blackbody at same temperature. emissivity of metallic surfaces.
Mathematically 3. The non conductors have the large value of

z
E(T) E(T) E(T) emissivity, generally exceeding 0.6.
ε(T) = ∞ = = ...(12.29)
E b (T) σ T 4 4. The emissivity of conducting materials
E (T) dλ
bλ
0
increase with increase in temperature, but
For a given value of emissivity, the emissive power
emissivity of non-conducting materials may
of a real surface at a temperature T is determined by either increase or decrease with increasing
E(T) = ε Eb(T) = ε σ T4 ...(12.30) temperature.

Highly polished metals like gold, silver, foils, and films

Polished metals
Metals as received

0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Metals as received and unpolished
Metals oxides
Oxides ceramics
Carbon, graphite
Minerals, glasses
Vegetation, water, skin
Special paints, anodised finishes

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. 12.12. Total, normal emissivity of selected materials
The value of emissivity strongly depends on the nature of the surface, which can be influenced by the method
of fabrication, thermal cycling and chemical reaction with the environment.
1.0
Silicon carbide

0.8
Total, normal emissivity, en

Stainless steel
heavily oxidized
0.6
Aluminium oxide

0.4
Stainless steel
lightly oxidized

0.2

Tungsten
0
300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100
Temperature (K)
Fig. 12.13. Temperature dependence of the total, normal emissivity εn of selected materials
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 415

12.7.2. Spectral Emissivity

z∞
ε λ E bλ ( T ) d λ

z
The emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength is ε=
0
∞
called the spectral emissivity. It is the ratio of spectral E bλ dλ

z z
emissive power of a real surface to that of black surface 0
∞ ∞
at the same temperature. It is denoted by ελ and ε λ Ebλ (T) dλ ε λ E bλ (T) dλ
0 0
expressed as : = =
...(12.32)
Eb σ T4
E (T) The spectral emissivity from a real surface
ελ(T) = λ or Eλ(T) = ελ Ebλ(T) ...(12.31)
E bλ (T) depends upon temperature and wavelength. The
Average value or hemispherical emissivity : spectral distribution of the emissivity against
wavelength is shown in Fig. 12.14.
1.0
Spectral, normal emissivity, el,n

0.8
Aluminium
Silicon oxide,
carbide 1400 K
0.6 1000 K

0.4
Stainless steel,
1200 K heavily
oxidized
0.2
Stainless steel, 800 K
2800 K
lightly oxidized
Tungsten
1600 K
0
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100
Wavelength, l(mm)

Fig. 12.14. Spectral dependence of the spectral, normal emissivity ελ, n of selected materials

TABLE 12.3. Total emissivity for a variety of surfaces

Metals Nonmetals
Surface Temp. (°C) ε Surface Temp. (°C) ε
Aluminium Asbestos 40 0.93–0.97
Polished, 98% pure 200–600 0.04–0.06 Brick
Commercial sheet 90 0.09 Red, rough 40 0.93
Heavily oxidized 90–540 0.20–0.33 Silica 980 0.80–0.85
Brass Fireclay 980 0.75
Highly polished 260 0.03 Ordinary refractory 1090 0.59
Dull plate 40–260 0.22 Magnesite refractory 980 0.38
Oxidized 40–260 0.46–0.56 White refractory 1090 0.29
Copper Carbon
Highly polished 90 0.02 Filament 1040–1430 0.53
electrolytic
Slightly polished 40 0.12–0.15 Lampsoot 40 0.95
to dull
Black oxidized 40 0.76 Concrete, rough 40 0.94
Gold : Pure, polished 90–600 0.02–0.035 Glass
Iron and steel Smooth 40 0.94
 416 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Mild steel, polished 150–480 0.14–0.32

Steel, polished 40–260 0.07–0.10 Gypsum 40 0.80–0.90
Sheet steel, rolled 40 0.66 Ice 0 0.97–0.98
Sheet steel, strong 40 0.80 Limestone 40–260 0.92–0.95
rough oxide
Cast iron, oxidized 40–260 0.57–0.66 Marble 40 0.93–0.95
Iron, rusted 40 0.61–0.85 Mica 40 0.75
Wrought iron, smooth 40 0.35 Paints 40
Wrought iron, dull 20–360 0.94 Black glass 40 0.90
oxidized
Stainless, polished 40 0.07–0.17 White paint 40 0.89–0.97
Lead Various oil paints 40 0.92–0.96
Polished 40–260 0.05–0.08 Red lead 90 0.93
Oxidized 40–200 0.63 Paper
White 40 0.95–0.98
Mercury : pure, clean 40–90 0.10–0.12 Other colours 40 0.92–0.94
Platinum Roofing 40 0.91
Pure, polished plate 200–590 0.05–0.10 Plaster, rough lime 40–260 0.92
Oxidized at 590°C 260–590 0.07–0.11 Quartz 100–1000 0.89–0.93
Silver 200 0.01–0.04 Rubber 40 0.86–0.94
Tin 40–90 0.05 Snow 10–20 0.82
Tungsten Water, thickness ≥ 0.1 mm 40 0.96
Filament 540–1090 0.11–0.16 Wood 40 0.80–0.90
Filament 2760 0.39 Oak, planed 20 0.90

12.7.3. Directional Emissivity directional emissivity εθ of a surface in normal direction

The emissivity in a specified direction is called the (θ = 0) represents the hemispherical emissivity of the
directional emissivity. It is denoted by εθ, where θ is the surface.
angle between the direction of radiation and normal of
the surface. The variation of emissivity with direction 12.7.4. Kirchhoff’s Law
for conductors and non conductors is shown in Fig. 12.15. It states that at thermal equilibrium, the ratio of the
It is observed that the directional emissivity εθ is almost total emissive power to the total absorptivity is constant
constant for about θ < 40° for conductors such as metals, for all bodies.
and for θ < 70° for non conductors such as plastics. The
G
T
1 a2 G
Nonconductor , e 2,
A 2 T
e0
A1, e1, a1 e 3, a3
A 3,
E2
0.5 E3
G = Eb E1
eq
q
Conductor

Fig. 12.16. Radiation exchange by small bodies in

0
0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
an isothermal enclosure
q Consider a small body 1 of surface area A1,
emissivity ε1 and absorptivity α1 at temperature T
Fig. 12.15. Variations of emissivity with direction for
within a large radiating (black) enclosure at the same
electrical conductors and nonconductors
temperature as shown in Fig. 12.16. The energy incident
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 417

on the small body is Eb (= σ T4) and of this energy, the
radiation absorbed by the small body per unit surface
area at temperature T is :
Gabs = α1Eb = α1 σ T4 ...(12.33)
The radiation emitted by the small body is :
E1 = ε1 σ T4 ...(12.34)
Thus at thermal equilibrium, the radiation
emitted by the body must be equal to the radiation
absorbed by it, or
E1 = α1Eb
Similarly, if small body 1 is replaced by a small
body 2 with absorptivity α2 in the enclosure, then energy
incident on the body is again Eb, energy absorbed is α2Eb
and at thermal equilibrium, the energy emitted E2 is :
E2 = α2Eb
Similarly, for other bodies, it can be shown that at
thermal equilibrium, the energy emitted by a surface
must be equal to energy absorbed by the surface. There-
fore, we may write
It differs from Planck’s distribution and it has large
variation with wavelength and consists of several peaks
and valleys. Further, the spectral emissivity also varies
with temperature. Thus, its evaluation to average
emissivity becomes very complicated. A useful
simplification is to replace the wiggly line by an average
emissivity line as shown by dashed line in Fig. 12.17. It
is the gray body approximation. The effect of
approximation on emissive power is shown in Fig. 12.18.
A gray surface should emit same radiation as the real
surface. That is :
el
Black body eb = e = 1
1.0
Gray surface el = e = const.
0.6

