GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)

ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
Intramolecular Forces – attractive forces that act
between atoms and ions WITHIN a compound.
2. Capillary Action – is a liquid FLOW through a
• Holds one atom to another to form bonds. narrow space from a combined effect of
cohesion, adhesion, surface tension.
• Covalent, Polar Covalent, Ionic • Does NOT REQUIRE HELP from external
Intermolecular Forces – attractive forces that act force (GRAVITY) can even act counter to its
BETWEEN molecules in a solid and liquid state. forces.
• WEAKER force goes HIGHER UP,
• Attracts one molecule to another to form solid and • STRONGER force goes UP LESS due to the
liquids. attraction toward other molecules.
1. Dispersion Forces – is the WEAKEST of
3. Viscosity- measure of a liquid resistance to
intermolecular forces. If one given polar
flow.
molecule is TEMPORARY slightly positive or
WATER – LOWER viscosity centipoise
slightly negative.
HONEY – HIGHER viscosity centipoise
• Colder – MORE effective
• Hotter – LESS effective
• STRONGER bonds make it more viscous
• Strength is DEPENDENT on the number of
because the forces are pulling each molecule
elections in a molecules
making it THICKER and DENSER.
2. Dipole – Dipole Forces – STRONGER than
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction is
dispersion forces. When a polar molecule
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to Viscosity.
always PARTIALLY POSITVE CHARGE or
PARTIALLY NEGATIVE between them.
Temperature is INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL
PERMANENT UNEVEN distribution of
to Viscosity.
electrons.
• Opposites attract
4. Vapor Pressure – occurs when the rate of
evaporation and the rate of condensation are
3. Hydrogen Bonding – EXTREME version of
EQUAL, they occur at the liquid surface.
Dipole – Dipole Forces. It occurs when a polar
molecule contains of hydrogen and (FON) –
• Molecules in vapor phase collide with the
Fluorine, Oxygen, Nitrogen.
WALLS and LID of containers.
UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF LIQUID • INCREASING temperature INCREASES the
evaporation and condensation – VAPOR
a. Cohesion – intermolecular attraction PRESSURE.
between the SAME water molecule.
• Substance sticks to ITSELF. Therefore, The Temperature and Kinetic energy
b. Adhesion – attraction between OTHER of the particles is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
molecules and water molecules. to Vapor Pressure and the NUMBER of
• Substance sticks to SOMETHING ELSE. particles that is transitioning into a vapor.

1. Surface Tension – ELASTIC SHEET like Molar Heat of Vaporation (ΔHvap)- of a

property of surface of a liquid cause by
intermolecular forces.
• Forces pull molecules in all directions but the
surface of a liquid are only pulled INWARD
creating Surface Tension.
substance is the heat ABSORBED by ONE
MOLE of that substance as it is converted from
a LIQUID to GAS.

The HIGHER the surface tension the BIGGER

the droplets.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)
arranged in REGULAR and WELL –
COMPACT with each other, While the
TYPES OF SOLID Molecules of Gas are FREE FLOWING and
FAR APART. Therefore, they emit KINETIC
1. Amorphous Solids – LACK a long-ranged ENERGY that turns into HEAT.
order and have a DISORDERED
arrangement of atoms. Solid to Liquid – MELTING
• Vibrate in place in RANDOM Liquid to Solid – FREEZING
arrangements. Examples are GLASS, Liquid to Gas – VAPORIZATION
RUBBER, PITCH, many PLASTICS etc. Gas to Liquid – CONDENSATION
Gas to Solid – DEPOSITION
• Form IRREGULAR shapes Solid to Gas – SUBLIMATION
• SOFTEN over a range of temperature
• Unpredictable patterns
• Tend to DEFORM
• Pseudo – FAKE solid, NOT real
• Do NOT have definite heat fusion
• Have NO sharp melting points
• NO repeating units
• Anisotropic - refers to the properties of a
material that is DEPENDENT on the
direction.

