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College Name :- _________________________________

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Fluid Mechanics & Machinery FMM ( 22445 )

For Mechanical Branch Diploma in Engineering

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Chapter No. Chapter Name Marks

1. Properties of Fluid & Fluid Pressure 8

2. Fluid flow 12

3. Flow Through Pipes 12

4. Impact of Jet 8

5. Hydraulic Turbines 14

6. Pumps 16

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 Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir

Chapter 1. Properties of Fluid & Fluid Pressure

Fluid
Fluid is defined as Substance which has ability to flow.
eg. Liquid & Gases

Fluid mechanics
fluid mechanics is the branch of engineering science which deals with the study of behaviour of the fluid when
the fluid is in rest or in motion.

Hydrostatics
hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the study of behaviour of the fluid when the
fluid is in rest position.

Hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the study of behaviour of the fluid when the
fluid is in motion.

Properties of fluid.

1. Mass density (ρ)

Mass density is defined as the ratio of mass of the fluid to the volume of the fluid.
𝑚
𝜌= SI Unit = kg/m3
𝑉

ρ = Density m = Mass V = Volume

2. Weight density / specific weight (ω)

Weight density is defined as the ratio of weight of the fluid to the volume of the fluid.
𝑊
𝜔= 𝑉
SI Unit = N/m3

ω = Specific weight W = Weight V = Volume

3. Specific volume (Vs)

specific volume is defined as it is the ratio of volume of the fluid to the mass of the fluid. It is a reciprocal of
the mass density.
𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑚 SI Unit = m3/kg

1
• It is the reciprocal of mass density 𝑉𝑠 = 𝜌

4. Specific gravity or relative density (S)

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of specific weight of any liquid to the specific weight of pure water.

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆 = 𝜔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆 = 𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

SI Unit = It has no unit

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

5. Viscosity
Viscosity of a liquid is measure of resistance to flow of one layer of liquid over the adjacent layer of liquid.
eg. Viscosity of honey > Oil > Water > Mercury

Effect of temperature on viscosity –

As the temperature of liquid is increases then viscosity of a fluid decreases.
if the temperature of the gases is increases then viscosity also get increases.

Newton's law of viscosity

Newton's law of viscosity state that is shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient.
shear stress α velocity gradient.
𝑑𝑢
τ α 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
τ =μ 𝑑𝑦
= velocity gradient
𝑑𝑦
μ = Dynamic viscosity
τ = shear stress
Dynamic viscosity
Dynamic viscosity is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the rate of shear strain.

𝜏
μ= 𝑑𝑢 CGS Unit = Poise
𝑑𝑦
SI Unit = N-S/m2
1
1 Poise = N-S/m2
10

Kinematic viscosity
kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the mass density of the liquid.
it is denoted by ‘ν’
𝜇
𝑣=𝜌
ν = kinematic viscosity μ = Dynamic viscosity ρ = Density

Cohesion
It is the property of liquid in which same kind of molecules are attracted to each other is known as cohesion.

Adhesion
it is the property of liquid in which different kinds of molecules are attracted to each other is known as
adhesion.

Surface tension
It is the property of liquid causing a tensile force acts on free surface so that free surface of liquid will behave
like a stretched membrane is called as a surface tension.
• it is occur due to cohesion between the molecules of a surface of the liquid.
Ex. Liquid droplets, soap bubble remains spherical
𝑃𝑑
Surface tension of a liquid droplet :- 𝜎 =
4
𝑃𝑑
surface tension of hollow bubble :- 𝜎 =
8
𝑃𝑑
surface tension of liquid jet:- 𝜎 =
2
σ = surface tension P = Pressure d = Diameter of droplet

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Capillarity
If a thin glass tube is dipped in a liquid then the liquid will rise or fall inside the tube this phenomenon is
known as capillarity.
• it is due to the cohesion and adhesion.
‘

If adhesion of liquid is more then the cohesion so that the liquid will rise in the tube and offering the concave
shape in a tube if the cohesion of the liquid he is greater than adhesion then the liquid level drop inside the
tube so that the convex shape is obtained in the tube example as a Mercury.
𝟒𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
Capillary rise or capillary fall is given by, h =
𝝎𝒅
h= Capillary rise or capillary fall

d = Diameter of tube,

α = Angle of contact

For clean glass tube and water α = 0

For mercury α = 128

Compressibility
if there are variations in pressure on the liquid is occur so that there is change in volume of a liquid then the
liquid is said as a compressible. but in actual practice the fluid is not a compressible in nature.

Vapour pressure
when a liquid is kept in a closed container and evaporated at the room temperature, so that the vapour
occupies above the liquid surfaces exerted some pressure is called as vapour pressure.
It increases with increase in temperature and it decreases with decreasing temperature.

Types of fluid
1. Ideal fluid- The fluid does not possess viscosity, surface tension, compressibility is called as a ideal
fluid. It does not exist in nature so there is no example.

2. Real fluid- The fluid which possess viscosity, surface tension, compressibility is called as real fluid.

3. Newtonian fluid- The fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to rate of shear strain is called
as newtonian fluid. For example water, diesel, petrol.

4. Non newtonian fluid- the fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to rate of shear strain is called
as non newtonian fluid. For example Blood, Paint.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Ideal Fluid Real Fluid
1. It is imaginary fluid. 1. It is real fluid.
2. A fluid which does not possess viscosity, surface 2. A fluid which possess viscosity, surface tension,
tension, compressibility is called as ideal fluid. compressibility is called as real fluid.
3. No fluid is ideal fluid in practice. 3. All fluids are real fluid in practice.
4. No resistance against fluid flow. 4. Resistance against the fluid flow.
5. No example. 5. e.g. Water, oil, gases etc.

Pressure- force exerted by a fluid Per unit cross section area is called as pressure.
In this the force acting normal over the surface of the fluid.
F
P= SI Unit = N/m2 or Pascal
A
P = Pressure F = Normal force A = Area

Pressure head- the vertical height of free surface above any point in a liquid when the liquid is at rest
position.
P
P = ωh h=ω SI Unit = m

P = Pressure ω = Specific weight h = Pressure head

Pascal law- The intensity of pressure at any point in a static fluid is equal in all direction.
Suppose we consider a point a in a liquid then the pressure P is acting at this point
is equal in all direction.

Atmospheric pressure- The pressure exerted by the atmosphere above the earth is called as atmospheric
pressure.

Gauge pressure- The pressure which is measured above and below the atmospheric pressure is known as
gauge pressure.
• The pressure which is measured above the atmospheric pressure is known as positive gauge pressure.
• pressure which is the measure below the atmospheric pressure is known as negative gauge pressure it is
also known as vacuum pressure.

Absolute pressure - The pressure measured from absolute zero line is called as absolute pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure ± Gauge pressure

Absolute vacuum- The space which contain no form of matter.

Manometer- Manometer is a device used to measuring the pressure at any point in a fluid.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Manometers is classified as follow
Simple manometer.
Differential manometer.

Simple manometer.
A) Piezometer:- it is a simplest device used to measure the moderate pressure of a liquid it
only measure the gauge pressure.
it is the simplest device in which one end is connected to a point whose pressure is to be
measured and other end is kept open to the atmosphere, the rise of a liquid indicates the
pressure head at that point with respect to the atmospheric pressure.
P = ωh

P = Pressure ω = Specific weight h = Pressure head

Advantages:-
1. Record of successful performers.
2. Simple in construction.
3. Low cost.
4. very useful for measurement of low and moderate pressure.

Disadvantages:-
1. Vacuum or negative pressure cannot be measured.
2. It cannot measure the pressure of the gas.
3. It cannot measure high pressure fluid.

B) simple U tube manometer:-

it is a thin glass tube of uniform diameter bent into U shape. its one end is connected to a point with pressure
is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere. the U tube manometer contain the manometric
liquid with specific gravity should be greater than the specific gravity of a liquid to be measure.
h1= height of liquid in the left limp above datum AA.
S1= specific gravity of light liquid.
h2 height of heavy liquid in the right limb above AA
S2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid
h= pressure head at point x in terms of metre of water.
For negative gauge pressure :-
h+ S1 h1 + S2 h2 = 0
h = - (S1 h1 + S2 h2 )

For positive gauge pressure :-

h+ S1 h1 = S2 h2
h = (S2 h2 - S1 h1)

C) single column manometer or vertical single column manometer.

figure shows a vertical single column manometer it is a modified form of U tube manometer. a reservoir having
a large cross-sectional area is connected to one end of a limb of a manometer due to the large cross section
area of the reservoir for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservior will be very
small and it is negligible.
δh = fall of heavy liquid in basin
h1 = height of the liquid above AB

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

h2 = pressure of heavy liquid above AB
h = pressure in pipe cm
A = cross sectional area of basin in cm2
a = cross sectional area of a tube in cm2
S2 & S1 = specific gravity of 1 and 2 liquid.

Advantages:-
it is used for measuring low pressure.
it has very great accuracy.

D) inclined single column manometer.

figure shows incline single column manometer. it is more sensitive than vertical column manometer. the
distance moved by heavy liquid in the right limb will be more due to inclination.
l = length of heavy liquid moved in right limb of datum AB.
θ = angle made by single column with horizontal, generally 30°.
h2 = vertical height of heavy liquid from datum AB.
h = (S2 h2 - S1 h1)
but, h2 = l sin θ
Pressure head at point x in terms of metre of water
h = S2. l sin θ - S1 h1

2) Differential manometer:
a) Differential U tube manometer:
Figure shows differential U tube manometer. it is used for measuring the difference between any two points
in a pipe or in a two different pipe.
it consists of a glass U tube containing heavy liquid. the two ends of U tube are connected at a point whose
pressure difference is to be find.

(in diagram a) The difference between in two points a and b are :- (ha - hb) = h(S2 - S1)

(in diagram b) The difference between in two points a and b are :- (ha + S1h1) = S2h2 + S3h3 + hb

(ha - hb) = S2h2 + Saha - S1h1

b) Inverted U tube differential manometer

An inverted differential manometer is used for measuring difference of low pressures,
where accuracy is consideration.
It consists of an inverted U tube, containing light liquid. One end is connected to B.

hA - S1h1 = hB - S2h2 - S3h3

hA - hB = S1h1 - S2h2 - S3h3

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Simple manometer Differential manometer

1. it is used to measure positive or negative 1. used to measuring the difference of

pressure at a point in a pipeline pressure between the two points in a
pipeline or in two different pipes.

2. one end open to atmosphere and other 2. two ends of manometer are connected to
end is connected to point whose pressure the two points whose pressure difference
is to be measured is to be measured

3. Simple manometer cannot be made 3. Differential manometer can be made

inverted type inverted type

4. Manometric fluid used is mercury 4. Manometric fluid used may be heavy or

light liquid. example, Hg, CCL4. liquid
lighter than water may be used

Advantage of use of mercury in manometer,

1. it is a very high density so that Hg column requires less height.
2. it does not mix up with the liquids in the pipes.
3. it does not stick to the surface of tube.
4. at room temperature the vapour pressure is negligible.
5. it does not chemically react with the other liquid

Advantages of manometer,
1. They are simple in construction
2. it has high accuracy
3. it is easy to fabricate
4. it has high sensitivity
5. no affected by vibrations
6. It has good repeatability

Disadvantage of manometer,
1. They are easily broken due to fragile construction
2. they are not portable
3. they have a small range typically about two to three bars
4. temperature effect on readings of manometer

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

• The most commonly used mechanical gauge is bourdon type pressure gauge
• it is a stiff, flatten metal tube bent into a circular shape, the fluid whose pressure is to be measured is
inside the tube
• one end of the tube is fixed and another end is free to move inward or outward. The inward and outward
movement of free end move a pointer through a linkage and gear arrangement a dial graduated in
pressure unit that is bar.
• The movement of the free end of the bourdon tube is proportional to difference between the external
atmospheric pressure and internal fluid pressure. bourdon gauge records the gauge pressure which is
difference between fluid pressure and outside atmospheric pressure.
• It is used to measure the pressure in boiler, condenser, hydraulic system etc.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Advantage of bourdon tube pressure gauge,
1. Portable
2. Simple and convenient to use
3. Simple in construction
4. Low cost

Disadvantages of bourdon tube pressure gauge,

1. It give slow response
2. It is subjected to hysteresis
3. Reading is affected by vibration
4. It require amplification

Advantages of mechanical gauges over manometer

1. High accuracy
2. low cost
3. simple in construction
4. high sensitivity
5. wide range
6. ability to measure absolute and differential pressure

Disadvantages of mechanical gauges,

1. Slow response
2. not suitable for low pressure measurement

Total pressure: The force exerted by a fluid on a immersed surface, when the fluid comes in contact with the
surface is called as total pressure or hydrostatic pressure.
Total pressure, F = ω A X̄

ω = Specific weight
A = Area
G = centre of gravity
P = centre of pressure
X̄ = distance of CG from free surface level of liquid
h = distance of centre of pressure from free surface level of liquid

Centre of pressure: It is defined as the point of application of total pressure on the surface.

IG = Moment of inertia of surface about centroidal x x axis

θ = inclination of incline surface with respect to free surface level of liquid

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 2. Fluid flow

Types of flow :-
1. Steady and unsteady flow
2. Uniform and nonuniform flow
3. Laminar and turbulent flow
4. Rotational and irrotational flow
5. Compressible and incompressible flow

Steady flow: The flow in which velocity, density, pressure and temperature does not change with respect to
time is called steady flow. For example water flowing through a tap at constant rate

Unsteady flow: The flow in which velocity, density, pressure and temperature change with respect to time is
called unsteady flow. For example in the case of canal when the regulator is just open the floor is unsteady.

Uniform flow: The flow which velocity do not change with respect to space is called uniform flow.
For example, flow through pipe of uniform diameter.

Non uniform flow: The flow which velocity change with respect to space is called as non uniform flow. For
example, flow through pipe of varying diameter.

Laminar flow or streamline flow: The flow which liquid particle has definite path and path of individual
particle do not cross each other is called as streamline flow or laminar flow. For example, movement of
human blood in human body.

Turbulent flow: The flow in which the liquid particle does not have a definite path and the path of individual
particle also cross each other is called as turbulent flow. For example, movement of water particle in sea
waves.

Rotational flow: The flow in which the fluid particle also rotate about their own mass centre while flowing is
called as rotational flow.

Irrotational flow: The flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid element does not rotate about their own mass
centre is called as irrotational flow.

Compressible flow: The flow is said to be compressible when the volume of the fluid and density is changed
during flow. For example, flow of all gases.

Incompressible flow: It is said to be incompressible when the volume of fluid and density is does not change.
For example, flow of liquid is considered as incompressible flow

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Reynolds number :- Reynolds number is defined by the ratio of inertial forces to that of viscous forces.

ρVD VD
Reynolds number = or Reynolds number =
μ ν

Re is the Reynolds number

ρ is the density of the fluid
V is the velocity of flow
D is the pipe diameter
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
ν is kinematic viscosity

Significance of Reynolds number

If Reynolds number less than 2000 then the flow laminar
If Reynolds number is between 2000 to 4000 transition region exists
If Reynolds number greater than 4000 then the flow is turbulent

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

1. The flow which particle has definite path 1. The flow which particle does not have a
definite path

2. Individual particle of flow does not cross 2. Individual particle of flow cross each other
each other

3. Example, movement of human blood in 3. Example, movement of water particle in

human body sea waves

4. If Reynolds number is less than 2000 then 4. If Reynolds number is more than 4000
flow is laminar then the flow is turbulent

Discharge or rate of flow: The amount of fluid flow per unit second is called as rate of flow or charge. It is
denoted by Q.

Continuity equation for fluid flow :- continuity equation is based on principle of conservation of mass.
for a fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing per second is constant

A1 = area of the type of section 1

V1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
ρ1 = density of fluid at section 1
And A2, V2, ρ2 corresponding value at sections 2

According to principle of conservation of mass energy is neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be
transfer from one form into another form.
So the total quantity of fluid passing through the section 1 and 2 is same.
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

But ρ1 = ρ2 , so that Discharge Q = AV

Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

A) kinetic energy head: it is the energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its motion.
B) potential energy head: it is the energy possessed by a fluid particle by virtue of its position from certain
datum line.
C) pressure energy head: it is the energy possessed by the fluid due to its existing pressure.

Bernoulli's theorem :- Bernoulli’s theorem states that when continuous flow of liquid total energy at every
section remains the same. there is no loss or addition of energy.

Assumption made in the Bernoulli’s equation

1. The fluid is ideal
2. The flow is steady and continuous
3. The flow is incompressible
4. The flow is irrotational
5. Flow is one dimensional that is streamline flow
6. The velocity is uniform over the cross section

Limitations of Bernoulli’s equation

1. It is applicable to ideal incompressible flow
2. The heat transfer into fluid should be zero
3. The temperature remain constant
4. The internal energy of flow should does not change

Application of Bernoulli’s theorem

1. Venturi meter
2. Pitot tube
3. Orifice meter

Venturi meter:
Venturi meter is a device used to measure rate of discharge in a pipeline.
It is fix permanently at different section of pipeline to know the discharge at this section.

Construction
It consists of three main parts
a) Convergent cone: It is a short pipe which converges from a diameter d1 to a smaller diameter d2. The slope
of converging cone is between 1 in 4 or 1 in 5. The total angle of converging cone is 21° ± 1°.
B) Throat: it is a short circular pipe having diameter d2, connected between converging and diverging cones.
diameter of throat varies between 33% to 75% of main pipe diameter. Preferably d2 = 0.5 d1
C) Divergent cone: it is a long pipe which diverge from throat diameter d2 to original pipe diameter d1.
The length of divergent cone 3 to 4 times of length of convergent cone. Generally divergent cone angle
between 5° to 7°.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Working:
The fluid whose flow rate is measure is enters in venturimeter with pressure P1.
As the fluid from the entry section of venturimeter flows into converging section its pressure keeps on
reducing and attains minimum value P2. when it enters the throat that is in throat the fluid pressure P2 will be
minimum.
Pressure sensor is recorded the pressure difference between (P1-P2) the entry and throat section which
becomes an indication of flow rate of fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure and his its kinetic energy.
Less the angle of diverging section, greater is the recovery.

This is discharge under ideal condition called as theoretical discharge.

But, Actual discharge = Coefficient of discharge × Theoretical discharge

Coefficient of discharge:
It is the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge, it is denoted by Cd
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
𝐂𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 = 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐂𝐝 = 𝐐𝐭𝐡𝐞

Pitot tube:
• It is device which is used to measuring the local velocity of flow at any point in pipe or a channel.
• It's working principle is if velocity of flow at a point becomes zero there is increase in pressure energy.
• In the simplest form it is a glass tube bend at right angle the lower end is bend through 90° is facing the
upstream direction.
• he Liquid rise up in the tube for conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy
• The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube considering two points 1 and 2

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Orifice metre:

• It is the device which used for measuring the rate of flow of the fluid passing through a pipe.
• Is works on same principle that of venturimeter.
• It is cheaper than venturimeter but does not give accurate discharge value as given by venturi meter
because of more loss of energy during flow.
• It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole is called as orifice. Diameter of
orifice is 1/2 to 3/4 that of diameter of Pipe.
• pressure difference between section 1 and 2 is measured

A1 = cross sectional area of pipe

A2 = area of circular hole

Vena contracta:
The liquid flowing through the orifice form a jet of liquid whose area of cross-section is lesser than orifice. The
area at particular section is always minimum. This section is approximately at a distance of half of diameter of
orifice
At this section, the streamlines are straight and parallel to each other and perpendicular to plane of the
orifice. This section is called as vena contracta.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 3. flow measurement

Law of fluid friction for laminar flow or steady streamline flow:

1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the velocity of flow
2. The frictional resistance is independent on the pressure
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the surface area of contact
4. The frictional resistance varies considerably with temperature
5. The frictional resistance is independent of the nature of surface of contact

Law of fluid friction for turbulent flow:

1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the square of velocity of flow
2. The frictional resistance is independent on pressure
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the density of fluid
4. The fictional resistance slightly varies with temperature
5. The frictional resistance is proportional to the surface area of contact

Major losses: The losses due to friction is called as major losses.

Major losses due to friction:

Darcy's equation of frictional losses
Chezy's equation frictional losses

Darcy's equation of frictional losses

hf = Loss of head due to friction.
𝟒𝑭𝑳𝑽𝟐 V = Velocity of liquid
hf = 𝟐𝒈𝒅 d = Diameter of pipe
f = frictional factor
L = length of pipe

Chezy's equation frictional losses

Area of flow A
V = C√𝐦𝐢 hydraulic mean depth (m) = =
Wettedd perimeter P

V = Velocity of liquid
C =Chezy's constant ℎ𝑓
loss of head per unit length, 𝑖 =
m = hydraulic mean depth l

hf = Loss of head due to friction

Minor losses: The loss of head due to change in velocity of flowing liquid in magnitude or direction is called
minor losses.

Minor losses are

1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3. Loss of head at entrance
4. Loss of head at exist
5. Loss of head due to sudden obstruction
6. Loss of head at bend or pipe fitting
Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.
1. Loss due to sudden enlargement

Various losses are occur due to sudden enlargement of a section.

2. Losses due to sudden contraction

The various losses are occur due to sudden change in cross section of a vessel.

3. Losses of head at entrance

When the liquid enters from large vessel into the pipe so that sudden
contraction to flow of liquid and this result in loss of head is as follow.

4. Loss of head at exit

The various losses are occur when the fluid discharge into the reservoir or
to exit is as follow.

5. Loss of head due to sudden obstruction

When there are obstacles is present inside the pipe loss of energy
occur and various losses are take place which is as follow.

6. Loss of head at bend or pipe fitting

Because of bending of a pipe is occur there are change in direction of velocity
and the loss is as follow

Hydraulic gradient line HGL:

• It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head and datum head of flowing fluid in a pipe
with respect to some reference line.
• Hydraulic gradient line may rise or fall depending upon the change in pressure.
• Hydraulic gradient line lies below total energy line.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

• Use of HGL : the difference between HGL and centre line of pipe represent pressure head and can be used
to calculate pressure at point

Total energy line TEL:

• It is defined as the line which give sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in
a pipe with respect to some reference line
• When total energy at the various section along the axis of pipe is plotted and these plotted points are
joined by line the line obtained is called as energy gradient line or total energy line
• Total energy line is always above hydraulic gradient line

Use of TEL: it is used to decide direction of flow.

Power transmission through pipe:

When water or any fluid flow through a pipe, power is transmitted through the pipe.
The power transmission depends upon the weight of liquid flowing through pipe & total head available at
outlet of pipe.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Condition for maximum power transmission:
maximum power transmission is state that power transmitted through pipe is maximum when the
loss of head due to friction is one third of the total head at inlet.

Water hammer in pipes

When liquid is flowing through pipe when it is suddenly stop by closing the valve the momentum of flowing
water will be destroyed then it converts into rise in pressure this high pressure is move through the pipe at
high speed which create noise known as water hammer.
So the phenomena of sudden rise in pressure in the pipe is known as water hammer.

Effect of water hammer:

1. Joints in pipeline may open due to vibration set by water hammer
2. It increases losses due to leakage of water
3. The pipe which carries water from reservoir to turbine in hydro power plant are affected by water
hammer
4. If the water is flowing through elastic pipe then in small amount of elastic pipe get expand

Causes of water hammer

1. It causes due to sudden closing the valve located at the pipe
2. It is caused due to sudden changing velocity of water due to closing valve

Precautions to avoid water hammer

1. Gradual opening and closing of valve
2. Use the pressure relief valve
3. Construct the surge tank

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 4 impact of jet

Jet: The stream of water coming out of nozzle or pipe is called as jet. Jet of liquid possesses kinetic energy.

Impact of jet: The impact of jet is defined as the force exerted by jet of liquid on a stationary plate or moving
plate.

Jet propulsion: Jet propulsion means the movement of bodies such as ship, aircraft, rocket etc. With the help
of jet of water discharging from backside from the nozzle.
It is also defined as the reaction of jet of liquid coming out of nozzle or orifice acting on surface of bodies
is used to move the bodies.

1. Force exerted by impact of jet on a fixed vertical plate :-

Force exerted by jet on fixed vertical plate, Fx = ρ.a.ν2
ρ = Mass density of water
𝜋
a = Area of jet, a = d2
4
d = Diameter of jet
ν = velocity of jet

2. Force exerted by impact of jet on a fixed inclined plate :-

Normal force on inclined fixed plate, Fn = ρ.a.ν2.sinθ

Force in direction of jet, Fx = ρ.a.ν2.sin2θ

𝟏
Force in direction normal to jet, Fn = ρ.a.ν2.sin2θ
𝟐

Fn = Normal force on inclined fixed plate

Fx = force in direction of jet
Fn = force in direction normal to jet
ρ = Mass density of water
𝜋
a = Area of jet, a = d2
4
d = Diameter of jet
ν = velocity of jet
θ = angle between jet and inclined fixed plate

3. Force exerted by impact of jet on a moving plate :-

Force exerted by jet on moving plate, Fx = ρ.a.(ν-u)2

Fx = Force exerted by jet on moving plate

ρ = Mass density of water
a = Area of jet, a = π/4 d2
d = Diameter of jet
ν = Velocity of jet
u = Velocity of plate
Work done per second by jet on plate W.D = Fx .u
W.D = ρ.a.(ν-u)2.u

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 5 hydraulic turbine
Hydraulic turbine: Hydraulic turbine is defined as the machine which convert the hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy and this mechanical energy is utilized to run the electric generator to generate electrical
energy.

Hydroelectric power plant :-

hydroelectric power plant has the following main component
Dam :-
• Dam is constructed across a river to store the water,
• Therefore it is act as a water reservoir.
• Dam is always constructed with RCC.
• It provide potential energy to water.
• Top surface of water in dam is called as head race.

Penstock :-
• Penstock is a circular pipe having very long length which
connected to dam and turbine
• Penstock having large diameter for maximum discharge can be obtained at outlet of penstock
• Penstock carries water under pressure from the water stored in a dam to the turbine
• Penstock is generally made from steel or reinforced concrete

Water turbine :-
Water turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy
The hydraulic turbine consist of
1. Wheel (runner)
2. Guiding apparatus
A water turbine can be set horizontal or vertical
Selection of horizontal or vertical type turbine depend upon cost, space and plant layout.

Tailrace :-
It is a discharged canal into which water is discharge from the turbine
Difference in level of head race and tail race is called as gross head.

Advantage of hydroelectric power plant:

1. No fuel charges
2. Atmosphere is not polluted
3. Maintenance and operation charge are very low
4. The plant efficiency does not change with age
5. Less supervising staff is required

Disadvantages of limitations:
1. The initial cost of plant is very high
2. It takes considerable long time for creating energy
3. This plant required hilly area
4. Power generation depends upon rain water
5. Power generation by the hydroelectric power plant is also depend upon the quantity of water available
6. Such plant required long time for installation.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Classification of turbine
According to the type of energy at inlet :-
Impulse turbine :- Energy available at inlet is only kinetic energy. for example Pelton turbine
Reaction turbine :- Energy at inlet is kinetic energy as well as pressure energy. for example Francis turbine

According to the head at inlet of turbine :-

Low head turbine :- if head available is less than 60 m. example kaplan turbine
Medium head turbine :- head available is in between 60 to 250 m. example francis turbine
High head turbine :- if head available is above 250 m. example Pelton turbine.

According to the direction of flow through runner :-

Tangential flow turbine :- when water flows along the tangent of runner wheel
Radial flow turbine :- when water flows in radial direction through runner
Axial flow turbine :- when water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation
of runner
Mix flow turbine :- when water flows through runner in radial direction but leave in the direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of runner.

According to specific speed of turbine :-

Low specific speed turbine :- Turbine having specific speed less than 60 example pelton turbine
Medium specific speed turbine :- Turbine having specific speed 60 to 400 example francis turbine
High specific speed turbine :- Turbine having specific speed greater than 400 example kaplan turbine

Pelton turbine :-

It is an impulse turbine of tangential flow type.

Construction:

Pelton wheel turbine consists of a rotor (runner), nozzle, needle or spear, casing etc.

A. Rotor and Buckets:

• Rotor is a circular disc. Number of buckets (more than 15) are mounted and equally spaced on the
periphery of this circular disc.
• The buckets are either cast integrally with the rotor or bolted individually to the rotor (runner). The
bolting of buckets helps in easy replacement, when they get worn out. They are made up of cast steel,
stainless steel or any suitable steel with inner surface polished to reduce losses of
• The buckets have shape of double semi-elliptical cup or bowl.
Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.
B. Nozzle:-

Water is carried from a high head source through penstock to the nozzle. As water flows through the nozzle,
the velocity of water Increases forming high speed jets. Thus, Nozzle converts the pressure energy of water
into kinetic energy.