E1 E2 E3 Real surface, el
= = = Eb ...(12.35)
α1 α2 α3
E1 T = const.
or = α 1 or ε1 = α1 ...(12.36) 0
Eb l
Thus the total emissivity of a surface at
Fig. 12.17. Comparison of the emissivity of a real surface, a
temperature T is always equal to its total absorptivity gray surface and a black body at the same temperature
for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same
temperature. This relation simplifies the radiation
analysis and is developed by Gaustav Kirchhoff in 1860, 1.0 T = 2000 K
and thus known as Kirchhoff’s law.
Hence it is also true at a specific wavelength that Black body
the spectral emissivity is equal to spectral absorptivity 0.8
(e = el =1)
at thermal equilibrium for all bodies. This law is
applicable when the radiation properties are
Spectral emissive power, el

independent of wavelength i.e., for graybodies or when

Gray body
incident and emitted radiation have same spectral 0.6
(e = el = 0.6)
distribution.
12.7.5. Gray and Diffuse Surfaces : Gray Lambert Body Real
0.4 surface
Approximation
The radiation properties of a real surface such as
absorptivity, emissivity etc. depend on wavelength and
direction of radiation. Most emissivity data are either 0.2
averaged over direction or over wavelength. But for some
real surfaces, the spectral emissivity ελ is a complex func-
tion of wavelength λ and its calculation for all wave-
0
lengths becomes very tedious. Therefore, the gray and 1 2 3 4 5 6
diffuse approximations are commonly used in radiation Wavelength, l, mm
calculations. A surface is called to be diffuse surface, if Fig. 12.18. Comparison of hemispherical spectral emission
its properties are independent of directions, and a gray for black, gray and real surfaces

z
surface, if its properties are independent of wavelength.
∞
Consider the spectral emissivity of a real surface ε(T) σ T4 = ελ(T) Ebλ(T) dλ ...(12.37)
is represented by a wiggly line as shown in Fig. 12.17. 0
 418 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Then the average emissivity for a gray surface Example 12.12. In an isothermal enclosure at uniform

z
can be expressed as : temperature, two small surfaces A and B are placed. The
∞ irradiation to the surface by the enclosure is 6200 W/m2.
ε λ (T) E bλ (T) dλ
0 The absorption rates by the surfaces A, and B are
ε(T) = ...(12.38)
σ T4 5500 W/m2 and 620 W/m2. When steady state is estab-
If the variation of spectral emissivity is quite lished, calculate the following :
large, but it is constant over certain wavelength as (i) What are the heat fluxes to each surfaces ?
shown in Fig. 12.19, then ε(T) is expressed as step What are their temperatures ?
function and eqn. (12.38) is integrated by dividing the (ii) Absorptivity of both surfaces,
spectrum into a number of wavelength bands and (iii) Emissive power of each surface, and
assuming the emissivity ε(T) remains constant over each
wavelength band. Then the average emissivity can be (iv) Emissivity of each surface.
determined as : Solution
el
Given : Two small body A, and B are placed in an
enclosure.
G = 6200 W/m2
e2
Actual GαA = 5500 W/m2
variation
GαB = 620 W/m2.
el(T)
e1 To find :
(i) Heat flux to each surface and surface
e3 temperatures.
(ii) αA and αB
(iii) EA and EB
(iv) εA and εB.
0 l1 l2 l Analysis : (i) At steady state, the net heat flux is
zero. The enclosure is considered to be a black body and
R|
ε 1 = constant ; 0 ≤ λ < λ1 isothermal, thus TA = TB = T
S|
ε λ = ε 2 = constant ; λ1 ≤ λ < λ2 Irradiation to the surface = Emission from the
T
ε 3 = constant ; λ2 ≤ λ < ∞ surface
Fig. 12.19. Approximation of actual variation of spectral 6200 = σ T4 = 5.67 × 10–8(T)4
emissivity with wavelength by a step function or T = 575 K. Ans.

ε(T) =
z
0
λ1
ε λ (T) E bλ (T) dλ

σ T4
qA = 0, qB = 0. Ans.
(ii) Absorptivity of surface, A,
G αA 5500

z z
αA = = = 0.887. Ans.
λ2 ∞ G 6200
ε λ (T) E bλ (T) dλ ε λ (T) Ebλ (T) dλ Absorptivity of surface B,
λ1 λ2
+ + G 620
σ T4 σ T4 αB = αB = = 0.1. Ans.
G 6200
or ε(T) = ε1 f0 −λ (T) + ε2 fλ 1 − λ 2 (T) + ε3 fλ −∞ (T) (iii) Emissive power of each surface
1 2
...(12.39) According to Kirchhoff ’s law, at thermal
equilibrium
Thus a gray surface is considered for which the Energy absorbed = Energy emitted
spectral emissivity ελ is independent of the wavelength
∴ EA = αAG = 5500 W/m2. Ans.
and the spectral emissivity is equal to total emissivity ε
EB = αBG = 620 W/m2. Ans.
ε(T) = ελ(T) ...(12.40) (iv) Emissivity of each surface
Further, for a gray surface, the absorptivity, According to Kirchhoff ’s law
reflectivity and transmissivity are also independent of ε=α
wavelength. For such a surface ; ∴ εA = αA = 0.887. Ans.
ε(T) = α(T) ...(12.41) εB = αB = 0.1. Ans.
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 419

Example 12.13. A solar collector surface has an 12.8.1. Solid Angle

absorptivity of 0.85 for wavelength 0 ≤ λ < 3 µm and a A solid angle is defined as a ratio of area of spherical
value of 0.15 for wavelength λ > 3 µm. (i) Calculate the surface enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of
energy absorbed from the source at 5000 K, (ii) If the the cone at the centre of the sphere to the square of
flux is 800 W/m2, calculate the energy radiated by the radius of the sphere. Consider the emission from the
body, if its temperature was 350 K. differential area dA1 towards the normal area dAn as
Solution shown in Fig. 12.20. The differential area dAn, through
Given : A solar collector which the emission passes, subtends an angle called the
solid angle when viewed from dA1. Mathematically it is
(i) α λ 1 = α1 = 0.85 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 µm expressed as :
α λ 2 = α2 = 0.15 for λ > 3 µm dA n
dω = ...(12.42)
Ts = 5000 K. r2
(ii) Ts = 350 K, G = q = 800 W/m2 where An = normal area
To find : r = radius of sphere
(i) Energy absorbed by solar collector surface.
(ii) Emissive power, if surface at 350 K. Normal, n Emitted
Assumptions : radiation
(i) Diffuse, gray surfaces. dAn
(ii) Kirchhoff’s law holds good.
Analysis : (i) At temperature 5000 K, from
Table 12.2. q
λ1T = 3 µm × 5000 r
= 15000 µm.K → f0 −λ 1 = 0.969 dA1 dw
The average absorptivity is
α = α 1 f0 − λ 1 + α 2 (1 − f0 − λ 1 ) dA1 dAn dAn
dw = ——
= 0.85 × 0.969 + 0.15 × (1 – 0.969) f
r
2

= 0.8283
For flux of 800 W/m2. (a) Emission from a differential area dA1 (b) Definition of solid angle
The energy absorbed into a solid angle subtended by dAn
= α G = 0.8283 × 800
= 662.64 W/m2. Ans. Fig. 12.20
(ii) When surface temperature is 350 K The solid angle is measured in steradian (sr). The
λ1T = 3 µm × 350 K solid angle subtended by hemisphere from its centre is
= 1050 µm → f0 −λ 1 = 0.00057 2πr 2
= 2π
From Kirchhoff ’s law r2
α1 = ε1 and α2 = ε2 F as 4πr I .2
Energy radiated and by full sphere is 4π GH r JK 2
= [ ε 1 f0 − λ 1 + ε 2 (1 − f0 − λ 1 ) ] σ T4
12.8.2. Spectral Intensity of Radiation (Ibλλ)
= [0.85 × 0.00057 + 0.15
× (1 – 0.00057)] × 5.67 × 10–8 × (350)4 It is the radiant energy emitted by a black body at a
temperature T, streaming through a unit area normal
= 128 W/m2. Ans.
to direction of propagation per unit wavelength about a
wavelength per unit solid angle about the direction of
12.8. RADIATION FROM A SURFACE propagation of beam. It is denoted by Ibλ and can be
expressed as :
The radiation emitted from a surface propagates in all
F W I
possible direction. Similarly, the radiation incident on
a surface may come from different directions. In both
Ibλ =
Energy emitted
(Projected area) × (Wavelength)
GH m . µm.sr JK
2

cases, effect of radiation on the surface depends on the

(Solid angle)
directional distribution. Such directional effect may be ...(12.43)
treated by introducing the concept of radiation intensity.
 420 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

12.8.3. Radiation Intensity (Ib) The spectral intensity of radiation according to

It is the radiation emitted by a blackbody at temperature its definition eqn. (12.43).
T over all wavelength per unit projected area per unit (dQ/dλ)
Ibλ = ...(12.46)
solid angle. Mathematically, dA

z
dA1 cos θ 2 n
∞ r
Ib = Ibλ dλ [W/(m2.sr)] ...(12.44) dQ
0
where = dQλ is the rate of spectral radiation energy
Consider the emission from an elemental area dA1 dλ
located at the centre of the hemisphere as shown in emitted by the surface dA1 and passes through dAn = r2
Fig. 12.21. Let this emission is absorbed by elemental sin θ dθ dφ.
area dAn, a portion of hemisphere. The area dAn Rearranging eqn. (12.46), we get
subtends an angle dθ from the perpendicular line joining dQλ = Ibλ dA1cos θ (sin θ dθ dφ) (W/µm) ...(12.47)
dA1. The spectral emissive power associated with dA1
The solid angle subtended by dAn is
dA n dQ λ
dω = 2 dEλ = = Ibλ sin θ cos θ dθ dφ ...(12.48)
r dA 1
where the normal area, dAn = r2 sin θ dθ dφ If spectral and directional distribution of Ibλ is
∴ dω = sin θ dθ dφ known, then the spectral emissive power associated with
...(12.45) the emission into a hemisphere shown in Fig. 12.21 (b)
is given by

z z
The element dAn subtends
dw = dq df sin q φ =2π θ= π / 2
Its area is Ebλ = Ibλ sin θ cos θ dθ dφ (W/m2.µm)
φ =0 θ=0
2
(r) sin q dq df q r
...(12.49)
The total hemispherical emissive power Eb(W/m2)
is given by

dq
Eb =
Then
z λ=∞

λ=0
Ebλ dλ

f
df
dA1
Eb = z z z
λ=∞

λ=0
φ = 2π

φ=0
θ = π/2

θ=0
Ibλ (λ, φ, θ)
sin θ cos θ dθ dφ dλ ...(12.50)
(a) Radiation intensity through a unit sphere For a diffuse surface, the intensity of radiation is
independent of direction for such a surface
n Ibλ (λ, φ, θ) = Ibλ(λ),
2
dAn = r sin q dq df Then eqn. (12.50) is rearranged as
θ=π/2 θ = 2π λ=∞
rdq
dAn Eb = ∫θ = 0 ∫θ = 0 sin θ cos θ d θ dφ × ∫λ = 0 Ibλ ( λ ) dλ
...(12.51)
r sin q r The total intensity of blackbody radiation is
r defined as
q r sin q df λ=∞

dA1
Ib = ∫λ = 0 Ibλ ( λ ) dλ

dq dAn and integration of remaining part of eqn. (12.51), yields

dw = 2 to
r θ=π/2 φ = 2π
df ∫θ = 0 ∫φ = 0 sin θ cos θ dθ dφ
θ=π/2
= π ∫θ = 0 2 sin θ cos θ dθ = π
(b) Solid angle subtended by dAn at a point on dA1
Fig. 12.21 using in eqn. (12.51), we get
Eb = πIb ...(12.52)
The projected area on a plane normal to the line Thus the total emissive power of a black body is
joining dA1 and dAn = dA1 cos θ equal to π times the intensity of radiation (Ib).
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 421
n
12.8.4. Lambert Cosine Law
It states that the total emission from a surface in any
direction is directly proportional to the cosine of the q = 60
°
angle of the emission.
The angle of emission θ is the angle subtended
by the normal to the radiating surface and the direction
vector of emission of the receiving surface.
If En is total emissive power in normal direction,
then the emissive power is : Black body
at 1500 K
E = En cos θ ...(12.53)
It is true only for diffuse radiating surfaces. For Fig. 12.22. Schematic
the surfaces, obey Lambert cosine law, the intensity of From Table 12.2.
radiation in any direction is same, i.e.,
λ1T = 2 µm × 1500 K
In = I = const. ...(12.54)
= 3000 µm K → f0–2 = 0.273
Example 12.14. A surface emits as a blackbody at
λ2T = 4 µm × 1500 K
1500 K. Calculate the rate of emission per unit area, if
radiation corresponds to 0° ≤ θ ≤ 60° and wavelength = 6000 µm K → f0–4 = 0.738
interval 2 µm ≤ λ ≤ 4 µm. ∆Eb = 0.75 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (1500)4
Solution × (0.738 – 0.273)
Given : Black body emission = 100.16 × 103 W/m2. Ans.
Ts = 1500 K
λ1 = 2 µm, λ2 = 4 µm 12.9. RADIOSITY
π
φ1 = 0° and φ2 = 60° = Radiosity, J, is the total radiant energy leaving a surface
3
To find : Rate of emission per unit area. per unit area per unit time. The total radiant energy
leaving a surface consists of the emitted energy and the
Analysis : The emission from the black surface
reflected part of the incident energy shown in Fig. 12.23.
may be obtained by using eqn. (12.50) within limits
Thus, radiosity is defined by the relation.
λ1 = 2 µm to λ2 = 4 µm, θ = 0° to 2π, and φ = 0 to π/3.

∆Eb = z zz
4 µm

2 µm

For diffuse black body

0
2π π /3

0
Ibλ cos θ sin θ dθ dφ dλ
Radiosity
J = eEb + rG

z zz
Inc

de G

4 µm 2π π /3
itte d r
ide

∆Eb = I bλ dλ cos θ sin θ dθ dφ

b
E
Em lecte
nt

2 µm 0 0
G

z LMN
f
Re

4 µm
I bλ d λ 2 π
sin 2 θ OP π /3

=
2 µm 2 Q 0

z
Fig. 12.23. Definition of radiosity of a surface (specular
4 µm reflection not implied)
= 0.75 π I bλ dλ
2 µm J = ε Eb + ρG ...(12.55)
We know Ebλ = πIbλ . Thus where J = radiosity of the surface (W/m2),

∆Eb = 0.75 z 4 µm

2 µm
Ebλ dλ
ε = emissivity of the surface,
Eb = black body emissive power at the

z
= 0.75 Eb
4 µm

2 µm
E bλ d λ
Eb
temperature of the surface (W/m2),
ρ = reflectivity of the surface,
G = incident radiant flux (W/m2),
= 0.75 Eb (f0–4 – f0–2 )
 422 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

For a gray, diffuse opaque surface (τ = 0), Analysis : (i) The radiosity of the surface
α + ρ = 1 or ρ = 1 – α J = εEb + ρG
and at thermal equilibrium For a gray, diffuse and opaque surface, α = ε
α=ε τ = 0, α + ρ = 1
Thus J = ε Eb + (1 – ε)G or ρ = 1 – α = 1 – 0.8 = 0.2
J − εEb ∴ J = α σ T4 + ρG
or G= ...(12.56)
1− ε = 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (373)4 + 0.2 × 1000
The total rate of energy leaving the surface = AJ
= 1078 W/m2. Ans.
The total rate of energy incident on the surface
(ii) The net heat transfer rate using eqn. (12.58)
= AG
Thus the net radiant energy leaving the surface Qnet = A(J – G)
Q = AJ – AG = A(J – G) = 0.1 × (1078 – 1000)
= 7.8 W/m2. Ans.
LM
J − εEb
=A J− =
OP
Aε(Eb − J) Alternatively using eqn. (12.57)
N
1− ε Q
1− ε
...(12.57) Qnet =
Aε(Eb − J)
1− ε
This equation is not valid for black surface for
which ε = α = 1 ; ρ = 0 [5.67 × 10 −8 × (373) 4 − 1078]
= 0.1 × 0.8 ×
For a black surface, J = Eb 1 − 0.8
Q = A(Eb – G) ...(12.58) 2
= 7.81 W/m . Ans.
Example 12.15. A gray, diffuse opaque surface (α = 0.8) (iii) For black surface ε = α = 1
is at 100°C and receives an irradiation 1000 W/m2. If (a) Radiosity J = Eb = σ T4
the surface area is 0.1 m2. Calculate
= 5.67 × 10–8 × (373)4
(i) Radiosity of the surface, and = 1097.5 W/m2. Ans.
(ii) Net radiative heat transfer rate from the (b) The heat transfer rate, eqn. (12.58)
surface.
Q = A(Eb – G)
(iii) Calculate above quantities, if surface is black.
= 0.1 × (1097.5 – 1000)
Solution = 9.753 W/m2. Ans.
Given : A gray, diffuse opaque surface Example 12.16. A plane , gray, diffuse and, opaque
α = 0.8, G = 1000 W/m2 surface (absorptivity = 0.7) with a surface area of 0.5 m2,
is maintained at 500°C and receives radiant energy at a
Ts = 100°C = 373 K, As = 0.1 m2.
rate of 10,000 W/m2. Determine per unit time
(i) The energy absorbed.
J (ii) The radiant energy emitted.
(iii) The total energy leaving the surface per unit
G

area.
(iv) The radiant energy emitted by the surface in
rG
b

the wave band 0.2 µm to 4 µm.

eE

(v) The net radiative heat transfer from the

surface.
Q
Solution
Fig. 12.24. Surface energy balance with radiant energy
Given : Plane, gray, diffuse, opaque surface
To find : α = 0.7
(i) Radiosity J, As(surface area) = 0.5 m2
(ii) Net heat transfer rate, G = 10000 W/m2
(iii) For black surface J and Qnet. Ts = 500°C = 773 K
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 423
λ2T = 4.0 × 773

Inc
= 3092 µm.K → f0 −λ 2 = 0.294
ide

W
nt Eλ 1 − λ 2 = 0.7 × [0.294 – 0] × 5.67 × 10–8 × (773)4

W
00
en

15

91
er = 4166.2 W/m2.

70
y=
gy

y=
rg
Rate of radiant energy on surface area As = 0.5
=5

ne

rg
00
m2 is :

de

ne
0W

de
cte
= AEλ 1 − λ 2 = 0.5 × 4166.2

itte
fle
Re

Em
Energy absorbed = 3500 W = 2083.13 W. Ans.
(v) From an energy balance on the surface
from an external source

Net radiative heat transfer rate from the surface

= Total energy leaving the surface
3591 W

– Energy reaching the surface

= 0.5 × 17182 – 0.5 ×10000 = 3591 W. Ans.

12.10. SOLAR RADIATION

Fig. 12.25. Schematic for energy transactions on the surface The sun is our primary source of energy. The energy
coming out the sun is called solar energy and it reaches
To find :
to earth in the form of electromagnetic waves. The sun
(i) Rate of energy absorbed, is considered as a nuclear reactor, where the heat being
(ii) Emitted radiant energy, generated due to continuous fusion reaction of hydro-
(iii) Total radiant energy leaving the surface per gen atoms to form helium. The sun experiences very
unit area large temperature in its core region, but its tempera-
(iv) Emitted radiant energy in the wave band ture drops to approximately 5800 K in its outer region,
0.2 µm–4 µm due to continuous dissipation of energy by radiation.
(v) Q(net radiative heat transfer rate from the
surface). Normal

Analysis : (i) Rate of energy absorbed = αAG

= 0.7 × 0.5 × 10000 = 3500 W. Ans.
(ii) Rate of radiant energy emitted = A ε σ T4
(For a gray surface, ε = α = 0.7)
= 0.5 × 0.7 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (773)4
= 7091 W. Ans.
(iii) Total energy flux leaving the surface is the
sum of the emitted energy flux and the reflected en-
ergy flux
J = εEb + ρG
where ρ = 1 – α = 1 – 0.7 = 0.3
∴ Radiosity,
J = 0.7 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (773)4 + 0.3 × 10000
= 17182 W/m2. Ans.
(iv) Rate of radiant energy emitted in the wave
band 0.2 µm to 4 µm is given by
E λ 1 − λ 2 = ε[ f0 − λ 2 − f0 − λ 1 ]Eb W/m2
At λ1 and λ2, T = 773, from Table 12.2
λ1T = 0.2 × 773
= 154.6 µm.K → f0 −λ 1 = 0.0
ys
Earth’s Go = Gs cos q ra
atmosphere un
S
q
Earth's
surface
Fig. 12.26. Solar radiation reaching the earth’s atmosphere,
solar constant Gs, and extraterrestrial solar irradiation G0
The sun is nearly spherical body of diameter of
1.392 × 106 km and a mass of 2 × 1030 kg. It is located at
a mean distance of 1.496 × 108 km from the earth. The
earth has its mean diameter of 1.27 × 104 km and its
surface gets only small fraction of sun’s energy, because,
the sun subtends only an angle of 32 minute at the
earth’s surface. The intensity of solar radiation reaches
outside the earth’s atmosphere is almost constant. The
solar constant Gs is the rate at which the solar radiation
 424 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

flux is received on a surface normal to the sun rays just 2500 Ultra-Visible
Infrared
outside the earth’s atmosphere, when the earth is its mean violet range
5800 K Black body
distance from the sun. The radiation coming from the
Solar irradiation
sun is equivalent to blackbody radiation. Using the
2000
Stefan Boltzmann law, the solar constant can be calcu-
lated as :
L r OP

Spectral irradiation, W/m .mm

2

G = M

2
sun Extraterrestrial solar radiation
σ Ts4 = 1353 W/m2 ...(12.59)
s
Nr Qorbit
1500

where, rsun = radius of sun = 6.9598 × 108 m. O3

rorbit = distance between sun and earth O2

= 1.496 × 1011 m.
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2-K4, Stefan Boltzmann
constant.
Ts = effective temperature of sun = 5762 K
Due to very small eccentricity in the earth, the
distance between the earth and sun varies throughout
the year. Therefore, solar constant also varies from its
maximum value of 1399 W/m2 on December 21 to a
minimum of 1310 W/m2 on June 21 and on any day of
year, it can be calculated as :
LM 360n OP
N
Gs = 1367 1 + 0.033 cos
365 Q
...(12.60)
where n is the day of year.
The extraterrestrial solar irradiation G0 incident
normal to the outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere is
calculated as :
G0 = Gs cos θ (W/m2) ...(12.61)
The spectral distribution of solar radiation on the
earth’s atmosphere and physical significance of Gs and
G0 are illustrated in Fig. 12.27. The solar radiation
travels in atmosphere about 30 km outside the earth’s
surface. As solar radiation passes through this
atmosphere, it is absorbed and scattered by atmospheric
material. The absorption occurs mainly due to presence
of ozone, water vapours, CO2, NO2, CO, O2 and CH4 etc.
The ozone absorbs complete ultraviolet radiation at
wavelength below 0.3 µm and considerably in the range
of 0.3 to 0.4 µm and some radiation in the visible range.
Thus the ozone layer in the upper regions of atmosphere
guards biological systems on the earth from the harmful
ultraviolet radiation. In turn the ozone layer must be
protected from the destructive chemicals commonly used
as refrigerants, cleaning agents and propellants in the
aerosol cans. The carbon dioxide and water vapour
absorb mainly longer wavelength radiation (infrared
radiation).
As a results of these absorption, the solar energy
reaching the earth surface is weakened considerably.
Its absorption is large as 950 W/m2 on a clear day and
much less on cloudy or smoggy days.
1000
Earth’s surface
H2O
H2O
500
H2O H2O
O3
CO2
H2O
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Wavelength, mm
Fig. 12.27. Spectral distribution of solar radiation
The solar energy reaching the earth’s surface is
also weakened by scattering or reflection when it passes
through the atmosphere. The scattering or reflection
occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate
matter in the atmosphere. The radiation at wavelength
corresponding to violet and blue colours is scattered
most. These scattered radiation is redistributed in all
directions and gives bluish colour sky. The same
phenomenon is responsible for red sunrise and sunset.
Early in the morning and late in evening, the sun rays
pass through a larger thickness of atmosphere.
Therefore, the violet and blue colours of light experi-
ence a large number of scattering and thus do not reach
the earth’s surface. While the colours correspond to
longer wavelength such as yellow, orange and red reach
the earth’s atmosphere and making sunset and sunrise
as reddish. Similarly, the red traffic light can be seen
from longer distance as compared to green light.
12.10.1. Solar Radiation on the Earth
The Fig. 12.28 shows the distribution of solar energy on
the earth’s surface. Actually 45% of sun’s energy reaches
the earth’s surface. The lower left hand figure shows
how this sun energy is in turn returned to atmosphere
and space.
The solar energy reaches the earth surface is sum
of direct and scattered (diffused) components. The part
of solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface
without being scattered or absorbed is called the direct
solar radiation GD. The scattered part (diffuse solar
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 425

radiation Gd) reaches the earth surface uniformly from 4

Gsky = σ Tsky W/m2.K ...(12.63)
all directions and it varies from about 10% of total on
clear day to almost 100% on totally cloudy day. Then where Tsky = effective atmospheric temperature. It
the total solar radiation that reaches the horizontal ranges from 230 K for cold, clear sky conditions to a
earth’s surface per unit area is shown in Fig. 12.29 and high of 285 K for warm, cloudy-sky conditions.
is expressed as :
12.10.3. Green House Effect
Sensible heat transfer The surface of the earth warms up during the day as
to atmosphere
a result of absorption of solar radiation and cools down
during night by radiating its energy back into deep
45%
45% is 33% is atmosphere as infrared radiation. The sun emits most
reaches
the earth’s
transmitted reflected of its energy in shorter wavelength (λ = 0.3 – 3 µm),
back to
Net Evaporation surface
to the earth
directly and space while earth’s surface and other objects are relatively
radiation by diffuse at much lower temperature, and thus emit radiation
from radiation 22% is
surface absorbed in in longer wavelength infrared regions (λ > 5 µm). The
the
atmosphere constituents of atmosphere, carbon dioxide, water
vapour, methane, and pollutants are practically
The flow of energy from the earth’s Radiation that reaches the transparent for shorter wavelength radiation, while
surface back to and through the outer atmosphere from the sun
earth’s atmosphere they are opaque for longer wavelength radiation.
Therefore, they easily pass on the short wavelength
Fig. 12.28. The approximate distribution of sun’s radiation that the earth receives from the sun, but
energy to the earth’s surface
they absorb the longer wavelength radiation remitted
Gsolar = GD cos θ + Gd ...(12.62) by the surface of the earth, when it cools. This absorbed
where θ is the angle of incidence of direct solar radiation. energy is once again reradiated to the earth surface
Further, the quantity of solar energy reaching a Fig. 12.30. In this process an additional amount of
surface on the earth depends on its orientation angle in heat energy is retained within the lower atmosphere,
relation to sun, the hour of the day, the day of year and thus causing a slight temperature increase of the earth.
latitude of the place and atmospheric conditions. In the Such warming up and remission of radiation is called
early morning and late afternoon, the solar radiation the green house effect and these effects eventually
reaches the earth surface follows an oblique, longer path resulting in global warming.
through atmosphere thus reduces the intensity of
radiation. Solar
radiation
Normal
e
ous
en h
Diffuse Gre
solar ct
re r
radiation Di la Infrared radiation
so n
at
io Fig. 12.30. Green house traps energy by allowing solar
di radiation to enter but not allowing infrared
ra
2 radiation to leave
Gd W/m
2 q GD W/m
The coastal areas are humid and therefore, there
is no drastic change between day and night temperature,
Fig. 12.29. Direct and diffuse radiation incident because the humidity acts as a barrier in the path of
on horizontal earth’s surface infrared radiation coming from the earth’s surface. A
similar trend is also followed for large pollutant places,
12.10.2. Atmospheric Emission where CO2 affects the natural cooling process. In clean
Since the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere areas with clear sky such as deserts, there is large
undergoes through absorption and scattering, thus the variation in day and night temperature, because absence
atmospheric emission is due to temperature of gas of such barriers for infrared radiation. The causes of
constituents like CO2 and H2O molecules and suspended green house effect are :
particle in atmospheric. The emission of atmosphere to 1. Excessive deforestation,
the earth surface Gsky can be obtained as: 2. Industrialisation and burning of fuel.
 426 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

The average global temperature has been risen
up by about 0.3°C to 0.6°C over last 100 years due to
green house effect (Fig. 12.31) as a result of
concentration of CO2, methane, CFCs etc. in the
atmosphere and the rate of rise is increasing alarmingly
due to increasing atmospheric pollution. In this
directions, some corrective measures are taken seriously.
The production of CFCs has been banned worldwide.
Pollution norms are set to automobiles, and industries.
However, the efforts put for normal climatic conditions
are not sufficient and need to be more effective enhance,
because a small increase in global temperature may lead
to series of catastrophic consequences.
0.8
0.6
Temperature anomaly, °C
(ii) Flat reflector. It has low absorptivity and
transmissivity over entire spectrum of wavelength, such
a surface reflects most of irradiation and is obtained by
bare or polished metals and foils, electroplated or
vacuum deposited metal coatings, aluminium films and
metallic paints.
(iii) Solar absorber. It is a truly selective
surface, and it absorbs low wavelength solar irradiation
but highly reflective (with low emission) in the infrared
range. Such surfaces are commonly used in solar
collector surfaces and for satellite temperature control.
The typical designs use thin oxide coatings, sprayed or
baked on finishes and vacuum deposited films.
(iv) Solar reflector. It has high absorptivity and
emission in infrared range, but reflects most of the low
wavelength solar irradiation. It is obtained by white or
light coloured paints, enamels, or ceramic coatings or

0.4 anodised aluminium. Such surfaces cool the exterior

structure such as building, a fuel tanks or cryogenic
0.2 containers by reflecting solar irradiation and emitting
low temperature heat from within.
0.0

– 0.2
1.0 1.0
– 0.4
Annual mean
5-year mean
– 0.6
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 al al
Year

Fig. 12.31. Global surface temperature over last 120 years

0 3 mm l 0 3 mm l
12.10.4. Selective Surfaces
(a) Flat absorber (b) Flat reflector
Most of the sun’s energy lies at wavelength near the
visible region of electromagnetic spectrum and most of
the radiation from the objects and earth’s surface is
1.0 1.0
coming on much longer infrared wavelength. Thus
engineers are often interested to use a selective radiating
surface to promote specific spectral or directional
characteristics. The Table 12.4 shows some infrared al al
emittance and solar absorptance for several materials. Solar infrared
region
There are four basic types of selective surfaces. region

(i) Flat absorber, (ii) flat reflector, (iii) solar 0 3 mm l 0 3 mm

absorber, and (iv) solar reflector.
(i) Flat absorber. It has high absorptivity over
entire spectrum of wavelength. It is intended to capture
all incident radiation. The black paints, enamels and
black or dark oxides or black anodised coating are some
flat absorber.
(c) Solar absorber (d) Solar reflector
Fig. 12.32. Selective radiating surfaces
The surface shown in Fig. 12.32 are assumed to
be opaque. Transparent or semitransparent material can
also be selective with somewhat different designs.
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 427

TABLE 12.4. Solar absorbance and infrared To find :

emittance for several surfaces near 300 K (i) Useful heat removal rate per unit area, W/m2.
Surface αsolar ε
(ii) Efficiency of the collector.
Assumptions :
Aluminium, pure 0.09 0.1 (i) Steady state conditions.
Carbon black in acrylic binder 0.94 0.83
(ii) Bottom of the collector is well insulated.
Copper, polished 0.3 0.04
Selective solar absorbers (iii) Diffuse absorber surface.
Black Cr on Ni plate 0.95 0.09 (iv) Sky radiation is in approximately same
CuO on Cu (Ebanol C) 0.90 0.16 spectral region that of surface emission i.e.,
Nickel black on steel 0.81 0.17 ε = αsky = 0.1.
Sputtered cermet on steel 0.96 0.16 Analysis : (i) The rate of incoming energy on the
Selective solar reflectors absorber surface/m2
Magnesium oxide 0.14 0.7
Snow 0.2–0.35 0.82 E′in
= αsGs + αsky Gsky
White paint A
Acrylic 0.26 0.90 = 0.95 × 750 + 0.1 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (263)4
Zinc oxide 0.12–0.18 0.93 = 739.62 W/m2
The energy outgoing the absorber surface per unit
Example 12.17. A flat plate solar collector with no cover area
has a selective absorber surface with ε = 0.1 and αs = 0.95.
At a particular time of the day, the absorber surface E ′out
= qconv + qrad + quse
temperature Ts is 120°C, when the solar irradiation is A
750 W/m2, the effective sky temperature is – 10°C and = h(Ts – T∞) + E + quse
ambient air temperature T∞ is 30°C. Assume the natural = 0.22 × (Ts – T∞)4/3 + ε σ Ts4 + quse
convection is given by = 0.22 × (120 – 30)4/3 + 0.1 × 5.67
q = 0.22(Ts – T∞ )4/3 W/m2. K.
× 10–8 × (393 K)4 + quse
Calculate the useful heat removal rate (W/m2)
= 88.73 + 135.25 + quse = 223.98 + quse
from the collector for these conditions. What is the
corresponding efficiency of the collector ? In steady state conditions,

Solution E′in E′
= out
Given: A flat plate solar collector with its A A
operating conditions. or 739.62 = 223.98 + quse
ε = 0.1, αs = 0.95 or quse = 515.65 W/m2. Ans.
Ts = 120°C = 393 K, T∞ = 30°C (ii) The collector efficiency is defined as the
Tsky = – 10°C = 263 K, Gs = 750 W/m2 fraction solar radiation extracted as useful energy.
and relation for calculation of h.
quse 515.65
η= = = 0.687
2
Gs 750
Gs = 750 W/m
− 68.7%.
~ Ans.
Tsky = – 10°C
Gsky Sky
Example 12.18. The white paint on a roof as a selective
solar absorber (αs = 0.26). Consider now a bare roof under
= 0.1 Air
s = 0.95 T = 30°C a sunlight sky. The solar radiation on the plane of the
Ts = 120°C h = 0.22 (Ts – T )
4/3 roof is 600 W/m2, the air temperature is 35°C, and a
light breeze produces a convective heat transfer coeffi-
cient of h = 8 W/m2.K. The sky temperature is 18°C.
2
Find the temperature of the roof, if it is painted with
quse W/m either white acrylic paint or a non-selective black paint
Fig. 12.33. Schematic having ε = 0.9.
 428
Solution
Given : A roof surface with operating condition
Gs = 600 W/m2, T∞ = 35°C = 308 K
h = 8 W/m2.K, αs = 0.26
Tsky = 18°C = 291 K, ε = 0.9
for non-selective black or white acrylic paint.
To find : The surface temperature of roof with
(i) White acrylic paint, and
(ii) Non-selective black paint.
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state conditions.
(ii) No heat transfer to interior of roof.
(iii) For non-selective black paint αs = ε.
Analysis : In steady state condition, the energy
balance yields to
Incident (solar + sky radiation) energy on the roof
surface = Heat loss by (convection + radiation) from the
roof surface
For 1 m2 surface area
4 = h(T – T ) + ε σ T 4
αsGs + ε σ Tsky s ∞ s
(i) For white acrylic paint αs = 0.26, ε = 0.9
0.26 × 600 + 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (291)4
= 8 × (Ts – 308) + 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × Ts4
or 5.103 × 10–8 Ts4 + 8Ts – 2986 = 0
or Ts4 + 156.77 × 106 Ts – 5.851 × 1010 = 0
It is a transcendental equation and its solution
by iterative technique converge to
Ts = 312 K = 39°C. Ans.
(ii) For non-selective black paint, αs = ε = 0.9 and
then above equation leads to
Ts4 + 156.77 × 106 Ts – 6.6038 × 1010 = 0
Its solution converges to
Ts = 338K = 65°C. Ans.
Example 12.19. An artificial spherical satellite flies
around the earth. Calculate the temperature of the
satellite surface, assuming that there is no heat sources
and surface temperature is uniform all over the surface.
The solar radiation reflected from the earth and
radiation emitted from the earth should also be ignored.
(i) If αs = 0.2 and ε = 0.1 ;
(ii) If surface of the satellite is gray ;
(iii) Find the ratio αs/ε , when the temperature of
the satellite surface becomes 30°C.
The incident solar radiation is 1500 W/m2.
ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Solution
Given : A satellite around the earth ;
Gs = 1500 W/m2,
To find : Satellite surface temperature if
(i) αs = 0.2 and ε = 0.1
(ii) Surface of the satellite is gray, and
(iii) αs/ε ratio for Ts = 30°C.
Analysis : For steady state conditions, the energy
balance
Heat gain by incident radiation = Heat lost by
emission
αs Aproj G = εAs σ Ts4
where Aproj = projected area of satellite for solar
irradiation = πr2
As = surface area of satellite for emission = 4πr2
Therefore,
(i) 0.2 × πr2 × 1500 =0.1 × 4πr2 × 5.67 × 10–8 Ts4
or Ts4 = 1.3227 × 1010
or Ts = 339.13 K = 66.13°C. Ans.
(ii) For gray surface α = ε = 0.2
0.2 × πr2 × 1500 = 0.2 × 4πr2 × 5.67
× 10–8 Ts4
4 9
or Ts = 6.6137 × 10
or Ts = 285.17 K
= 12.17°C. Ans.
(iii) For given temperature
Ts = 30°C = 303 K
αs × πr × 1500 = ε × 4πr2 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (303)4
2
or αs/ε = 1.27. Ans.
Example 12.20. In the process of estimating the emission
from the sun, it may be treated as blackbody with the
surface temperature of 5800 K at a mean distance of
15 × 1010 m from the earth. The diameter of the sun is
1.4 × 109 m and that of the earth is 12.8 × 106 m.
Estimate the following :
(i) The total energy emitted by the sun.
(ii) The emission received per m2 just outside the
earth’s surface.
(iii) The total energy received by the earth, if no
radiation is blocked by the earth’s atmosphere.
(iv) The energy received by a 1.5 m × 1.5 m, solar
collector, whose normal is inclined at 45° to the sun.
The energy loss through the atmosphere is 40% and the
diffused radiation is 20% of the direct radiation.
(N.M.U., Nov. 1999)
 THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 429

Solution = 4π × (15 × 1010 m)2 = 2.8274 × 1023 m2

Given : Average solar constant for determination The radiation received per m2 outside the earth’s
of temperature of sun surface
Tsun = 5800 K, Dsun = 1.4 × 109 m
10 Q 3.95 × 10 26
rorbit = 15 × 10 m, Dearth = 12.8 × 106 m Gs = =
A orbit 2.8274 × 10 23
A = 1.5 × 1.5 = 2.25 m2, φ 2 = 45°,
Energy loss through the atmosphere = 40% = 1397 W/m2. Ans.
Diffuse radiation = 20% of direct radiation. (iii) The earth may be assumed as a spherical body
To find : and energy received by the earth will be proportional
to the projected area i.e., area of the earth ;
(i) Total energy emitted by the sun.
(ii) Emission received by the earth per m2, just Energy received by the earth
outside the earth surface. = Gs × Aearth
(iii) Total energy received by the earth, if no = 1397 × (π/4) × (12.8 × 106 m)2
radiation is blocked by the earth’s atmosphere. = 1.797 × 1017 W. Ans.
(iv) Energy received by solar collector.
(iv) Energy received by a solar collector :
Assumptions :
The direct energy blocked by atmosphere = 40%
(i) The negligible emissive power of earth in
comparison of sun. Hence, the direct energy reaching the earth
surface = 60% = 0.6 Gs
(ii) No convection and conduction effects.
= 0.6 × 1397 = 838.2 W/m2
9
Dsun = 1.4 × 10 m
n2 Dearth The diffuse radiation
= 12.8
6 = 0.2 × 838.2 = 167.64 W/m2
f2 × 10 m
The total radiation energy reaching the collector
dA2
rorbit = 15 × 10
10
m = Projected area of collector (cos φ2)
f1
× (838.2 + 197.64) W/m2
n1
dA1 = 1.5 × 1.5 cos (45°) × (1005.84)
Fig. 12.34 = 1600.28 W. Ans.
Analysis : (i) Total energy emitted by the sun :
2
Surface area of the sun = 4 π rsun 2
= π D sun 12.11. SUMMARY
= π × (1.4 × 109 m)2 = 6.1575 × 1018 m2 The radiation refers to the energy emitted in form of
The energy emitted by the sun, electromagnetic waves by the bodies because of their
4
temperature.The radiation energy emitted in
Q = σATsun = 5.67 × 10–8 × 6.1575 wavelength between λ ≈ 0.1 and λ ≈ 100 µm is referred
× 1018 × (5800)4 thermal radiation. The sun emits thermal radiation at
= 3.95 × 1026 W. Ans. an effective surface temperature of 5760 K and bulk of
this energy lies between λ = 0.1 to λ = 3 µm, therefore
(ii) Emission received by 1 m2, just outside the
earth’s atmosphere : this spectrum is referred as the solar radiation. The
radiation emitted by the sun is in wavelength between
The sun emits radiation in all direction over a
λ = 0.4 to λ = 0.76 µm, is visible to human eye, therefore,
distance of 15 × 1010 m from the earth. The orbit area,
this spectrum is referred as the visible radiation (light).
just out side the earth’s atmosphere :
The glossary of radiation terms and their
Aorbit = 4π (rorbit)2
definition are given in Table 12.5.
430 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

TABLE 12.5. Glossary of the radiation terms

Terms Definition

Absorption The process of converting the radiation intercepted by the matter to internal thermal energy.
Absorptivity, α Fraction of the incident radiation absorbed by the surface.
Black body An ideal body which absorbs all incident radiation and emits maximum energy.
Black body radiation Fraction of radiation energy emitted by a black body at temperature T in
function wavelength band λ = 0 to λ.
Diffuse A surface, whose properties are independent of directions.
Directional The property pertains to a particular direction, denoted by θ.
Emission The process of radiation production by the surface at a finite temperature.
Emissive power, E The rate of radiant energy emitted by a surface in all direction per unit area of the surface. It
is measured in W/m2.
Emissivity, ε Ratio of the emissive power of a surface to the emissive power of the blackbody at the same
temperature.
Gray surface A surface for which the spectral absorptivity and emissivity are independent of the wavelength
over the spectral region of the surface irradiation and emission.
Green house effect The warming up process due to remission between earth’s surface and atmosphere.
Hemispherical The quantity pertains to all directions above the surface.
Irradiation The rate at which the radiation is incident on a surface from all direction per unit area of the
surface, G(W/m2).
Kirchhoff ’s law Relation between emission and absorption properties of a surface at thermal equilibrium.
Planck’s law It is associated with spectral distribution of emission from a black body.
Radiation intensity The rate of radiation energy propagation in a particular direction, per unit area normal to the
direction, per unit solid angle about the direction, I (W/m2.sr).
Radiosity Rate at which energy leaving the surface due to emission and reflection in all directions per
unit area per unit time, J (W/m2).
Reflection The process of redirection of radiation energy incident on a surface.
Reflectivity, ρ The fraction of incident radiation energy reflected by the surface.
Semitransparent It is a medium in which radiation absorption is the volumetric process.
Solar energy It is energy coming out the sun.
Solar constant Rate at which the solar radiation flux is received on a surface normal to sun’s rays just outside
the earth’s atmosphere, Gs(W/m2).
Solid angle, ω Ratio of area of spherical surface enclosed by a conical surface with vertex of the cone at the
centre of sphere to square of radius of sphere. It is measured in straradian (sr).
Spectral It refers to a single wavelength (monochromatic) radiation. The quantity is denoted by subscript
λ.
Spectral distribution It refers to properties variation with wavelength.
Specular It refers to the surface for which the angle of reflected radiation is equal to the angle of incident
radiation.
Stefan Boltzmann law The emissive power of the blackbody is directly proportional to fourth power of the absolute
temperature ; Eb = σ T4, where σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4, is Stefan Boltzmann constant, and T is
an absolute temperature in K.
Thermal radiation It is the electromagnetic energy emitted by a matter at a finite temperature in the spectral
region from approximately from 0.1 to 100 µm.
Total solar radiation Sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation.
Transmission It is process of the thermal radiation passing through the matter.
Transmissivity It is the fraction of radiation energy transmitted by the matter.
Wien’s displacement Relation between wavelength λmax and absolute temperature T at
law which Ebλ reaches a maximum ; λmax T = 2897.6 µm.K.
THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is an electromagnetic wave ? How does it differs
from a sound wave ?
2. What are the ranges of wavelengths of
electromagnetic waves covering ultraviolet, visible,
infrared and thermal radiation ?
3. What is the speed of energy propagation between
two bodies when the space between them is
evacuated ?
4. What do you mean by ultraviolet, visible and infrared
radiation ?
5. What is a black body ? What are its properties ? Why
does a cavity with a small hole behave as a black
body ?
6. Why are microwave oven suitable for cooking ?
7. What are the total and spectral emissive power of a
black body ?
8. What do you mean by spectral, terms used in thermal
radiation ?
9. State Planck’s distribution law and list down its
features.
10. What is Wien’s displacement law ? Derive an
expression for its relation. What is a diffuse body ?
11. State and explain Stefan Boltzmann law. Derive an
expression for total emissive power of a black body.
12. What is radiation intensity ? How do you distinguish
between spectral emissive power and spectral
radiation intensity ?
13. What do you mean by spectral, total emissivity ?
14. Discuss the effect of temperature on emissivity of
surfaces.
15. What is directional emissivity ?
16. Explain Kirchhoff ’s law.
17. What do you mean by gray body approximation ?
18. What is a blackbody radiation function ? Why is it
important ?
19. Define the terms irradiation and radiosity. Establish
a relationship between them.
20. Define solid angle.
21. Define total emissive power and intensity of
radiation and show that E = πI.
22. State and explain Lambert cosine law.
23. Define absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity.
24. What do you mean by opaque body and white body ?
25. What is solar constant ? How is it used to determine
effective temperature of sun ? How would the value
of solar constant change, if the distance between the
earth and sun doubled ?
431
26. Explain why sky is blue in the day and sunset is
yellow orange ?
27. What is an effective sky temperature ?
28. What is a green house effect ? Discuss its importance.
29. Why the ozone layer in the atmosphere must be
protected ?
30. How does solar radiation attenuate as it passes
through the atmosphere ?
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the heat flux emitted due to thermal
radiation from a black surface at 6000°C. At what
wavelength is the monochromatic emissive power
maximum and what is the maximum value ?
[Ans. 87, 798 kW/µ2 ; 0.462 µm ; 1.25 × 1014 W/m2]
2. A 10 cm diameter peephole in the side of a furnace
acts as a blackbody. The furnace interior is at 500°C,
and the surrounding temperature is 25°C, what is
the net radiant heat loss from the furnace through
the peephole ? [Ans. 155.2 W]
3. Estimate the rate at which the sun emits the radiant
energy. What fraction of this energy is absorbed by
the earth and in what amount ? If effective
temperature of the sun is 560 K and surface of the
sun is treated black. The diameter of the sun is
1.39 × 10 6 km. The diameter of the earth is
1.27 × 104 km and the distance between sun and
earth is 1.5 × 108 km.
[Ans. 3.81 × 1026 W ; 4.48 × 10–10 ; 1.71 × 1017 W]
4. A cubical body of 20 cm side at 1200 K is suspended
in air. Assuming body closely approximates a
blackbody, Calculate (a) rate of radiation energy
emitted from the body, in W, (b) spectral black body
emissive power at a wavelength of 4 µm.
[Ans. (a) 28.21 × 103 W, (b) 19.23 × 103 W/m2.µm]
5. The sun can be treated as a blackbody at an effective
surface temperature of 5762 K. Determine the
fraction of radiation energy emitted by sun that
falls in
(a) ultraviolet range (λ = 0.01 mm–0.4 mm), and
(b) visible range (λ = 0.4 µm–0.76 µm). Also calculate
the wavelength at which the emission of radiation
from the sun reaches a maximum value.
[Ans. (a) 0.121, (b) 0.425, 0.503 µm]
6. A balck body at 727°C emits radiation. Calculate the
wavelength at which the radiation from the body
becomes maximum. [Ans. 2.897 µm]
7. The sun is located at 150 × 106 km from the earth
and it has radius of 0.7 × 106 km and its temperature
of 6000 K. Calculate the mean temperature of earth.
Assume that the rate of radiative heat transfer from
432 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

the sun to the earth is equal to rate of radiant R| ε = 0.3 0 ≤ λ < 1.5 µm
S| ε
1
transfer from earth to outer space at 0°C. Consider = 0.5 1.5 ≤ λ < 4 µm
ελ = 2
earth and sun as black body. [Ans. 289.82 K]
Tε 3 = 0.4 4 µm ≤ λ < ∞
8. A gray body at 2500 K has total emissive power of
Calculate
2.0 × 106 W/m2. What is maximum spectral emissive
power and at what wavelength does it occur ? (i) Total hemispherical emissivity,
(ii) Total hemispherical emissive power,
[Ans. 1.145 × 107 W/m2, 1.16 µm]
(iii) The average wavelength at which the body has
9. Radiant energy with an intensity of 700 W/m2 strikes maximum emissive power.
a flat plate normally. The absorptivity is twice the [Ans. (i) 0.445, (ii) 2.523 W/m2, (iii) 2.898 µm]
transmissivity and 2.9 times its reflectivity. 14. A pipe carrying steam runs in a large room and exposed
Determine the rate of absorption, transmission and to air at 30°C. The pipe surface temperature is 200°C.
reflection of energy in W/m2. Diameter of the pipe is 20 cm. If the total heat loss per
[Ans. 379.5 W/m2, 189.7 W/m2, 130.8 W/m2] metre length of the pipe is 1.9193 kW/m, determine
the emissivity of the pipe surface.
10. A black body is at 1000°C ; calculate
Given that
(a) The wavelength at which the body has the
NuD = 0.53(GrD Pr)1/4
maximum spectral emissive power, and the cor-
responding emissive power. and air properties at 115°C are

(b) The total emissive power of the black body. kf = 0.03306 W/m.K, ν = 24.93 × 10–6 m2/s,
Pr = 0.687. [Ans. 0.8]
(c) The fraction of total radiant energy emission
15. The emissivity of a tungsten filament can be
between the wavelength 2.0 and 4.5 µm.
approximated to be 0.5 for radiation at wavelength
(d) The percentage reduction in the emissive power less than, 1 µm and 0.15 for radiation at greater than
when the temperature of the body falls down to 1 µm. Calculate the average emissivity of the
900°C. filament at (a) 1500 K, and (b) 3000 K. Also deter-
(e) Hemispherical emissive power. mine the absorptivity and reflectivity of the filament
at both temperature.
[Ans. (a) 2.276 µm, (b) 1.489 × 105 W/m2,
16. Solar irradiation of 1100 W/m2 is incident on a large
(c) 0.5422, (d) 28%, (e) 1.489 × 105 W/m2]
flat horizontal metal roof on a day when air flowing
11. A black body has a total emissive power of over the roof causing a heat transfer coefficient of
1000 W/m2, calculate 25 W/m2.K. The outside air temperature is 27°C, the
(a) Its surface temperature metal surface absorptivity for solar radiation is 0.6,
and the metal surface emissivity is 0.2. If roof is well
(b) The wavelength above which (i) 50% (ii) 75%
insulated from below, calculate the roof temperature
radiant energy occurs, and
under steady state condition. [Ans. 48.5°C]
(c) The wavelength at which the body has maximum
17. Consider an opaque, horizontal flat plate, that is well
spectral emissive power.
insulated on its backside. The irradiation on the plate
[Ans. (a) 364.4 K, (b) (i) 9.45 µm, (ii) 11.24 µm, is 2500 W/m2, of which 500 W/m2 is reflected. The
(c) 7.95 µm] plate is at 227°C and has an emissive power of
12. The spectral emissivity function of an opaque surface 1200 W/m2. Air at 127°C flow over the plate with
at 1000 K is approximated by h = 15 Wm2.K. Calculate emissivity, absorptivity, re-
flectivity and radiosity of the plate. What is the net
R| ε = 0.4 0 ≤ λ < 2 µm heat transfer rate per unit area ?
S| ε
1
ελ = 2 = 0.7 2 µm ≤ λ < 6 µm
Tε 3 = 0.3 6 µm ≤ λ < ∞ [Ans. ε = 0.338, α = 0.80, ρ = 0.2,
J = 1700 W/m2, q = – 700 W/m2 ]
Calculate average emissivity and the emissive power
18. A 10 cm diameter spherical ball emits radiation at a
of the surface. [Ans. 0.575, 32.6 kW/m2]
rate of 30 W when its surface temperature is 400 K.
13. The spectral emissivity for a gray surface at 1000 K Calculate the average emissivity of the ball at this
is approximated as temperature. [Ans. 0.658]
THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES
19. A surface at 365 K has an absorptivity of αs = 0.85
for solar radiation and an emissivity 0.5 at room
temperature. The direct and diffuse components of
solar radiation are 350 and 400 W/m2, respectively.
The direct radiation makes and angle of 30° with
normal of the surface. Taking the effective sky tem-
perature of 280 K, calculate the net rate of radiation
to the surface at that time.
20. Solar radiation is incident on the outer surface of a
spaceship at a rate of 1320 W/m2. The surface has
an absorptivity of 0.1 for solar radiation and an
emissivity of 0.8 at room temperature. The outer
surface radiates heat into a space at 0 K. If there is
no heat transfer to the spaceship, calculate the
equilibrium temperature of the surface.
[Ans. 232.3 K]
21. A central heating radiator has a surface temperature
of 70°C and heats a room maintained at 20°C.
Calculate the contribution of convection and
radiation to heat transfer from the radiator.
Use following correlation for determination of
natural convection coefficient.
NuL = 0.118(GrL Pr)1/3
The properties of fluid in the room are
ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, µ = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms
kf = 0.026 W/m.K, Pr = 0.71
[Ans. 634 W/m2]
22. The spectral emissivity as a function of an opaque
surface at 800 K is approximated by step function
and is given below :
ε1 = 0.3 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 µm
ελ = ε2 = 0.8 for 3 µm ≤ λ ≤ 7 µm
ε3 = 0.1 for 7 µm ≤ λ ≤ ∞ .
Calculate the average emissivity of the surface and
the emissive power.
[Ans. 0.5206, 12.09 × 103 W/m2]
433
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1. J.A. Duffy and W.A. Backman, ‘‘Solar Energy
Thermal Process’’ Wiley, New York, 1974.
2. Rehsenow W.M, J.P. Harnett and E.N. Ganic, eds.
‘‘Handbook of Heat Transfer’’, 2/e, McGraw Hill,
NewYork, 1985.
3. F. Krieth and M.S. Bohn, ‘‘Principles of Heat
Transfer’’, 5th ed. PWS Pub. Company, 1997.
4. J.P. Holman, ‘‘Heat Transfer’’, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
New York, 1990.
5. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, ‘‘Introduction to
Heat Transfer’’, 2/e, John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
6. M.N. Ozisik, ‘‘Heat Transfer–A Basic Approach’’,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
7. Y. Bayazitoglu and M.N. Ozisik, ‘‘Elements of Heat
Transfer’’, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
8. Suryanarayana N.V., ‘‘Engineering Heat Transfer’’,
West Pub. Co. New York, 1998.
9. F.M. White, ‘‘Heat and Mass Transfer’’, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1998.
10. M. Jacob, ‘‘Heat Transfer’’, Vol. 1, Wiley, New York,
1949.
11. L.C. Thomas, ‘‘Heat Transfer’’, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
12. Chapman Alan. J., ‘‘Fundamentals of Heat Transfer’’,
Macmillan, New York.
13. Christopher Long, ‘‘Essential Heat Transfer’’,
Addison Wesley Longman, 2001.
14. McAdams W.M., ‘‘Heat Transmission’’, 3rd ed.
McGraw Hill, New York, 1954.
15. Jacob M. and G.A. Hawkins, ‘‘Elements of Heat
Transfer’’, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York, 1957.
16. John H. Lienhard IV and J.H. Lienhard, ‘‘A Heat
Transfer Textbook’’, 3/e, Phlogiston Press, 2003.
17. Robert Siegel and John R. Howell, ‘‘Thermal
Radiation Heat Transfer’’, 3/e, Hemisphere Pub.
Corporation, 1992.