2. Crystalline Solids – those in which the

atoms, ions, or molecules that make up the
solid exist in a REGULAR, WELL-DEFINED
arrangement.
Examples are QUARTZ. CALCITE,
SUGAR, MICA, DIAMONDS,
SNOWFLAKES, FLUORIDE, SILICON
1. Heating Curve - a graphical representation
DIOXIDE, ALUM.
of the CORRELATION between HEAT input
and the TEMPERATURE of a substance.
• TRUE Solids
• Arranged in REPEATING patterns
TIME is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to
• HAVE a sharp melting point
Temperature
• DEFINITE heat of fusion
• DIFFERENT along with different directions
of crystal

PHASE CHANGE

Phase Change – are

TRANSFORMATIONS of matter from one
physical state to another.
They occur when energy (usually in form of
heat) is ADDED or REMOVED from a
substance.

Generally, Molecules in the solid phase

have the GREATEST order, while those in
gas. Because the molecules of Solid are
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
2. Cooling Curve - a graph of the variation of
the temperature with time as it is allowed to
cool.
Time is INVERSELY PROPOTIONAL to
Temperature
3. Phase Diagram – is a GRAPHICAL WAY
to summarize the conditions under which
EQUILIBRIA exist between different state of
matter.
a. Triple Point - where the three lines of
EQUILIBRIUM between states of matter
converge. At this point, all three states of
solid, liquid, and gas will exist
SIMULTANEOUSLY.
b. Critical Point – the point in temperature
and pressure on a phase diagram where the
liquid and gaseous phases of a substance
MERGE TOGETHER into a single phase.
c. Supercritical fluids – are highly
compressed gases which combine
properties of gases and liquids in an
intriguing manner. where distinct liquid and
gas phases DO NOT EXIST.
JIO :)
BAGUIO is located in a mountainous area. The
higher the altitude the thinner the atmosphere.
The thinner the atmosphere, air spreads out
and as the molecules spread out, air cools
down. Any place farther from the sea level is
cooler.
The Altitude is INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to
Temperature. Therefore, high altitudes, where the
air pressure is lower, water can freeze at a
HIGHER TEMPERATURE than it would at sea
level, water can boil at LOWER TEMPERATURE.
CONCENTRATION UNITS AND SOLUTION
STOICHIOMETRY
Solute – a substance that is being DISSOLVED in
a Solution.
Solvent - substance, ordinarily a LIQUID, in which
OTHER materials dissolve to form a solution.
Solution – a HOMOGENOUS mixture of two or
more substances. it is form when SOLVENT
dissolved the SOLUTE.
1. Dilution - refers to the process of ADDING
ADDITIONAL SOLVENT to a solution to
DECREASE its concentration.
• ADDING the amount of solute and
KEEPING the amount of solvent making it
more concentrated.
• KEEPING the amount of solute and
ADDING the amount of solvent making it
more diluted.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)

PPTH, PMP, PPB FORMULA:

Related concentration units are parts per
THOUSAND (ppth), parts per MILLION (ppm) and
DILUTION FORMULA:
parts per BILLION (ppb).
M1V1 = M2V2
Ppth = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x
1 000
Sample Problem: 175 mL of a 1.6 M aqueous
solution of LiCl is diluted with water to a final Pmp = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x
volume of 1.0 L. What is the final concentration
1 000 000
of the diluted solution?
Ppb = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x
If the Final or Initial Volume is in Liter unit
convert it first to Mililiters. 1 000 000 000
1.0 L x 1000 = 1000 mL
1000 mL ÷ 1000 = 1.0 L
MOLE FRACTION FORMULAS:

M1V1 = M2V2 Mole fraction of component:

(1.6 M) (175 mL) = M2(1000 mL)
(1000 mL) (1000 m L) Moles of component
M2 = 0.28 M
Total moles of all components

STEP 1: Find the mole:

MASS/MASS CONCENTRATION FORMULA:
Mole = Given mass
%m/m = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x
Molar mass
100

What is the mass percentage of Fe in a piece of

metal with 87.9 g of Fe in a 113 g sample? STEP 2: Sum the two components:

Xsolution = 1ST Component + 2nd Component

Solution
%m/m= (mass of solute / mass of solution) Step 3: Divide both sides to the total moles of all
x 100 = (87.9 g / 113 g) x 100 = 77.8 % Fe component:

1st Component 2nd Component

Total moles of Total moles of

components components
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)
MOLARITY (M)

Molarity (M) = moles of solute QUANTITY MOLE A MOLE B QUANTITY

A B
Volume of solution (L)

Nitric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide in solution

to give sodium nitrate and water
Mole = Given mass
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) —> NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Molar mass 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole

• If the given unit is in (mL) convert it to (L)

A. How many moles of water are formed when
1000 mL ÷ 1000 = 1.0 L
2.5 mol HNO3 completely reacts with
NaOH?

MOLALITY (m) Mole HNO3 → Mole H2O

Molality (m) = moles of solute A mole of H2O =given mole of HNO3 x mole ratio
Kilogram of solvent of HNO3 and H2O based on the balanced
equation.

2.5 mol HNO3 x 1 mol H2O

Mole = Given mass
1 mol HNO3
Molar mass
= 2.5 mol H2O

• If the given unit is in (g) convert it to (kg)

1000 g ÷ 1000 = 1.0 kg

STOICHIOMETRY SOLUTION:
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION 3. Freezing Point Depression – the freezing

point of solution will DECREASE in the
presence of a NON-VOLATILE SOLUTE.
Colligative Properties – are properties of a -0 ℃ NATURAL freezing point of the
solution that DEPEND only on the NUMBER of solute (H20)
particles of the solute and not on the identity of the
solute.
FORMULA:
Amount of Solute is called Concentration.

K ᶠ is constant its
Van’t Hoff value is fixed
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
Factor
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering – is the
Number of
measure of the tendency of material to
sub script
change into GASEOUS or VAPOR state.
of Tᶠ = i Kᶠ m
FORMULA: Electrolyte
(Ionic
P solution = X solvent • P solvent Compound)
Molality = Mole of Solute

Mol of Solvent
X solvent = Mole of Solvent

Mol of Solution
4. Osmotic Pressure – it is the MINIMUM
2. Boiling Point Elevation – the boiling point
of the solution will INCREASE the presence
of the NON-VOLATILE SOLUTE.
+ 100 ℃ NATURAL boiling point of the
solute (H20)
• Non-Volatile Solute - a substance that
does not easily vaporize. Example are
SUGAR and SALT.
pressure that must be applied to a solution
to STOP the flow of solvent molecules
through a SEMI-PERMEABLE
MEMBRANE.
• Semi-Permeable Membrane - the
BARRIER allows some molecules to pass
through but not others. Example a CELL
MEMBRANE.

FORMULA:
Kᵇ is constant its
value is fixed

Van’t Hoff
Factor
Number of Tᵇ = i Kᵇ m
sub script
of
Electrolyte
(Ionic Molality = Mole of Solute
Compound)
Mol of Solvent
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)
FORMULA: Ideal Gas Temperature in Kelvin
Constant
℃ + 273.15 = Kelvin
Van’t Hoff
Factor Π= iMRT
Number of sub Energy can change forms, for example from
script of POTENTIAL to KINETIC energy.
Electrolyte Molarity = Mole of Solute
(Ionic • Potential energy - is the STORED ENERGY in
Compound) Mol of Solution any object or system by virtue of its position or
arrangement of parts.
• Kinetic energy - is the energy of an object or a
system's particles in MOTION.
• Electrolyte - It is a substance that CONDUCTS
electricity in its aqueous or molten state and CHEMICAL REATIONS
decomposes into its constituent ions. Examples are
a. Endothermic Reaction (-) - is a process
HCl, KOH, NaCl, etc.
accompanied by or requiring the
•Non-electrolyte - It is a substance that does NOT ABSORPTION of heat.
conduct electricity in solid, molten or aqueous state • “ENDO” refers to ABSORB
and does not ionise. Examples are SUGAR or • “THERMIC” means HEAT
ETHANOL. b. Exothermic Reaction (+) - process or
reaction that RELEASES energy from the
system to its surroundings.
The GREATER the number of particles in a • “EXO” refers to RELEASE
solution the GREATER the effect on the • “THERMIC” means HEAT
FREEZING and BOILING point. Enthalpy - is the MEASUREMENT of energy in a
Therefore, they are DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL THERMODYNAMIC system. It is represented by H.