C. Flow Regulating Arrangement :-

• A spear moving inside the nozzle controls the water flow through nozzle.
• This spear is moved forward or backward manually by rotating a hand wheel fitted at its end.

D. Casing:-

Casing is made up of cast iron or fabricated steel plates.

Functions of casing:

➢ Prevent splashing of water.

➢ To guide the water to tail race.
➢ To act as safeguard against accidents.

E. Braking Nozzle:

When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in forward direction, the amount of water striking
the runner is reduced to zero, but the runner due to inertia continues to revolve for a long time. Therefore, in
order to bring the revolving runner to rest in short time, a braking nozzle is provided. It directs a jet of water
on the back of buckets.

The specifications of Pelton wheel turbine :-

(1) Type of flow - Tangential flow type.

(2) Type of turbine - Impulse turbine.

(3) Type of generator - Permanent magnet type or wound field or induction type

(4) Runner material - Stainless steel due to Its anti-corrosiveness property.

(5) Number of nozzles and nozzle diameter - Design depends on the range of water flow available. Usually,
number of nozzles may vary from 1 to 4. Nozzle should have flow regulating arrangement facility like spear.
𝐃
(6) Number of buckets on the wheel (Z) = 15 +
𝟐𝐃

where, D = Diameter of wheel, and d = Diameter of water jet Usually, 'Z' varies from 6 to 50,

(7) Width of bucket = 5d.

(8) Depth of bucket = 1.2d.

(9) Diameter of wheel (D) is in the range of 2 m to 15 m.

𝐃
(10) Jet ratio =
𝐝

(11) Working speed of turbine (N): 60 r.p.m. to 1000 r.p.m..

(12) Specific speed of turbine (Ns): Below 60.

(13) Head available should be above 250 metres.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Francis turbine
Francis turbine is an Inward flow reaction turbine of mixed flow
type, In which, water enters the runner radially at its outer
periphery and leaves axially at its centre.

(a) Penstock:

It is a large size conduit (Hollow pipe or Hollow circular channel),

which conveys water from high head reservoir to the turbine
runner.

(b)Spiral/Scroll casing:

It is a closed passage, whose cross-sectional area gradually

decreases along the direction of flow, i.e. area at inlet Is
maximum and area at outlet is zero.

Functions of casing:

(1) To provide an even or equal distribution of water around the circumference of turbine runner,

(2) To maintain constant velocity for the water distributed. For this purpose, the cross-sectional area of casing
is made gradually decreasing.

(c) Guide vanes/Wicket gates:

From the stay ring, the water passes through a series of guide vanes provided all around the periphery of the
turbine runner.

Functions of guide vanes:

➢ To regulate the quantity of water supplied to the runner.

➢ To direct the water onto the runner at an appropriate angle.

(d) Runner:

• It consists of a series of curved vanes evenly arranged around the circumference in the annular space
between the two plates.
• The vanes are so shaped that, water enters the runner radially at the outer periphery and leaves it axially
at the inner periphery.
• While passing through the runner, direction of flow of water changes from radial to axial. It produces a
circumferential force on the runner, which makes the runner to rotate.

(e) Draft tube:

• The water after passing through the runner flows to the tail race through a draft tube.
• A draft tube is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area.
• Draft tube connects the turbine's runner exit to the tail race.
• Draft tube converts the available K.E. (if any) into useful pressure energy.
• Due to gradually increasing cross-sectional area, kinetic energy available (if any) in the water is
converted into pressure energy. Thus, the water at increased pressure can be easily sent to tailrace.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Kaplan turbine :-

Kaplan turbine is an axial flow turbine off reaction type

• Working of Kaplan is very much similar to Francis turbine. It

consists of scroll casing, guide vanes and draft tube. It has a
vertical hollow shaft, which is enlarged at the bottom in the
shape of propeller called as "hub or boss".
• Runner of a Kaplan turbine has four to six blades. These
blades are attached to the hub or boss. The blades are so
shaped, that, water flows axially through the runner.
• The blades of runner are adjustable. It means, they can be
rotated about the pivots fixed to the boss of the runner, so
that, their angle of inclination can be changed (adjusted).
• Due to the provision of changing (varying) the guide vane
angle and runner blade angle, a very high efficiency can be
maintained over a wide range of operating conditions.
• In this turbine, the water from penstock enters the scroll casing through the guide vanes.
• The water from guide vanes turns through 90° and enters the runner vanes axially. Pressure of water
leaving the runner vanes, i.e. at runner exit is less than atmospheric pressure. Therefore, draft tube is
connected to runner exit, so that, pressure of water will increase gradually while passing through draft
tube and water gets discharged to the tail race.
• In case of Francis turbine, the water enters the runner radially, while in Kaplan turbine, the water strikes
the runner axially. Thus, Kaplan turbine has purely axial flow.

Differentiate between impulse and reaction turbine

Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1. The available water energy is converted into 1. Only a part of available water energy is
K.E. converted into K.E.

2. The water is guided by blades to flow over
buckets, which are fixed to the outer
periphery of the wheel. moving vanes.
3. Water strikes on bucket with K.E.
2. The water is guided by blades to flow over
moving vanes.
3. Water glides over the moving vanes with
pressure energy.

4. The pressure of flowing water is constant & 4. The pressure of flowing water is reduced
is equal to atmospheric pressure after gliding over vanes.

5. It is not essential that wheel should run full, 5. It is always essential that the wheel should
run full.

6. Water is admitted over a part of 6. Water must be admitted over whole

circumference of wheel. circumference of wheel.

7. It is possible to regulate flow without loss. 7. It is not possible to regulate flow without
loss.

8. e.g. Pelton wheel turbine. 8. e.g. Francis, Kaplan turbine.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Differentiate between Francis and Kaplan turbine

Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine

1) Radially inward or mixed flow turbine.
2)Suitable for medium head and medium discharge.
3) Runner vanes are fixed.
4) Large number of runner vanes (16 to 24 vanes)
5) Friction loss is more due to large number of vanes
and greater area of contact with water
6) Centrifugal type.
7) Horizontal or vertical shaft
8) Specific speed is in between 50 to 200
1) Purely axial flow turbine.
2) Suitable for low head and high discharge.
3) Runner vanes are adjustable.
4) Small number of runner vanes (3 to 8).
5) Friction loss is less due to less number of vanes
and Less wetted area
6) Propeller type.
7) Only vertical shaft.
8) Specific speed is in between 200 to 1000

Draft Tube

A draft tube is a type of tube that connects the exit of the water turbine to the tailrace. The tailrace is the
water channel that takes the water out of the turbine. It is usually located at the outlet or exit of the turbines
and converts the kinetic energy of the water at the outlet of the turbine to static pressure. The materials used
to create a draft tube are cast steel and cemented concrete.

Purpose of the draft tube

The principal purpose of the draft tube is to convert water kinetic energy into pressure energy. To decrease
the velocity of the water and to raise the pressure of the water before joining the tailrace, the pipe is used to
steadily increase the cross-sectional area. The draft tube raises the water pressure to the atmospheric
pressure. To tolerate the high pressure and speed of the water, the tube must be strong enough

Types of Draft Tube

1. Conical draft tube

2. Simple elbow draft tube
3. Moody spreading draft tube
4. Elbow draft tube with a varying cross-section

1. conical draft tube

In this type of draft tube form, the flow direction is straight and divergent. This tube is made of mild steel
plates. It is tapered in shape and the outlet diameter is greater than the inlet diameter of the draft tube. The
tapered angle of the draft tube should not be too wide to induce a divergence of the flow from the wall of the
draft tube. This angle should also not be too short, since it would require a longer draft tube that brings a
substantial loss of kinetic energy. So, the angle of the taper is still almost 10 degrees.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

2. Simple Elbow Draft Tube:

The shape of the tube is like an elbow in a simple Elbow draft Tube. It is used in the Kaplan turbine. In this
type of draft tube, the cross-section area remains the same for the entire length of the draft tube. The inlet
and outlet of the draft tube are circular. This draft tube is used at low head positions and the turbine is to be
mounted next to the tailrace. It helps to minimize the expense of drilling and the exit diameter should be as
wide as possible to recover kinetic energy at the runner outlet. This tube has a moderate efficiency of around
60%.

3. Moody draft tube

The outlet of the draft tube is split into two sections in this form of the draft tube. Moody draft tube is similar
to a conical draft tube and is with a central core component that divides the outlet into two parts. There are
one inlet and two exits for the draft tube. The main aim of this type of draft tube is to reduce the swirling
motion of water. The efficiency of this type of tube design is almost 88%.

4. Elbow draft tube with varying cross-section:

An elbow draft tube with varying cross-section is an improvement of a simple elbow draft. The inlet is circular
and the outlet is rectangular in this type. In general, the horizontal section of the draft tube is inclined up to
avoid air from approaching the exit area. This type of tube varies in its cross-section from inlet to outlet. The
outlet is still beneath the tailrace. The performance of this type of draft tube is used with the Kaplan Turbine
at about 70%.

Cavitation :-

Cavitation is defined as formation of bubble filled with vapour in large quantity within the body of moving
fluid.

Reaction turbines are installed above tail race by providing draft tube to increase efficiency and easy repair &
maintenance. Due to which negative pressure is created in flow passage If pressure of water in flow passage
fall below the vapour pressure of water, the water starts vaporising & bubble of vapour are formed in large
quantity. These bubbles are carried along by the flow, enter the high-pressure region gels suddenly collapsed.

The spaced occupied is filled by surrounding water. The rush of water into cavity of bubble creates noise,
vibration & erosion of material take place called as pitting. Cavitation occurs in reaction turbine & centrifugal
pump.

Effect of cavitation :

1) Change in flow patten

2) Noise production

3)Energy losses

4) Efficiency foss

5) Increase in drag force.

6) Material loss

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Method to avoid or reduce the cavitation :-

1) By using stainless steel turbine runner

2) By installing turbine below tail race.

3) By using highly polished blades on the runner. 4) By running the turbine runner at designed speed.

Specific speed : - The speed of a geometrically similar turbines having identical characteristic working under a
head of 1m to produce 1 kw power output. It is denoted by Ns

𝑁 √𝑃
Ns =
𝐻 5/4

Ns- Specific speed, N- speed of runner, P = power developed, H - Head in meters.

Significance of specific speed : Specific speed plays an important role for selecting the type of turbine Also the
performance of turbine can be predicated by knowing the specific speed of turbine

Types of turbine Specific Speed

1. Pelton wheel with single jet 10 to 35 rpm
2. Pelton wheel with multiple jet 35 to 60 rpm
3. Francis turbine 60 to 300 rpm
4. Kaplan turbine or propeller turbine 300 to 1000 rpm

Various consideration of selection of type of turbine :-

1. Site condition
2. Specific speed
3. Head
4. Head and specific speed efficiency
5. Load
6. Cavitation
7. Pressure rise and speed rise
8. Cost
9. Maintenance

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 6. Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic pump is defined as a mechanical device which is converted the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy and transfer the fluid at a certain height with increasing pressure.

Classification of pumps
1. Positive displacement pumps (Reciprocating pumps): Here, liquid is sucked and pushed or displaced
due to thrust exerted on it by a moving member (piston), which results in lifting the liquid to the
required height.

2. Rotodynamic pumps (Centrifugal pumps): Here, liquid passes through a rotating element, which is
called as an impeller. When the liquid passes through the impeller, its angular momentum changes. Due
to this, pressure energy of liquid is increased, which results in lifting the liquid to the required height.

Classification of Centrifugal pump

1. According to type of casing:

(a) Volute pump or Constant velocity pump.
(b) Vortex pump or Variable velocity pump.

2. According to number of stages:

(a) Single stage.
(b) Multistage.

3. According to working head:

(a) Low head up to 15 m.
(b) Medium head (between 15 m to 40 m).
(c) High head (beyond 40 m).

4. According to liquid handled i.e. type of impeller:

(a) Shrouded or Enclosed impeller type pump.
(b) Semi-open impeller type pump.
(c) Open impeller type pump.

Main components of a Centrifugal Pump :-

1)Suction Pipe :
A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the pump & other end dips into water in a sump is
known as suction pipe.

2)Foot valve:
A foot valve which is a non-return valve or one way type of valve is fitted at the lower end of suction pipe.
The foot valve opens only in the upward direction. A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of suction
pipe.

3)Impeller :-
The rotating part of centrifugal pump is called as impeller It consists of a series of backward curved vanes
Impeller consists of number of curved blades or vane (generally 4-8 blades) enclosed in two circular disc.
The function of impeller is to increase the K.E. of water by forcing centrifugal force on it.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

4) Casing:

Casing is an airtight passage surrounding the impeller Large amount of kinetic energy of liquid coming out of
impeller is converted into pressure energy by casing 5) Delivery pipe A pipe whose one end is connected to
the outlet of the pump and other end delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe. A
delivery valve is connected between the outlet of the pump and lower end of delivery pipe. is used to regulate
the quantity of water to be lifted by controlling the movement of valve.

Types of impeller:-

1) Fully closed type: Fully closed type impeller has circular plate on each side which totally encloses the
vanes, hence the water way from eye of impeller to the periphery of the impeller is formed. There are
less chances of slipping of water as vanes are closed by plates. It is suitable for handling clear & thin
liquid.

2) Semi-closed type: In Semi-closed type only one circular plate on one side. Vanes are fitted such
impeller is suitable even the liquids are charged with some debris.

3) Open type: In open type there is no circular plate on any side. The vanes are open such impellers is
useful in pumping of liquid containing suspended solid matter such as paper pulp, sewage & water
containing sand.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Types of Casing :-

1)Volute Casing: The impeller is surrounded by a spiral casing. The water leaving the impeller flows in this
casing circumferentially, velocity of water decreasing with the increasing area of cross-section. When the
water reaches the delivery pipe, the velocity becomes small, so the pressure increases correspondingly.

2)Vortex OR Whirlpool Casing: If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller as
shown, then the casing is known as vortex or whirlpool casing. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of
energy due to the formation of eddies is reduced, so efficiency of pump increases.

3)Casing with Guide Blades: In this casing, impeller is surrounded by a series of guide vanes mounted on a
ring called as diffuser ring. The liquid after leaving the impeller passes through passages between two
adjacent guide blades having increasing area, wherein the velocity of flow decreases & the pressure increases.

Working of centrifugal pump:-

1. Priming :-
• Priming is defined as the operation in which suction pipe, casing of pump & portion of delivery pipe up to
delivery valve is completely filled by liquid. This is important because suction depends upon difference
between atmospheric pressure outside suction pipe & vacuum near eye of impeller & if air is present
inside, vacuum is not created & pump cannot network.
• In priming water is filled the suction pipe, casing & into a portion of delivery pipe up to delivery valve. The
delivery valve is kept closed during priming so that the motor is started it will reduce the starting torque.

2. Starting:
• Before starting first of all check that priming is done & return valve is not in closed condition.
• The motor is started after priming. After a short period, when pump attains a constant speed, delivery
valve is gradually open & thus water is allowed to flow in radially outward direction through the impeller
vanes towards outlet of pump.
• As the water flows towards outlet of pump a partial vacuum is created at eye of impeller.
• Due to this suction, water from sump which is at atmospheric pressure, is raised on to the suction pipe.
The water leaves the impeller with high pressure & high velocity through delivery pipe into a desired
height. So in this way water reaches & leave impeller continuously & water is raised to certain height at
constant rate.

3. Stopping :
• To stop pump delivery valve should be closed partly, motor is switched off & then valve is fully closed.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Heads of Centrifugal pump:-

1. Suction head OR Suction Lift:

It is a vertical height between the centre line of centrifugal pump and the free water surface in sump. It is also
called as suction lift and denoted as (hs)

2. Delivery head OR Delivery Lift :

It is a vertical distance between the center line of pump and the water surface in the tank to which water is
delivered, it is denoted by (hd).

3. Static head:

The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as static head. It is denoted by (Hs)

Hs = hs + hd

4. Manometric head:

The manometric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.

𝑽𝟐
𝒔 𝑽𝟐
𝒅
hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd + +
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Efficiencies of pump :-

1. Manometric Efficiency :-

Manometric Efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the, ratio of the manometric head to the work done
by impeller. It is denoted by ηmano
𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅
ηmano = 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓

2. Mechanical efficiency :-

The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power at the at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is
known as mechanical efficiency. It is denoted by ηmech
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐫
ηmech = 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐟𝐭

3. Overall efficiency:

Overall efficiency is defined as the ratio of power output of pump to the power input to the pump.

It is denoted by ηo

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps:-

If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called as a multistage centrifugal pump.

The impellers may be mounted on same shaft or on different shafts.

Multistage pump has two functions:

1.To discharge larger quantity of liquid.

2.To produce a high head.

➢ To produce higher discharge of liquid, the impellers are connected in parallel.

➢ To produce higher head, the impellers are connected in series.

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps in parallel :-

To produce higher discharge of liquid the impeller are

connected in parallel. Every pump receives the water from
reservoir & discharge the flow of water to a common pipe to
which delivery pipes of each pump is connected.

Total discharge, Q = Q₁ + Q₂

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps in series :

To produce higher head, the impeller are connected in series mounted on

one shaft. The water enters through suction pipe of impeller 1 & is
discharged at outlet with increased pressure. This water at exit of impeller
at exit impeller is allowed to enter the inlet of impeller 2 through a pipe.
The higher pressure of water is obtained at outlet of impeller 2.

Total head, H = H₁ + H₂

Various Methods of Priming

(a) By using funnel:

• Less quantity of water is to be filled in small sized pumps. Therefore, water can
be filled manually using a funnel.
• An air-vent valve is provided at the top side of pump casing. It is opened, so that,
air can escape through this valve, when water is being filled.

(b) By using vacuum pumps or ejectors:

Large pumps are primed by evacuating the casing and suction pipe. This is
done by using a vacuum pump or an ejector. Thus, water is drawn up
through the suction pipe from sump and pump is filled with water.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

(c) Using seif-priming pumps:

In some cases, pumps are provided with some kind of automatic air exhauster like vacuum pump
incorporated in the pump casing. The shaft of vacuum pump is coupled to the shaft of centrifugal pump.
When the pump is started, the air is sucked out and water is pumped. Such pumps are known as self priming
pumps.

Cavitation In Centrifugal Pump

• Cavitation is defined as, "the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles in the region of flowing liquid,
where its pressure falls below the vapour pressure of liquid". Due to this, some quantity of the liquid
vaporizes, thereby producing vapour bubbles and further flow is not continuous.
• These vapour bubbles are associated with the flowing liquid. Therefore, when the pump starts lifting the
liquid, the vapour bubbles so formed are also carried along with the liquid.
• When these vapour bubbles moves into the region of high pressure, they get suddenly collapsed on the
metallic surfaces and surrounding liquid rushes to fill the cavities formed due to collapse of vapour
bubbles. This results in development of extremely high pressures.

Effects of Cavitation

(a) Cavitation imposes limitation on flow rate of pump.

(b) Cavitation reduces rotational speed of pump.

(c) Cavitation causes erosion and pitting of metals, severe vibrations and noise.

(d) Due to cavitation, there is sudden drop In head, efficiency and power delivered to the fluids.

Methods to Avoid Cavitation

1. Low suction velocity: Keep suction velocity as low as possible.

2. Low pressure and temperature: Keep the temperature of liquid as lower as possible, so as to keep the
vapour pressure low.

3. Low runner speed: Keep speed of runner as low as possible.

4. Avoid sharp bends in suction pipe.

Advantages Of Centrifugal Pump

1. Discharging capacity is very much higher than that of a reciprocating pump.

2. Suitable for lifting highly viscous liquids such as oils, muddy and sewage water, paper pulp, sugar molasses,
chemicals etc.

3. Can be operated at very high speeds without any danger of separation and cavitation.

4. Maintenance cost is low and only periodical check-up

5. Frictional losses are minimized due to a single rotating impeller.

6. No heavy foundation is required, so installation cost is less.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Applications Of Centrifugal Pump

1. For agricultural and irrigation purposes.

2. For thermal power plants.

3. For drainage and drinking water system.

4. Process industries such as paper pulp, chemicals, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals etc. to convey raw
material and finished products from one place to another place.

5. Food industries.

6. Water purification plants.

7. Oil and gas industries for purification purposes.

8. Metal treatment processes like electroplating, anodizing etc.

9. Textile industries for bleaching of fabrics.

Troubleshooting of centrifugal pump

Problem 1. pump fail to start pumping.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Pump is probably not properly primed.
2 Total static head is probably much higher
than that, for which, pump is designed.
3 Wrong rotation of impeller.
4 Strainer or suction line may be clogged (i.e.
choked/blocked).
5 Speed may be too low.
Re-prime the pump by opening the air-vent valve, until a
steady and unbroken stream of liquid is obtained.
Calculate the head with accurate vacuum and pressure
gauges. If more, reduce the head or change the pump.
Check the direction with the help of arrow marked on
the pump.
Clean the same.
Check with tachometer and compare the working speed
with the given speed indicated on the name plate of
pump. Actual speed may be low than rated speed due to
low voltage of electric motor coupled to pump.

Problem 2. pump is not working up to its capacity and pressure.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Air leakage into the pump through suction Find out and plug the leakages.
line.
2 2. Wearing ring, impeller may be worn. Replace or repair the worn out parts.
Shaft may be loose.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Problem 3. pump start and then stops pumping.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Improperly primed or leaky suction line. Reprime the pump and plug the leakages.
2 Air pockets in suction line. Reprime the pump by opening air vent valve.
3 Too high suction lift. Reduce the suction lift

Problem 4. Pumps take too much power i.e. low efficiency.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Too high speed. Reduce the speed.
2 Head may be too low and pump delivers Reduce the discharge or alter the pipe.
too much liquid.
3 Shaft may be bent; impeller may be Replace worn out parts.
running against casing, worn out wearing
rings.

Net positive suction head (NPSH):

• NPSH is defined as net head in meters of liquid required to force liquid into the pump through the suction
pipe.
• It is also defined as the head required to make liquid to flow through the suction pipe & enter to eye of
impeller.
• NPSH is also defined as the atmospheric pressure head at inlet of pump minus sum of static suction head,
vapour pressure head frictional head loss in suction pipe & kinetic head loss in suction pipe.
• NPSH = [Atmospheric pressure head] - [ Static suction head + Vapour pressure head + frictional head loss
in suction pipe + kinetic head loss in suction pipe]

Where

Pa = atmospheric pressure,

hs = static suction head,

hfs = Frictional head loss in suction pipe

𝑽𝟐
𝒔
= Kinetic head loss in suction pipe
𝟐𝒈

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Submersible pump :

• Submersible pump is having hermetically sealed motor closely coupled to

pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the water to be pumped.
• The impellers supported by motor shaft, rotate inside the diffuser which
transfer the liquid leaving each impeller towards the suction opening of the
next impeller.
• Once the liquid has passed through the series of impellers, it is expelled via
the delivery opening.
• Each impeller has its respective vanes diffuser constitutes a pumping stage
which, according to operating principle of centrifugal machines, generate a
pressure increase in fluids which is added to each subsequent pressure
increase induced by the other stages in series.

Advantages :

1.The advantage of these pumps is that it can provide a significant lifting force as it does not depend upon
external air pressure to lift the fluid.

2. It has low initial cost & low operating cost.

3. It provides safety & noiseless & quite in operation.

4. It provides more reliability & longer life.

Applications :

1.These pumps are used for drainage, sewage, pumping, general industrial pumping & slurry pumping.

2.It is suitable for water supply from wells, reservoirs, for domestic use for civil & industrial applications.

Construction and working of single acting reciprocating pump

Working of Single Acting Cylinder:

1. Crank is at Inner Dead Centre (IDC). This crank rotates in clockwise direction.

2. As crank rotates in clockwise direction, the piston moves towards right and vacuum is created on the left
side of the piston.

3. This vacuum causes suction valve to open and consequently the liquid is forced from the sump into the left
side of the piston.

4. When crank is at the ODC the suction stroke is completed, and the left side of the cylinder is full of liquid.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

5. As the crank again rotates from ODC (Outer Dead Centre) to IDC, the piston moves inward to the left and
high pressure is build up in the cylinder.

6. The delivery valve open and the liquid is forced into the delivery pipe.

7. The liquid flow to the discharge and tank through the delivery pipe. At the end of delivery stroke the crank
comes to the IDC and the piston is at extreme left position.

Construction and working of double acting reciprocating pump

1.In double acting reciprocating pump also the crank rotates from IDC (Inner Dead Centre) in the clockwise
direction a vacuum is created on the left side of piston and liquid is sucked in from the sump through suction
valve S₁.

2.At the same time, the liquid on the right side of piston is compressed and the high pressure causes the
delivery valve d2 to open and liquid flows into discharge tank.

3.This operation continues till the crank reaches Outer Dead Centre (ODC).

4. When the crank rotate from ODC to IDC, liquid is sucked from the sump through the suction valve S₂ and is
delivered to the discharge tank through the delivery valve di

5.Thus the cycle continuously works and we get more uniform discharge through the double acting
reciprocating pump.

Concept of Slip, Negative slip in reciprocating pump :-

• Slip is defined as the difference between theoretical discharge and actual discharge.
• The actual discharge of pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to leakage.

Slip = Qth - Qact

Generally, Slip is expressed in percentage.

𝐐𝐭𝐡 − 𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
Percentage slip = x 100
𝑸𝒕𝒉

𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
Percentage slip = 1 - x 100
𝑸𝒕𝒉

𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
Percentage slip ( 1- Cd )x 100. Where, Cd =
𝑸𝒕𝒉

• When theoretical discharge (Q) is greater than actual discharge (Qact) then slip is known as positive slip.
• When theoretical discharge (Q) is less than actual discharge (Qact) then slip is known as negative slip.

This happens when pump runs at high speed and suction pipe is too long as compared to delivery pipe.
Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.
Ideal Indicator Diagram

The graph between pressure head in the cylinder and stroke length of the piston for one complete revolution
of crank under ideal condition is known as Ideal Indicator Diagram.

Hatm = Atmospheric pressure head 10.3 m of water

L = Length of Stroke,

hs = Suction head,

hd = Delivery head.

• During suction stroke the pressure head in the cylinder is constant and equal to suction head (hs) which is
below the atmospheric pressure head (Hatm) by a height of hs. It is presented by line AB.
• During delivery stroke the pressure head in the cylinder is constant and equal to delivery head (hd) which
is above the atmospheric head by a height of hd. It is represented by line CD.

Indicator diagram considering both acceleration and friction head for

reciprocating pump

fig. itself explain the combined effect of acceleration and friction on

suction and delivery pipe during respective stroke as explained in previous
separate figures.

Air Vessel

Functions of Air Vessel :-

(a) To obtain continuous supply of water at a uniform rate.

(b) To save considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional resistance offered to flowing fluid in the
suction and delivery pipes.

(c) To run the pump at a high speed without separation.

Air Vessel:

• Air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top

portion and water at the bottom of chamber.
• The water may flow in or out of vessel through an opening provided at
the base of chamber.
• When the water enters the air vessel, the air gets compressed further
and when the liquid flows out of the vessel, the air will expand in the
chamber.
• The air vessel is fitted to the suction pipe and to the delivery pipe at a
point close to the cylinder of single acting reciprocating pump.
• Fig. 6.18 shows the single acting reciprocating pump, to which, air
vessels are fitted to the suction and delivery pipe.
• The air vessel acts like an intermediate water reservoir.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Comparison between Centrifugal Pump & Reciprocating Pump
Centrifugal Pump
1) Simple in construction because of less number of
parts.
2) Total weight of pump is less for given discharge.
3) Suitable for large discharge and small heads.
4) Requires less floor area and simple foundation.
5)Since it has rotating element, there is less wear &
tear.
6) Balancing proper.
7) Maintenance cost is less.
8)Suction and delivery valves are not necessary.
9) It can handle dirty water.
10) Starting torque is more.
11) It can run at high speed.
12) It has less efficiency.
13) Its delivery is continuous.
14) Air vessels are not required.
15) Thrust on the crank shaft is uniform.
16) Operation is quite simple.
Best of Luck
Reciprocating Pump
1) Complicated in construction, because of more
number of parts.
2)Total weight of pump is more for given discharge.
3) Suitable for less discharge and higher heads
4) Requires more floor area and comparatively
heavy foundation.
5) Since it has reciprocating element, there is more
wear and tear.
6) Balancing is not proper.
7) Maintenance cost is more.
8) Suction and delivery valves are necessary.
9) It can't handle dirty water.
10) Starting torque is less.
11) It can't run at high speed.
12) It has more efficiency.
13) Its delivery is pulsating.
14) Air vessels are required.
15) Air vessels are required.
16) Much care is required on operation.
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Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.