The HIGHER the concentration of the solution, the Calculate the heat of the formation of
GREATER the change in FREEZING or BOILING
methane (CH4). The equation involved is
point.
• Ionic substances will LOWER the FREEZING C (s) + 2 H2 (g) → CH4 (g)
point and INCREASES the BOILING point more
a. CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ΔH =
than a molecular substance due to dissociation.
- 890.4 kJ = 890.4
b. 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) ΔH = - 571.5 kJ
THERMODYNAMICS
c. C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ΔH = - 393.7 kJ
The First Law of Thermodynamics – states that
energy can be CONVERTED from one form to
another with the interaction of heat, work and
internal energy, but it CANNOT be CREATED nor
DESTROYED, under any circumstance, must have
the SAME number and kind of atoms after the
chemical change as were present before the
chemical change.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
CHEMICAL KINETICS
• Chemical Kinetics – RATE of the chemical
reaction.
• Kinetics – the study of reaction RATES.
RATE = m/s molarity per second
Collision Theory - states that for a
chemical reaction to occur, the reacting
particles must COLLIDE with one another.
The POTENTIAL ENERGY difference between the
reactant and the activated COMPLEX is called
ACTIVATION ENERGY.
The HIGHER the activation energy the HARDER it
will be for the reactant to cross it and the LOWER
the rate of a reaction. We call it “ACTIVATION”
because it is the energy required to break bonds
and get the reactant CLOSER.
Factors That Affect Rate
There are four main factors that can affect the
reaction rate of a chemical reaction:
1. Reactant concentration. INCREASING the
CONCENTRATION of one or more
reactants will often INCREASE the rate of
reaction. This occurs because a higher
concentration of a reactant will lead to more
collisions of that reactant in a specific time
period.
The concentration of the reactants is
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the rate of
reaction.
2. Physical state of the reactants and
surface area. If reactant molecules exist in
DIFFERENT PHASES, as in a
heterogeneous mixture, the rate of reaction
will be LIMITED by the surface area of the
phases that are in contact. For example, if a
solid metal reactant and gas reactant are
mixed, only the molecules present on the
surface of the metal are able to collide with
the gas molecules. Therefore, increasing
the surface area of the metal by
POUNDING it FLAT or CUTTING it into
many pieces will INCREASE its reaction
rate.
JIO :)
The Surface area of the reactants is
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the rate of
reaction.
3. Temperature. An INCREASE in
temperature typically INCREASES the rate
of reaction. An increase in temperature will
RAISE the average KINETIC ENERGY of
the reactant molecules. Therefore, a
GREATER PROPORTION of molecules will
have the minimum energy necessary for an
effective collision.
The Temperature of the reactants is
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the rate of
reaction.
4. Presence of a catalyst. A catalyst is a
substance that ACCELERATES a
reaction by participating in it without
being consumed. Catalysts provide an
alternate reaction pathway to obtain
products. They are critical to many
biochemical reactions. They will be
examined further in the section
“CATALYSIS.”
LOWER activation energy = MORE
rapid reaction.
• Reactions occur when two reactant
molecules EFFECTIVELY COLLIDE,
each having minimum energy and
correct orientation.
• Reactant CONCENTRATION, the
PHYSICAL STATE of the reactants,
and SURFACE AREA,
TEMPERATURE, and the presence of
a CATALYST are the four main
factors that affect reaction rate.
✓ If Concentration is DOUBLED,
the rate is DOUBLED. = 1ST
order reaction
✓ If Concentration is DOUBLED,
the rate is QUADRUPLED = 2ND
order reaction.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER JIO :)

REACTION RATE FORMULA:

means “change in” = Final – Initial

Concentration / Time.

• Negative = Reactants
• Positive = Products

RELATIVE RATE OF STOICHIOMETRY

FORMULA: