M 11 - Final LG On Implementing A Soil Health and Plant Nutrition

The Government of the National State of Tigray
Bureau of Technical and Vocational Education & Training
AGRICULTURE
LEARNING GUIDE
Unit of Competence:
Implement a soil health and plant nutrition
Module Title:
Implementing a soil health and plant nutrition
LG Code:AGR NCD3M110117V2
TTLM Code: AGR NCD3M11TTLM 0117V2
AGR NCD3 TTLM14 1116V1 TVET Program: Natural Resource Conservation & Development Level III Page 1
Prepared by: Wehabrebi Awel
Unit
Introduction
Module Implementing a soil health and plant nutrition
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following learning outcomes, content coverage and topics –
 Determine relevant site characteristics

 define the requirement for plant production
 document the soil health and plant nutrition program and specification
 monitors production and evaluate the program
Learning Activities
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Read the information written under “Information Sheet 1”.
3. Accomplish the “Self-check” under “Information Sheet 1”.
4. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to the next “Information Sheet”. However, if
your rating is unsatisfactory, see your trainer for further instructions or go back to Learning
Activity #2.
5. Submit your accomplished Self-check. This will form part of your training portfolio.
6.Read the information written in the next “Information Sheet”.
7. Accomplish the “Self-check”.
8. Continue the above to Learning Activity procedures until you successfully finalize all the
“Information Sheets”; “Self-check” and “Operation Sheet” correspondingly with acquiring the
required knowledge, skill and attitude.
9. You will be also provided with additional reference reading materials. Read the information
written in the reference reading materials for further elaboration. You can ask your trainer if you
need additional reference reading materials.
10. Request the required materials and access the information as described under each Operation
Sheet. Read all the contents of the materials and try to understand the procedures discussed.
Additional readings are provided in Operation Sheet in Request access to the materials
accordingly. Practice the steps or procedures as illustrated in your materials. Go to your trainer if
you need clarification or you want answers to your questions or you need assistance in
understanding a particular step or procedure.

INFORMATION Unit
SHEET # 1 Module Implementing a soil health and plant nutrition
LO1 Determine relevant site characteristics
Introduction
The development of a soil health and plant nutrition program requires dedicated research and
planning. The first step in this planning process is to fully understand the current environment.
Your evaluation of alternative strategies for the enterprise and your efforts to persuade others
that the strategy you ultimately propose is workable must be based on a comprehensive, realistic
assessment of your current situation. This planning should always be aligned with the strategic
goals and objectives of the enterprise.
The activities in this section will guide you through the development of a sensible and realistic
soil health and plant nutrition program for an enterprise.
1.1 Define Goals and target site
There is little point commencing any planning activity if the goals of the enterprise are not
understood and agreed by all the relevant stakeholders. The first step is to get all of the decision
makers and business owners/ partners together to formally agree the goals of the
business/enterprise and the intended program for soil health and plant nutrition. This may sound
simple, but it may uncover conflicting goals and objectives between the parties. It is a far better
to resolve these conflicts and get everyone on the ‘same page’ before commence planning rather
than at the end of the process. It is also important to every part of business or enterprise can be
tackled in the same way when it is in the planning stage. That is,
What are goals and how do go about developing these and achieving consensus? The answer
is, “in exactly the same way as with whole business plan.”
It is need to use the SMART process, but this time focus on soil health and plant nutrition.
 Specific – Goals should focus on a specific problem or need.

 Measurable – There must be some means of tracking achievement of goals.
 Action-oriented – Actions will be the pathway to achieving goals.
 Realistic – Aim high, but keep goals within the realm of possibility.
 Timed – Goals are only useful when they are current. They should include a realistic
timeline and a completion date
Goals:
 Are targets that can measure and once achieved, will give a sense of accomplishment?
 Should be expressed in quantities and measured against time or some earlier
performance, where possible.
 Should be challenging, but achievable. Goals aren’t likely to be pursued with any degree
of Commitment unless they are both. They should not be so easy that they can be met by
“average” effort, nor should they be unrealistically difficult.
Unrealistic goals, if not revised, may become a source of frustration and stress because you may
not meet them.
To be most effective, set goals with key stakeholders. Key stakeholders might include
 Funders,
 Business partners,
 Management,
 Operational staff and contractors.
Developing goals as a team gives everyone an interest in achieving them. Specify when the goal
is to be attained, using realistic deadlines. Having a time frame for completion holds people
accountable and allows to assess performance often. For instance, a soil health and plant
nutrition program may be required to achieve the goal established by the business: “Increase
wheat production by 50% over five years”. This goal therefore sets the direction of the soil
health and plant nutrition program and program related decisions can be made with this goal as a
guide.
1.2 Accessing and reviewing relevant environmental, climate and site data
The first step in the planning process is to assess the current environment, including all factors
that have an impact on soil health and plant nutrition. These may be determined from published
data, historical records, your own experience, audits (internal or external), self- assessments,
and industry best practice and enterprise guidelines.
Let’s start this process by identifying the plants that will be grown on the nominated production
site.
Plant Species
In any agricultural/horticultural enterprise, there will be a diverse range of plants and these might
be considered desirable or undesirable. When identifying plants, both scientific and common
names of the plant should be noted. Common names should not be relied upon since some
distinctly different plant species may have the same common name, and the common name used
in one area may be used for a completely different species in another area.
In addition to knowing the common and scientific names of your plants, it is important to know
the specific variety or cultivar, whenever possible. A great variation in plant nutrition and
diseases may occur within different cultivars of a plant species. For example, when we look at
the susceptibility of wheat to wheat stem rust caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, we know
that all wheat cultivars are not susceptible to all races of P. graminis. The major control measure
for this disease is based on planting wheat cultivars each year that are resistant to the pathogen
races that are predicted to be present during the growing season.
Climatic conditions
The next consideration is to assess climatic conditions that are relevant to the production
site/region. Having access to historical records can be of great assistance in identifying trends in
climatic conditions (e.g. rainfall, temperature, drought, floods, wind, daylight hours), that may
have significant impacts on soil and plant health. These data may be obtained from
•internet searches,
•contacting neighboring properties,
•From local weather stations etc.
Environment and site conditions
A clear understanding of environmental and site conditions such as natural resources and land
capacity. The advantage of having access to historical records (e.g. by accessing written reports
or interviewing previous owners is that you can gain an understanding of where the property ‘has
been’, where it ‘is now’ and any evident trends. The site and environment conditions may
include:-
 Site Locality
 Farm History
 Farm Map
 Land Capability
 Water Supply
 Protected Areas
 Soils
 Soil Contamination
 Biodiversity
 Plants
 Pests
 Livestock
Soil Tests
The Soil Health test provides information on soil properties, processes and management.
In an agricultural context, soil testing is commonly used:
•To help identify the main reasons for poor plant performance (diagnostic tests)
•To confirm nutrient status and warn of deficiencies
• To predict likely response to fertilizer rate and type for individual situations
• To monitor changes in soil health in response to changes in land use and management.
Identifying the different soil types on your property and conducting regular soil tests is one way
of assessing soil health.
Important Properties
 Colour
 Texture
 Structure
 Consistence
 Shrink-swell Potential
 Bulk Density
 Porosity
 Permeability
 Infiltration
 Drainage
 Depth
 Available Water Holding Capacity
 Reaction
 Cation Exchange Capacity
 Landscape Position
Soil Color
 Useful tool for providing information about other soil properties
 Organic matter content
 Soil minerals
 Seasonal high water tables
Texture
The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in a mass of soil
 Soils containing large amounts of sand exhibit little plasticity and cannot retain large
amounts of water or nutrients. They have large voids between the particles and can
readily transport water and air.
 The properties of silt are intermediate between sand and clay. Silty soils can retain large
amounts of water but tend to have moderately slowly to slow permeability. Soils high in
silt can present problems for engineers since they will shift under stress and slide and
flow when wet.
 Clays exert a great influence on soil chemical and physical properties. Clay particles are
chemically active and the proportion of clay-sized particles greatly influences soil
physical properties, including aggregation, porosity, water movement and storage,
aeration and workability of the soil.
Texture Triangle: is used by soil scientists to define the basic textural classes
Field soil scientists frequently estimate the texture by feel using their hands.
For more exact measurements there are laboratory techniques that can determine the exact
amount of sand, silt, and clay.
Structure
Refers to the arrangement of primary soil particles into compound particles or aggregates. The
type and grade of structure plays an important role in the movement of water within soils. There
are four Main Types of Soil Structure
Platy - thin horizontal sheets overlapping each other
Prismatic - long vertical columns without rounded tops
Block-like - irregular shaped cubes
Spheroidal - rounded and often referred to as granular or crumb; usually found in the topsoil
Consistence
The degree and kind of cohesion and adhesion that soil exhibits, and/or the resistance of soil to
deformation or rupture under applied stress. Field evaluations of consistence usually include
rupture resistance, stickiness, and plasticity
Bulk Density
Bulk density is the mass of dry soil per unit volume, including the air space. Bulk density has a
major effect on the movement of air and water in soils. Soils with high bulk densities are often
compacted. Soil compaction restricts rooting depth, which reduces the uptake of water and
nutrients by plants
Permeability
Refers to the movement of air and water within the soil.
Reaction: is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a soil. Acidity or alkalinity is determined by the

amount of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the soil. When hydrogen ions outnumber hydroxyl ions
the soil is acidic. In the reverse condition the soil is basic. A pH scale is used to measure the
level of acidity or alkalinity
Cation-Exchange Capacity (CEC): is a measure of the ability of a soil to hold and exchange
cations. It is one of the most important chemical properties in soil and is usually closely related
to soil fertility. A few of the plant nutrient cations that are part of CEC include calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and ammonium.
1.3 Developing soil, plant & water testing program

Understanding the current environment and planning your most appropriate soil health and plant
nutrition program, will also require you to ‘look under the covers’ and conduct a range of soil, plant or
water tests. These tests all serve different purposes and can reveal a range of information about soil
fertility, water quality, contamination, nutrient deficiencies, pests and diseases etc. It is often the
combination of scientific (e.g. laboratory) and other tests (e.g. using a penetrometer to test soil
compaction) that provides the information required to make informed decisions about soil health and
plant nutrition programs. The tests that are appropriate for your enterprise will need to be determined
after considering a number of factors:
• Plant species
• Signs and symptoms of pests and disease
• Climatic conditions
• Growth media used
• Industry best practice and enterprise guidelines (e.g. quality assurance, environmental management
system, certification requirements)
• Cost benefit
• Availability of services and service providers
• What you are trying to achieve.
Having identified the tests that you require for your soil health and plant nutrition program, the next
step is to plan the sampling program and then conduct the tests.
It is critical at this stage to ensure tests are completed accurately and carefully. Often, test results can be
flawed if the sample sites have not been appropriately selected or the samples themselves have not
been appropriately collected.
Soil sampling is possibly the most neglected step in soil testing, and the greatest source of error in the
whole process. Since soil characteristics are variable both in time (temporal) and space (spatial), it is
essential to get an accurate measurement of nutrients by adjusting the sampling strategy to adequately
represent the variation in soil and land use. Bulking or mixing soil from several locations to create an
average (or composite) sample is a common procedure. However, averages can hide problems if there is
a big range in properties of the soil you have sampled.
Soil Testing
In an agricultural context, soil testing is commonly used:
• To help identify the main reasons for poor plant performance (diagnostic tests)
• To confirm nutrient status and warn of deficiencies
• To predict likely response to fertilizer rate and type for individual situations
• To monitor changes in soil health in response to changes in land use and management.
Identifying the different soil types on your property and conducting regular soil tests is one way of
assessing soil health. Many quality assurance, industry best practice and environmental management
systems recommend regular soil testing. Testing soil from the same site by the same laboratory every
year, enables comparative data to be analysed for trends
 The following estimations are generally carried out in a service-oriented soil testing
laboratory:
o Soil texture,
o Soil structure,
o cation exchange capacity (CEC),
o Soil moisture,
o Water holding capacity,
o pH,
o Lime requirement,
o Electrical conductivity,
o Gypsum requirement,
o Organic C,
o Total N,
o mineralizable N,
o Inorganic N,
o Available P,
o Available K,
o Available S,
o Calcium,
o Calcium plus magnesium,
o Micronutrients available Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, B and Mo
Determination of soil PH
The PH is the expression of the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution. pH: pH is a
description of the soil’s acid/alkaline reaction. The pH scale ranges from 0
(very acid) to 14 (very alkaline). Soils generally range from pH 4.0 to pH 8.0..
pH is important because it regulates the availability of individual nutrients in
the soil solution. The pH scale is logarithmic; each unit is 10 times more acid
or alkaline than the next. For example, a soil with pH 4.0 is ten times more
acid than a soil with pH 5.0, and 100 times more acid than a soil with pH 6.0.
A soil’s pH depends on the parent rock (limestone is alkaline, granite is
acidic), rainfall, plant materials, and other factors. Individual plants perform
best within specific pH ranges. It is just as important to manage pH as fertility.
Most garden plants perform well in a soil with pH 6.0 – 7.0. Acid-loving plants
such as rhododendron and blueberry perform well in a soil with pH below 5.0.
The high pH itself does not have a large effect on most crops although there are exceptions. In
most cases, plants growing on alkaline soils are affected by nutrient problems.
As the soil pH increases, the solubility of many nutrients is reduced. As a result, these nutrients
are precipitated as solid materials that plants cannot use. For example, the solubility of iron at
pH 4.0 is 100 ppm but if the pH is increased to 6.0, the solubility drops to 0.01 ppm. At pH
values above 7.5, the amount of iron in solution is often too low to sustain healthy plant
growth.
Iron is not the only nutrient that becomes unavailable to plants at high soil pH, the same
problem also occurs with phosphorus, manganese, zinc, copper and boron. Many alkaline soils
also contain low amounts of magnesium. The calcium levels of these soils are often very high
and this can reduce the uptake of potassium and magnesium even when there is enough in the
soil.
The availability of some plant nutrients is greatly affected by soil pH. The “ideal” soil pH is close to
neutral, and neutral soils are considered to fall within a range from a slightly acidic pH of 6.5 to slightly
alkaline pH of 7.5. It has been determined that most plant nutrients are optimally available to plants
within this 6.5 to 7.5 pH range, plus this range of pH is generally very compatible to plant root growth.
Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Sulfer (S) are major plant nutrients that appear to be less affected
directly by soil pH than many others, but still are to some extent. Phosphorus (P), however, is directly
affected. At alkaline pH values, greater than pH 7.5 for example, phosphate ions tend to react quickly
with calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) to form less soluble compounds. At acidic pH values, phosphate
ions react with aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) to again form less soluble compounds. Most of the other
nutrients (micronutrients especially) tend to be less available when soil pH is above 7.5, and in fact are
optimally available at a slightly acidic pH, e.g. 6.5 to 6.8. The exception is molybdenum (Mo), which
appears to be less available under acidic pH and more available at moderately alkaline pH values.
For example, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc are all more available at low pH levels than at
high pH levels because metals are bound very tightly to the soil or exist in solid minerals at high pH.
Conversely, the ‘base’ cations (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2) are bound more weakly to the soil, so can leach
out of the surface soil, especially at low pH. Therefore, they are less available at low pH. In soils with pH
levels above 7.5; therefore, there is a higher likelihood for iron, manganese, nickel, copper, zinc, and
phosphorus deficiencies than in soiuls with lower pH values, although deficiencies of the micronutrients
are not often observed. The optimum pH appears to be near pH 7, but keep in mind that every crop has
different nutrient needs, and hence optimum pH levels. For example, sweet clover has been found to have
maximum yields near pH 7.5, whereas soybeans and corn grow best near pH 6.8 (Foth and Ellis, 1997).
Lower pH generally causes lower CEC, because the higher concentration of H+ ions in solution will
neutralize the negative charges on clays and organic matter. Fertilizing with ammonia-based fertilizers is
one way that pH may decrease over time. The effect of pH on CEC is more pronounced for soil organic
matter than for layer silicates, because all of the CEC on organic matter is dependent on pH. Note that the
negative charges on the clay particle that are not on the edge of the particle are not neutralized.
Common methods:
Most soil tests measures the PH of standardized soil suspension. The PH of mineral soils is
commonly determined by mixing soil and water together in a 1:1 weight to volume ratio
Plant testing:
Plant analysis involves chemical testing of plant tissue (usually leaves or petioles) to determine
the current nutrient status of a crop or pasture. This serves as both an indicator of plant health
and the availability of nutrients for uptake through the roots and leaves. Plant tissue testing, used
correctly, is
a highly cost effective and strategic monitoring tool for maintaining plant health and optimizing
crop and pasture production.
Leaf Tissue Testing is valuable for:
• Trouble shooting for diagnosing and correcting existing nutrient problems
• Monitoring crop nutrient status for optimalcrop production
Ensuring balanced plant nutrient levels for top produce quality
• Predicting plant nutrient problems during the growing season before they cause production loss
• Understanding interactions between the soil and plant nutrient uptake.
• Formulating foliar spray programs to address nutrient deficiencies and imbalances.
The concentration of each element in the analyzed tissue is compared with established desired
ranges for healthy, productive plants or crops of the same species. A report is given with the
analysis which clearly defines both the nutrient deficiencies and/ or excesses that may be limiting
plant health and yield.
There are many independent references available for plant tissue analysis, based on decades of
research, which detail acceptable ranges of nutrients for all crops and pastures.
This extensive data base provides assurance to the producer in the diagnosis of a crop’s nutrient
status. In contrast, sap testing has limited independent reference range data available and so it is
more difficult to accurately assess the nutrient status of crops or the recommendations
ofcommercial suppliers.
Water test
Quality of irrigation water
Use of inferior irrigation water with high sodium or total salt or both may cause deterioration to
the physical properties of the soil. Plants are adversely affected by high concentration of salts in
the soil solution and by poor soil physical condition of soil. Further salts formed in situ by
weathering soil materials or by salt deposition from applied tend to accumulate in the soil
profile. Hence appropriate techniques are required for proper management of poor quality water
The quality of irrigation water is determined by the following chemical characteristics:
1. Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity

2. Concentration of sodium relative to the actions or sodicity.
3. Anionic composition of water, particularly concentration of bicarbonate and carbonate.
4. Concentration of boron, fluorine or other elements that may toxic to plant growth.
1.4 Implementing & monitoring testing tasks & undertake remedial action
a)“Soil health” and “soil quality” can be used interchangeably. They are: The capacity of a soil to
function, within land use and ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain
environmental quality, and promote plant, animal, and human health (Doran and Parkin 1994).
b) Soil fertility is a feature of soil health as applied to agroecosystems. It is the capacity of a soil to provide
nutrients required by plants for growth.
c) Soil health is established through the interactions of soil’s physical, chemical, and biological, properties (i.
Physical properties include soil texture, a physical measurement of the percent of sand, silt, and clay; and soil
structure, the arrangement of individual soil particles (sand, silt, clay) into aggregates or “clumps” ii. Chemical
properties of a soil measure its nutrient-carrying capacity and pH (acidity) iii. Biological properties refer to the
community of soil organisms (principally bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes)
d) Soil health indicators (see soilhealth.cals.cornell.edu/) i. Soil provides adequate levels of macro- and
micronutrients to plants and soil microbes. This reflects the ability of the soil to mineralize nutrients and a
moderate pH (~6.0–7.0) that allows the nutrients to be both held in the soil and available to plants as needed.
ii. Soil has good “tilth.” This includes a good structure that resists degradation (e.g., erosion and compaction),
provides adequate aeration and rapid water infiltration, and accepts, holds, and releases water to plants and
groundwater. iii. Soil promotes good root growth and maintains good biotic habitat that sustains high and
diverse populations of beneficial organisms and low populations of pests and pathogens iv. Soil has low salinity
levels and low levels of potentially toxic elements (e.g., boron, manganese, and aluminum) v. Soil has high
resilience and is able to withstand deleterious events, such as drought and flooding
Soil health is based on a variety of characteristics, including organic matter, salinity, structure and compaction,
available nutrients, pH, water holding capacity and erosion levels. Together, these characteristics allow soil to serve
a variety of functions: supporting the growth of crops (and therefore animals), regulating the distribution of rain and
irrigation water and providing filtration to improve water as it infiltrates through
soils.
What are some features of good soil? Any farmer will tell you that a good soil:
 drains well and warms up quickly in the spring

 does not crust after planting
 soaks up heavy rains with little runoff
 stores moisture for drought periods
 has few clods and no hardpan
 resists erosion and nutrient loss
 does not require increasing fertilizer for high yields
 produces healthy, high quality crops
All these criteria indicate a soil that functions effectively today and will continue to produce long
into the future. Creating soils with these characteristics can be accomplished by utilizing
management practices that optimize the processes found in native soils.
Maintaining and improving soil quality
Soil quality is a function of many factors, including agro climatic factors, hydrogeology, and
cropping/production practices. Soil quality can be degraded through three processes:
1. Physical degradation such as wind and water erosion and compaction;

2. Chemical degradation such as toxification, salinization, and acidification; and
3. Biological degradation, which includes declines in organic matter, carbon, and the
activity and diversity of soil fauna.
1.5 Compiling and representing data and readings
Data and readings are compiled and presented in a form that can be easily understood.
• Characteristics, condition and nutritional status of soils and plant species are determined by
analyzing collected data and comparing to accepted standards You need to put on your
‘investigative hat’ and ask yourself a lot of questions about the data and what it means. For
example:
• Is a trend evident? Is soil health, pH, water quality increasing or decreasing?
• Does data fall within an acceptable range?
For example, are calcium magnesium ratios within the acceptable range for your production
system?
• Does the data demonstrate that your business goals/objectives are on track?
• If data has been collected over a number of sites, is the data comparable at each site, and at
each site over time?
• How does the data you have generated compare to other data from similar enterprises/ regions?
This is a form of benchmarking.
• Does the data identify emerging strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT)?
• How do the results compare to known guidelines or targets?
Data recording relating to management of fertilizer decisions and soil test results is essential for
planning and performance evaluation (i.e. relating decisions and actions to yield and
profitability).
Good records are an essential part of a soil testing and nutrient management program.
Much of the science that underpins relationships between particular soil tests and crop and
pasture responses to fertilizers and amendments has been acquired through many years of
observation.
Accurate interpretation of soil test results and recommendations require an in-depth (and often
localized) knowledge of the factors that link the particular test with likely responsiveness. Often
soil test critical values for individual nutrients are derived according to relative yield (something
like 95% of the maximum), although the benefit/cost ratio for each nutrient can affect its
recommended rate to some extent. Ultimately, the goal should be to have a clear nutrient
management strategy for each part of the enterprise that aims to maximize profit and
environmental sustainability over the chosen timescale. Clearly the completion of the testing
process is just stage 1. Once you have gathered and analyzed the data you will need to present
the information in a manner that is clear and logical to those who need to agree to the soil health
and plant nutrition program. Presenting the actual test results to your target audience is often not
appropriate due to their highly technical and detailed nature. Normally the test results are just
used as the “back up” to justify the reason for your recommendations
1.7 Determining seasonal variations and requirements
Seasonal variations and requirements are determined from published data on species, historical
records or from management practices.
Plant growth is reasonably predictable. If the way in which a plant grows and therefore
subsequently responds to the environment (e.g. temperature, rainfall) and management practices
(e.g. grazing, cropping, pruning, pest and disease control) is understood, then you can work
towards management strategies that work with nature and promote plant health. Understanding
the seasonal growth stages of a plant is the first part of developing this understanding.
1.8 Determining Characteristics, condition and nutritional status of soils and plant species
under production
Properties and Composition of Soil

􀁸 Plants need soil to stay upright and to get nutrients, water and air (oxygen and carbon
dioxide).
􀁸 It is important to understand chemical and physical soil properties to understand their
influence on the ability of plants to grow.
􀁸 Soil with optimal properties is not always available for cultivation, and steps can be taken
during soil preparation to correct or at least improve the conditions.
􀁸 Physical soil properties include texture, structure, depth, layering (stratification) and aeration.
􀁸 Texture is a fixed soil property and ranges from clay to sand.
􀁸 Soil ranges from having no structure to being granular. Soil structure determines the
aeration, water penetration and drainage of the soil.
􀁸 Soil with a depth of at least 500mm is required for citrus production.
􀁸 Soil layers are formed over many years, and the differences in the properties of soil in various
layers determines the ability of water and roots to move from one layer into the next.
􀁸 Aeration refers to ability of the soil profile to supply air to the roots. Poorly drained soil
becomes water-logged and anaerobic, which can cause roots to die.
􀁸 Chemical soil properties include pH, resistance and electrical conductivity, salinity, fertility
level, cation exchange capacity, and organic matter.
􀁸 pH indicates the acidity of soil. The optimal water pH of soil for citrus production is between
6.5 and 7.5.
􀁸 Electrical conductivity and resistance indicate the salinity of the soil.
􀁸 Soil salinity affects soil fertility and physical soil properties.
􀁸 Soil fertility indicates the ability of soil to sustain plant growth.
􀁸 The cation exchange capacity of soil determines the ability of soil particles to bind with
nutrients and keep them available to plants.
􀁸 Organic matter in soil consists of dead plant and animal material, organic and microbial
debris, and humus. Humus contributes to the activity in soil.
1.8.1 Soil characteristic:-
Basically soil is the rooting medium and a store house for nutrients and water. Hence it is
essential that the roots fully exploit the soil to obtain the nutrients and reduce water stress. The
yields of the crop are often directly related to the availability of stored soil water. The tillage
system affects root distribution with depth.
I. Physical properties:-is refers to the function and management of the soil in an ecosystem in
determining the success or failure of agricultural crop production based on soil
texture ,structure , consistence and color.
Depth –crop roots use the soil to depth ranging from a few centimeters to more than a meter ,
some crops moves root to a depth of many meters
In adequate soil depth limits root development and availabilities of moisture and nutrients for
the plant, and may affect infiltration and tillage option. The shallower the soil, the more limited
are the type of use to which it may be put and the more limited the crop development. Shallow
soils have less volume available for the retention of moisture and nutrient , they can impede
any tillage or make difficult and also ,they may be susceptible to erosion because water
infiltration may be restricted by the rock substrate.
Soil texture:-the relative proportion of sandy, silt and clay fractions. Texture is intimately
related to the mineral composition, specific surface area and soil pore space. It is important in
determining water holding capacity of the soil. For example fine textured soils hold more water
than coarse textured soils.
Consistency—is resistance of the soil to break up, its plasticity and its tendency to stick to
other objects. Determination of soil consistency helps to identify the optimum range of soil
moisture contain for tillage.
Color: - the color of objectives including soils can be determined by minor components.
Generally, moist soils are darker than dry ones and the organic component also makes darker.
Thus, surface soil tends to be darker than subsoil.
Structure and porosity:-both influences supply of water and air to roots, on the availability of
nutrients, penetration and development of root.
Soil structure describes how the basic soil materials (e.g. sand and clay) are arranged into soil
aggregates and the pore spaces between them.
Structural stability indicates how these aggregates and the pores between them are affected by
wetting, rainfall and other destructive forces, e.g. traffic
A well-aggregated soil has increased water entry into the soil, increased
aeration ,and increased water-holding capacity . Plant roots occupy a larger volume
of well-aggregated soil that is high in organic matter as opposed to a finely
pulverized and dispersed soil, low in organic matter. Roots, earthworms, and soil
arthropods can pass more easily through a well-aggregated soil. Aggregated soils
also prevent glazing or crusting of the soil surface. Finally, well-aggregated soils are
more erosion resistant, because aggregates are much heavier than their particle
components
The opposite of aggregation is dispersion. In a dispersed soil, each individualsoil
particle is free to blow away with the wind or wash away with over-land flow of
water
Soils with poor aggregation also tend to be sticky when wet and cloddy when dry. If
the clay particles in these soils can be aggregated together, better aeration and
water infiltration will result. Sandy soils can benefit from aggregation by having a
small amount of dispersed clay that tends to stick between the sand particles and
slows the excess downward movement of water
Crusting is a common problem on soils that are poorly aggregated. Crusting results
chiefly from the impact of falling raindrops. Rainfall causes clay particles on the soil
surface to disperse and clog the pores immediately beneath the surface. Following
drying, a sealed soil surface results in which most of the pore space has been
drastically reduced due to clogging from dispersed clay
Some factors which destroy or degrade soil aggregates are:
 excessive tillage
 working the soil when it is too wet or too dry
 use of anhydrous ammonia that speed decomposition of organic matter
 excess nitrogen fertilization
 Allowing build up of excess sodium from salty irrigation water or sodium-
containing fertilizers.
II. Chemical properties: - is deal with the nature of colloids (organic and inorganic).
The most chemical characteristics of soils are:
 Its content of essential nutrients and their availability to plants

 The exchange capacity
 The buffer capacity (the ability of soil to resist change in PH of the soil solution if acid or
base is added).
 Acidity or alkalinity and
 Content of organic and in organic colloids (humus).
III. The biological properties
Living organisms in soil
Many organisms inhabit soil: bacteria, fungi, algae, invertebrates (insects,

nematodes, slugs, earthworms) and vertebrates (moles, mice, gophers).
These organisms play many physical and chemical roles that affect plants.
For example, their secretions help dissolve minerals, making them available to
plants; some organisms convert inorganic substances into other forms that
are more or less available to plants; organisms add OM to the soil; organisms
help decompose OM; many organisms aerate the soil. Some living organisms
in the soil cause diseases, some feed on plant tissue, and many compete with
plants for nutrients and water.
Rhizosphere: The very thin zone of soil just around roots is called
the rhizosphere. This zone is different from the rest of the soil, and it
sometimes supports specific and unique organisms. For example, some fungi
live together with roots, to their mutual benefit; these mycorrhizal
relationships provide the fungi with a place to live, and the fungi assist in the
plant’s water and nutrient uptake. Similarly, some nitrogen-fixing bacteria grow
together with some plants, including many legumes (members of the bean
family). The bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms that can be used
by their host plants. When the host plant dies, the nitrogen compounds
released during decomposition are available to the next crop. Any mutually
beneficial relationship between two dissimilar organisms is called a symbiosis
The benefits of a soil rich in organic matter and humus are many. They include :rapid
decomposition of crop residues, granulation of soil into water stable
aggregates ,decreased crusting and clodding, improved internal drainage, better
water infiltration, and increased water and nutrient holding capacity. Improvements
in the soil's physical structure facilitate easier tillage, increased soil water storage
capacity, reduced erosion, better formation and harvesting of root crops, and
deeper, more prolific plant root systems. Improvements in nutrient cycling also
reduce the fertilizer bill.
Soil organic matter can be compared to a bank account for plant nutrients. Soil
containing 4% organic matter in the top 7 inches has 80,000 pounds of organic
matter per acre. That 80,000 pounds of organic matter will contain about 5.25%
nitrogen, amounting to 4,200 pounds of nitrogen per acre. Assuming a 5% release
rate during the growing season, the organic matter could supply 210 pounds of
nitrogen to a crop. If the organic matter is allowed to degrade, purchased fertilizer
will be necessary to prop up crop yields due to lost organic-matter nitrogen.
Ultimately, building organic matter and humus levels in the soil is a matter of
managing the living organisms in the soil–something akin to wildlife management or
animal husbandry. This entails working to maintain favorable conditions of moisture,
temperature, nutrient status, pH, and aeration. It also involves providing a steady
food source.
Ultimately, building organic matter and humus in the soil is a matter of managing the
living organisms in the soil.
All the soil organisms mentioned previously, except algae, depend on organic matter
as their food source. Therefore, to maintain their populations, organic matter must
be renewed from plants growing on the soil, or from animal manure or other
materials imported from off site. By feeding the soil livestock, fertility is built up in
the soil and the soil will feed the plants.
1.8.2. Soil condition including texture, fertility, depth, alkalinity, salinity, soil reaction, chemical
content, drainage, and water logging which influence the growth and development of agricultural
crops must also be considered while selecting a suitable site for agricultural crops.
1.8.3. Nutritional Status of the soil
The nutritional requirements of the crop are dependent on factors such as soil fertility, weather,
planting age and crop load, all of which change over time. Therefore, the amount of nutrients the
grower needs to provide the crop may also change over time. As the soil is the ‘storehouse’ for
nutrients, the best approach to meeting the nutritional requirements is to establish your crop in
fertile, well drained soils with the appropriate soil pH. Once the crop is planted, routine
evaluation of plant nutrient status and soil composition are essential to developing sustainable
nutrient management practices.
Self-Check 1 Written Test
1. How do you tell what texture your soil is? (5 points)

2.Difine healthy soil. (5 points)

Unit
INFORMATION
define the requirement for plant production
LO2
So far you have completed the first step in the development of soil health and plant nutrition program.
That is, to fully understand the current environment. The next steps are to:
• Identify the optimum conditions/environment required for soil health and plant nutrition relative to
your enterprise
• Compare the current and optimum environments
• Identify any gaps
• Determine the most appropriate solution/s to resolve these gaps. This should always be
assessed from the triple bottom line.
2.1. Identifying different nutritional requirements of the plant during growing cycle and
a range of conditions
After you identified the desirable plant species that are important to your enterprise and the seasonal
growing cycle. It is now time to build on this knowledge and identify the different nutritional
requirements and range of conditions required by these plants during their growing cycles. The many
sources of information may include:
• Agronomists
• Publications (farm, horticulture, organic magazines)
• Local professionals such as wholesale nursery suppliers, rural produce suppliers, land care
groups, council weed control officers
• Industry networks and their representatives
• Neighbours (particularly experienced managers)
• Historical records
• Your own experience and enterprise guidelines
Now that you have researched the OPTIMUM conditions compare this to the current environment and
identify what gaps need to be resolved in order to achieve appropriate soil conditions and nutrient
availability for plant growth
Plant nutrients
In addition to carbon (C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H), coming from the air and water, plants
require a series of 13 essential plant nutrients, composed of primary, secondary and
micronutrients. The three primary nutrients are nitrogen (N), an important component of many
structural, genetic and metabolic compounds in plant cells, phosphorus (P), which is vital for
root and plant development and helps build resistance to drought, and potassium (K), which is
essential for facilitating photosynthesis and stress tolerance. The other 10 nutrients5 are as
important for plant growth but required in smaller quantities. It is the most limiting nutrient
that will limit crop yield.
Fertilizers contribute to food and nutrition security by providing nutrients for plants, preventing
soils from becoming depleted of nutrients, replenishing soils that have become nutrient
depleted, and maximizing agricultural productivity without increasing land surface use.
Any natural or manufactured material that contains at least 5% of one or more of the three
primary nutrients - N, P or K - can be considered a fertilizer. Plants take up plant nutrients from
the soil, those nutrients are removed from the soil with each harvest and must be replenished
to ensure that subsequent crops can thrive. A recent study by Amy Bogaard, an archaeo-
botanist at the University of Oxford, has shown that fertilizer use first started about 8000 years
ago when Europe’s first farmers began applying manure in order to enhance their crops.6 While
all 16 plant nutrients exist in nature, the quantities provided by organic sources (manure, crop
residues and biological N fixation) are in many cases not sufficient to meet the needs of our
growing, urbanized population. When manure, crop residues and biological N fixation are not
sufficient, mineral fertilizers supply the outstanding nutrient balance needed for good crop
yields. Mineral fertilizers have higher and more predictable nutrient level than organic sources,
contain nutrients that are more immediately available to plants, and are more suitable for trade
and commerce with respect to their higher nutrient content, which explains their rapid uptake
by farmers. It is estimated that without manufactured nitrogen fertilizers alone, we could only
feed half of today’s global population
The nutrients required by crops can be split into major elements and trace Elements
Major elements Trace elements
 Nitrogen - Boron
 Phosphate - copper
 Potassium - Iron
 Sulphur - manganese
 Magnesium - molybdenum
 Calcium - Zinc
 Sodium - cobalt
Trace elements: Trace elements are minerals that are required by crops in small amounts to
grow healthily.
Interpreting visual nutrient deficiency and toxicity symptoms in plants can be difficult and plant
analysis or soil testing is necessary to confirm nutrient stress. Precautions in identifying nutrient
stress symptoms include the following:
1. Many symptoms appear similar. For instance, nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) deficiency
symptoms can be very alike, depending upon placement, growth stage, and severity of
deficiencies.
2. Multiple deficiencies and/or toxicities can occur at the same time. More than one deficiency or
toxicity can produce symptoms, or possibly a deficiency of one nutrient can induce the
excessiveness of another (i.e., excessive P causing Zn deficiency).
3. Crop species, and even some cultivars of the same species, differ in their ability to adapt to
nutrient deficiencies and toxicities. For example, corn is typically more sensitive to a Zn
deficiency than barley (NM 7).
4. Pseudo (false) deficiency symptoms (visual symptoms appearing similar to nutrient deficiency
symptoms). Potential factors causing pseudo deficiency include, but are not limited to, disease,
drought, excess water, genetic abnormalities, herbicide and pesticide residues, insects, and soil
compaction.
5. Hidden hunger. Plants may be nutrient deficient without showing visual clues.
6. Field symptoms appear different than ‘ideal’ symptoms. Many of the plants shown in this
module as photographs were grown under controlled nutrient conditions, and deficiency/toxicity
symptoms observed in the field may or may not appear as they do here.Experience and
knowledge of field history are excellent aids in determining causes for nutrient stress. In addition
to the above precautions, visual observation is also limited by time. Between the time a plant is
nutrient deficient (hidden hunger) and visual symptoms appear, crop health and productivity may
be substantially reduced and corrective actions may or may not be effective. Therefore, regular
soil or plant testing is recommended for the prevention and early diagnosis of nutrient stress.
If visual symptoms are observed, record which crop(s) are affected, their location with respect to
topography, aspect, and soil conditions, a detailed description of symptoms, and time of season
that the symptoms first appeared.
Affected field locations can be marked and monitored over time using either flagging or GPS
readings. This information will be useful in preventing nutrient stress for subsequent years.
Diagnosing Nutrient Deficiencies
Common Deficiency Symptoms
A first step in diagnosing nutrient deficiencies is to describe what the symptoms look like. Each
deficiency symptom must be related to some function of the nutrient in the plant (Havlin et al.,
1999). Symptoms caused by nutrient deficiencies are generally grouped into five categories:
1) Stunted growth;
2) Chlorosis;
3) Interveinalchlorosis;
4) Purplish-red coloring; and
5) Necrosis.
Stunting is a common symptom for many deficient nutrients due to their varied roles in the plant.
For example, when nutrients involved in plant functions such as stem elongation, photosynthesis,
and protein production are deficient, plant growth is typically slow and plants are small in
stature.
Chlorosis and interveinal chlorosis are found in plants deficient of nutrients necessary for
photosynthesis and/or chlorophyll (green leaf pigment involved in photosynthesis) production.
Chlorosis can result in either the entire plant or leaf turning light green to yellow, or appear more
localized as white or yellow spotting.
Interveinal chlorosis is the yellowing of leaf tissue between veins, with the veins themselves
remaining green (Figure 2). Interveinalchlorosis occurs when some nutrients (B, Fe, magnesium
(Mg), Mn, nickel (Ni), and Zn) are deficient.
Purplish-red discolorations in plant stems and leaves are due to above normal levels of
anthocyanin (a purple coloredpigment) that can accumulate when plant functions are disrupted or
stressed. This symptom can be particularly difficult to diagnose because cool temperatures,
disease, drought, and even maturation of some plants can also cause anthocyanin to accumulate
(Bennett, 1994). Certain plant cultivars may also exhibit this purple coloring.
Necrosis generally happens in later stages of a deficiency and causes the parts of the plant first
affected by the deficiency to brown and die. Since a number of nutrient deficiencies can produce
similar symptoms, further evaluation of symptoms related to particular leaf patterns or locations
on the plant will be needed to diagnose nutrient specific deficiencies.
Basic Symptoms of Nutritional Deficiencies

􀁸The plant’s ability to complete its physiological process, grow and produce food depends on
the concentration of the most limiting element.
􀁸Each nutrient element has a very specific role and function in the metabolism or life of a
plant.
􀁸The most limiting element is the nutrient element present at the lowest percentage of its
optimum concentration. Even if only one nutrient element is not at optimum concentration, the
plant will be limited in its ability to grow.
􀁸 Nutrient deficiency symptoms are specific to the nutrient that is not at the optimum level, but
can be blurred by a combination of deficiency symptoms or symptoms of other factors.
􀁸The fertilization program should provide for keeping nutrient elements at optimum levels. Mild
deficiencies can be tolerated during certain times of the year.
􀁸 The cause of the deficiency has to be identified in order to deal with it effectively.
2.1.1. Uptake of Plant Nutrients
1.Roots
Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, where root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+)
into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged
soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root.
Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between
different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. An element present at
a low level may cause deficiency symptoms, while the same element at a higher level may cause toxicity.
Further, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from another element. An
abundance of one nutrient may cause a deficiency of another nutrient. Also a lowered availability of a
given nutrient, such as SO2−4 can affect the uptake of another nutrient, such as NO3–. Also, K+ uptake
can be influenced by the amount NH4+ available.
The root, especially the root hair, is the most essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and
architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are transported to the center of
the root, the stele in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem.[4] The
Casparian strip, a cell wall outside of the stele but within the root, prevents passive flow of water and
nutrients to help regulate the uptake of nutrients and water. Xylem moves water and inorganic molecules
within the plant and phloem counts organic molecule transportation. Water potential plays a key role in a
plants nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative within the plant than the surrounding soils,
the nutrients will move from the higher solute (soil) concentration to lower solute concentration (plant).
Figure 1cross section of lower portion of root
There are 3 fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root: 1.) simple diffusion, occurs when
a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, CO2, and NH3 that follow a concentration gradient, can passively move
through the lipid bilayer membrane without the use of transport proteins. 2.) facilitated diffusion, is the
rapid movement of solutes or ions following a concentration gradient, facilitated by transport proteins. 3.)
Active transport is the active transport of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient that requires
an energy source, usually ATP, to pump the ions or molecules through the membrane.
 Nutrients are moved inside a plant to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will try to
supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than its older ones. So when nutrients are mobile, the lack
of nutrients is first visible on older leaves. However, not all nutrients are equally mobile. When a less
mobile nutrient is lacking, the younger leaves suffer because the nutrient does not move up to them
but stays lower in the older leaves. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile nutrients, while
the others have varying degrees of mobility. This phenomenon is helpful in determining what
nutrients a plant may be lacking.
A symbiotic relationship may exist with 1.) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, like rhizobia which are involved
with nitrogen fixation, and 2.) mycorrhiza, which help to create a larger root surface area. Both of these
mutualistic relationships enhance nutrient uptake.[4]
Though nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants engage in nitrogen fixation
(conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). Most plants therefore require nitrogen
compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. These can either be supplied by decaying matter,
nitrogen fixing bacteria, animal waste, or through the agricultural application of purpose made fertilizers.
2) Nutrient Mobility Within the Plant
All nutrients move relatively easily from the root to the growing portion of the plant through the xylem.
Interestingly, some nutrients can also move from older leaves to newer leaves if there is a Deficiency of
that nutrient. Knowing which nutrients are ‘mobile’ (i.e., able to move) is very useful in diagnosing plant
nutrient deficiencies because if only the lower leaves are affected, then a mobile nutrient is most likely
causing the deficiency. Conversely, if only the upper leaves show The deficiency, then the plant is likely
deficient in an immobile nutrient, because that nutrient cannot move from older to newer leaves.. Sulfur is
one element that lies between mobile and immobile elements depending on the degree of deficiency.
Mobile nutrients Immobile

nutrients
Nitogen (N) Sulfur(S)
Phosphorus(P) Calcium(Ca)
Potassium(K) Iron (Fe)
Chloride(Cl) Zinc(Zn)
Magnesium(Mg) Manganese(
Mn)
Molybodenum(Mo) Boron(B)
Copper(Cu)
Nickel(Ni)
Ranges of conditions that affect crop nutrition are:

 Crop load
 Crop quality requirement
 Cropping and fertilizing history
 Grazing intensity
 Growth media characteristic
 Irrigation method and scheduling
 Soil management practice
 Seasonal influences
 weather
2.2 Developing program to achieve appropriate soil conditions and nutrient availability for
plant production
Plant nutrients, which come primarily from chemical fertilizers, manure, and in some cases
sewage sludge, are essential for crop production when applied in proper quantities and at
appropriate times, nutrients (especially nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) help achieve
optimum crop yields. However, improper application of nutrients can cause water quality
problems both locally and downstream.
Basic Recommendations for improving Nutritional Status – Tree crops
Soil nutrient deficiencies decrease soil quality and increase the risks of plant stress, poor yields, and
susceptibility of crop plants to both pests and pathogens. Equally so, the overuse of synthetic or organic matter-
based fertilizers may increase disease and pests incidences, reduce crop quality, and lead to environmental
pollution and human health risks due to dietary exposure to nitrate. Without the replacement of soil organic
matter, synthetic fertilizers pose the additional risks of soil degradation and eventual yield decreases. Soil analysis
is therefore the foundation of a rational and efficient use of soil amendments and fertilizers that may help develop
productive agricultural soil and at the same time avoid the problems associated with the overuse of fertilizers
Nutrient management is the practice of using nutrients wisely for optimum economic benefit,
while minimizing impact on the environment.
2.3 Determining Soil amendments, management practices and fertilizer requirements
Once soil health and plant nutrition gaps are identified, it is time to work out how best to resolve these
gaps.
This can be complex and needs to take into account a number of factors, including:
• Alignment with organizational principles, values and cultural practices
• Cost benefit
• Environmental impact
• Compliance with regulatory bodies (e.g. quality assurance, environmental management system,
industry best practice)
• WH&S
• Legislative and regulatory requirements
• What you hope to achieve and in what timeframe
• Suppliers, products and availability
• How the product will be applied and at what time of year
• What machinery, contractors, labor is required
• Seasonal/climatic conditions.
To add to this complexity is the different advice that may be provided by various advisors to address the
issues at hand.
Soil chemical imbalances can be addressed through application of chemical amendments such as lime
and fertilizer. Although there are only four main strategies for improving soil biological and physical
health (cover crops, organic amendments ,tillage and crop rotation), the options within each strategy
are numerous and the combinations are endless. Not all soil management practices are practical or
adaptable to all farm situations therefore trying out practices on a smaller scale and modifying them to
suit the particular farm operation is recommended.
The followings are descriptions of some of the management options.
1. Cover Crops
Cover crops provide a canopy for seasonal soil protection and improvement between the productions of
the main crops. Cover crops usually are grown for less than one year. When plowed under and
incorporated into the soil for improved fertility, cover crops are also referred to as green manure. Cover
crops have the potential for recycling nutrients which otherwise would be lost through leaching during
off-season periods. Cover crops with shallow fibrous root systems, such as many grasses, rapidly build
soil aggregation in the surface layer. Cover crops with deep roots can help break-up compacted layers,
and bring nutrients from deeper soil layers to make them available for the following cash crop.
Leguminous cover crops can also fix atmospheric nitrogen for the benefit of the crop that follows. Other
benefits from cover crops include protection of the soil from water and wind erosion, improved soil tilth
and suppressing soil-borne pathogens. Dead cover crop material may be left on the soil surface, and are
then referred to as mulch, which can reduce evaporation of soil moisture, increase infiltration of rainfall,
increase soil organic matter and aid in the control of annual weeds.
When selecting cover crops it is important to consider:

• What are your goals for using a cover crop(s)? Is it to increase organic matter, break-up
surface or subsurface compaction, weed and disease suppression, nutrient management, or
prevent erosion?
• Where can cover crops fit into the rotation? Summer, winter, or season-long?
• When and how should the cover crop be killed or incorporated? Winter-kill vs. chemical
applications vs. rolled and chopped?
• What cover crops are suitable for the climate?
• What cover crops fit with the current production practices including any equipment
constraints?
• Susceptibility or host status of the cover crop to major pathogen(s) of concern

2. Organic Amendments
organic matter is critical for maintaining soil structure, and increasing water infiltration as well as water
holding capacity. It can also increase cation exchange capacity (CEC), nutrient retention, and microbial
diversity and activities. Organic matter can be added through incorporation of cover crops as green
manures as well as additions of composts, animal manures, and crop residues. The addition of organic
amendments is particularly important in vegetable production where minimal crop residue is returned to
the soil and more intensive tillage is required that promotes the rapid depletion of soil organic matter. The
impact of various organic amendments on soil physical, chemical and biological properties can be
different and thus is important to consider when making soil management decisions.
Managing OM levels: In natural areas, plants and animals die, decompose

and replenish OM in the soil. Each year, plant leaves deciduate and rot
(compost) in place, and their nutrients and OM are added to the soil through
rainfall and the freeze/thaw cycle that creates cracks in the soil. On the other
hand, in developed landscapes where this natural cycle is interrupted,
gardeners must implement processes to replenish soil OM. Leaves from
deciduous trees can be left in place to decompose; plant debris can be
composted and incorporated back into gardens as OM; and plant residue,
green manures and animal manures can be incorporated directly into the soil.
Some tillage is generally required to incorporate this material into the soil.
Adding huge amounts of OM at one time can cause nutrient problems,
especially if the material is not fully composted. Adding small amounts of OM
periodically can contribute to longterm soil fertility, support soil microflora,
contribute to good soil structure, and support the soil’s ability to hold both
water and air.
i).Animal manure:
The application of manure can have many soil and crop health benefits such as increasing nutrient levels
(nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in particular) that benefit not only the crop but also the soil
microbial community.
However not all manures are created equal and will vary depending on the animal, feed, bedding, and
manure-storage practices employed. Manure containing a lot of bedding is typically applied as a solid
while manure with minimal bedding is applied as a liquid.
ii).Compost:
Unlike manure, compost is very stable and not a readily available source of nutrients. The composting
process uses heat and microbial activity to quickly decompose simple compounds like sugars and
proteins, leaving behind more stable complex compounds such as lignins and humic acids.
The stable products of composting are an important source of organic matter. The addition of compost
increases available water capacity by improving water retention and pore space on which water and
nutrients can bind. Compost is less effective at building soil aggregation than fresh manure, because the
readily-degradable organic compounds have already been decomposed. Composts differ in their
efficiency to suppress various crop pests, although they can sometimes be quite effective.
iii).Green manure crops:
Green manure crops are those grown for the purpose of improving the soil fertility with microbial
diversity and organic matter content in general as opposed to cover crops which are grown more for the
purpose of erosion protection and cycling of nutrients. When incorporated, green manures add a lot of
fresh, readily degradable material to the soil, which fuels the soil’s microbial community. The increased
production of microbial exudates helps hold the individual soil particles together as aggregates. A soil
with better aggregation (aggregate stability) is more resilient in heavy rain storms and is capable of
greater water infiltration.
In reduced tillage systems, one way to get the added benefits of green manure crops is to only incorporate
them in the planting row and use the killed crop between the rows as a mulch.
iv).Crop residue:
Crop residue is another important source of organic matter. As it decomposes, the organic matter is going
back into the soil and improving soil tilth. Crop residue left on the surface will protect against erosion and
improve surface aggregation, thereby reducing crusting and surface compaction. However, diseased crop
debris can harbor inoculum that can become a problem during the next season if a susceptible crop is
planted. Crop rotation with non-host crops belonging to different plant families will reduce pathogen
inoculum. Removal and composting of crop debris may be an option in some situations. Incorporation or
plowing down of crop debris to encourage the decomposition process may be an option depending on the
tillage system and crop rotation sequence being employed.
3).Tillage
Mechanical manipulation of soil loosens the soil, and promotes aeration,

porosity and water-holding capacity. It allows a gardener to incorporate soil
amendments such as OM and lime. On the other hand, tilling tends to
decrease aggregation, causing compaction (compacted soils are dominated
by few, small pores). It can take years to overcome the damage caused by
overtilling.
As new technologies have been developed, the reliance on tillage to kill weeds, incorporate crop debris,
and prepare seedbeds has been diminished. Extensive tillage reduces soil aggregation, resulting in
crusting and soil compaction as well as often stimulating the microbial community that burns off organic
matter quickly. There is consensus that reducing tillage intensity will improve soil health and over time
reduce production costs.
4).Crop Rotation
Initially, crop rotation was practiced as a way to avoid depleting the soil of various nutrients. Today, crop
rotation is also an important component of soil and pest management in many agricultural production
systems. Crop rotations can be as simple as rotating between two crops and planting sequences in
alternate years or they can be more complex and involve numerous crops over several years. Proper crop
rotation can reduce insects and disease-causing pathogens as well as weed pressure by breaking their
lifecycles through removal of a suitable host. Crop rotation can also aid in nutrient management through
incorporation of crop residues and improve soil resiliency after a root crop such a carrot or potato. Many
growers find yield increases when crops in different families are grown in rotation versus in monoculture
and this is often referred to as the “rotation effect”.
Amelioration of unproductive soils

i) Amending acidic soils
 Increasing/raising the soil pH using liming materials such as:-

- Carbonates, oxides or hydroxides of Ca and Mg Compounds
- Limestone (CaCO3) is the most commonly used liming material
Amelioration of acid soils:

Liming of acid soils has been advocated by soil scientists. However the lime requirement based on
laboratory tests is usually too high for most of the farmers to afford. Besides, high transport cost of large
quantity of lime and inadequate storage facilities at consumption sites have discouraged large scale use of
the ameliorant. Now, it has been established that band placement/incorporation of lime requirement along
with recommended level of fertilizers every year is economical, practicable and effective.
2) Amending alkaline soils

 Decreasing/lowering the soil pH using:-
CaSO4.2H2O, sulphur, pyrite (FeS2)
Gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) is most commonly used
Amelioration of alkalin soils:
Amelioration of alkali soils involves replacement of exchangeable sodium from soil exchange complex
and leaching out of soluble salts from root zone. This is accomplished through application of chemical
ameliorants (which furnish calcium for replacement of sodium from the exchange complex of the soil)
followed by leaching. Soil of affected area should be tested for gypsum requirement (GR).
3) Amelioration of Saline/sodic soils

The chief characteristic of sodic soils from the agricultural stand point is that they contain sufficient
exchangeable sodium to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. For the purpose of definition,
sodic soils are those which have an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of more than 15. Excess
exchangeable sodium has an adverse effect on the physical and nutritional properties of the soil, with
consequent reduction in crop growth, significantly or entirely.
Basically, reclamation or improvement of sodic soils requires the removal of part or most of the
exchangeable sodium and its replacement by the more favourable calcium ions in the root zone. This can
be accomplished in many ways, the best dictated by local conditions, available resources and the kind of
crops to be grown on the reclaimed soils. If the cultivator can spend very little for reclamation and the
amendments are expensive or not available, and he is willing to wait many years before he can get good
crop yields, soil can still be reclaimed but at a slow rate by long-continued irrigated cropping, ideally
including a rice crop and sodic tolerant crops in the cropping sequence, along with the incorporation of
organic residues and/or farmyard manure. For reasonably quick results cropping must be preceded by the
application of chemical soil amendments followed by leaching for removal of salts derived from the
reaction of the amendment with the sodic soil.
Chemical amendments for sodic soil reclamation can be broadly grouped into three categories:
a. Soluble calcium salts, e.g. gypsum, calcium chloride.
b. Acids or acid forming substances, e.g. sulphuric acid, iron sulphate, aluminum
sulphate, lime-sulfur, sulfur, pyrite, etc.
c. Calcium salts of low solubility, e.g. ground limestone.
2.4 Identifying Resources, tools, equipment and machinery required for program
Resources, tools, equipment and machinery may include:-
 aerial photographs, charts and tables of soil
 characteristics and plant soil parameters
 application equipment and machinery such as:
 air blowers
 backpack spray equipment
 irrigation systems set up
 pumps and pump fittings
 rippers and spray equipment
 Seeders
 tractors and trailed or three-point linkage spreaders
 backhoe
 charts and illustrations of symptoms of plant nutrient deficiencies and toxicities
 hand-held salinity or electrical conductivity meter
 hand or powered auger
 nutrient application methods, including placement methods such as:
 banding
 broadcasting
 Ripping
 spraying on or below soil surface
 pH test kit or electronic pH testing device
 plastic overlays
 sample bags
 Tape measure.
2.5 Determining cost-effective soil management
3 Use of mineral fertilizers
Mineral fertilizers are required to supplement the nutrients recycled or added in the form of crop residues and animal
manures. Fertilizers are concentrated sources of essential nutrients in a form that is readily available for plant
uptake. They are often less costly than animal manures in terms of the cost of the nutrients that they contain (i.e.,
$/kg nutrient) but often viewed as more costly by farmers because they require a cash outlay.
Organic inputs (crop residues and animal manures) are also an important source of nutrients, but their N, P, Mg and
Ca content is only released following decomposition. By contrast, K is released rapidly from animal manures and
crop residues because it is contained in the cell sap. Further, the amount of nutrients contained in organic resources
is usually insufficient to sustain required levels of crop productivity and realize the full economic potential of a
farmer’s land and labour resources.
In addition to supplying nutrients, organic inputs also contribute to crop growth in other ways by:
•• Increasing the crop response to mineral fertilizer;
•• Improving the soil’s capacity to store moisture;
•• Regulating soil chemical and physical properties that affect nutrient storage and availability as well as root
growth;
•• Adding nutrients not contained in mineral fertilizers;
•• Creating a better rooting environment;
•• Improving the availability of phosphorus for plant uptake;
•• Ameliorating problems such as soil acidity; and
•• Replenishing soil organic matter.
Fertilizer responses
Fertilizer responses can be classified as follows:
•• Poor responses on fertile soils with large nutrient reserves (often the fields lying close by the farmer’s house
where fertilizers, animal manures and crop residues have been applied regularly in the past);
•• Large responses to fertilizer on nutrient-deficient but responsive soils (often the fields more distant from the
farmer’s house where fertilizers, manures and crop residues are not applied); and
•• Very poor responses to fertilizer application on degraded soils where fertilizers must be applied in combination
with large amounts of organic inputs (crop residues, animal manures) in order to obtain satisfactory responses
to mineral fertilizer.
Approaches to address these include:
•• Application of small amounts of fertilizer and/or manure on fertile soils can sustain soil fertility.
•• Resource poor farmers can invest limited cash most effectively by prioritizing fertilizer use in their most
responsive fields and using moderate amounts that achieve a large return in yield per kilogram of fertilizer
applied (i.e., high AE).
•• Application of organic resources may be required to rehabilitate nonresponsive soils before a response to
mineral fertilizer is obtained.
•• In some nonresponsive soils the application of organic resources may not result in a response to mineral
fertilizers and other techniques may be required (e.g., tillage, application of micronutrients
3.2 identifying OHS hazards associated with program

OHS hazards associated with soil amendment include:
 Air
 chemicals and hazardous substances
 disturbance or interruption of services
 dust
 incorrect manual handling
 machinery and machinery parts
 moving vehicles
 noise
 sharp hand tools and equipment
 slippery and uneven surfaces
 soil and water-borne micro-organisms
 Solar radiation.
Minimizing the risk of OHS hazards should include:
 appropriate use of personal protective equipment, including sun protection

 appropriate use of safety equipment, including signage and protective barriers
 assessing and reporting risks
 basic first aid available on site
 cleaning, maintaining and storing tools, equipment and machinery
 correct manual handling
 identifying hazards
 maintaining personal hygiene
 reporting problems to supervisors
 safe handling, use and storage of chemicals and hazardous substances
 Safe operation of tools, equipment and machinery.
3.3 Identifying and document environmental implications of program
While humanity cannot do without fertilizers, incorrect fertilizer use can have negative impacts on
water, air, soils and climate, as nitrogen and phosphate that is not taken up by the plants can be lost to
the environment. Since agricultural systems, and related nitrogen and phosphorus cycles are complex
and leaky, zero nutrient loss is not an achievable goal, but nutrient use efficiency 9 can be
significantly increased by more precise fertilization.
As an example, we know that in well managed research plots, some 40-65% of the N fertilizer
applied is utilized in the year of application (since some of the remaining N stays in the soil and is
available to crops during the next planting season, not all of it is lost to the environment), whereas in
improperly managed farm plots, up to 70-80% of the applied N can be lost in rain fed conditions, and
some 60-70% in irrigated fields.
As far as P use efficiency is concerned, losses to the environment occur mostly through soil and
particulate matter erosion. Therefore, the main problem is limited to areas with sloping land, and
with excess concentrated livestock farming, which result in high P application rates through animal
manure. The efficiency of fertilizer P use in the year of application is low but, when evaluated over
an adequate time scale (at least a decade) using the balance method, it is often high, up to 90% (Syers
et al., 200810).N and P losses can run off into rivers and watersheds or leach into groundwater,
triggering eutrophication, thus negatively impacting water quality and biodiversity of aquatic
systems. Gaseous N losses can produce (i) nitrous oxide (N2O), a compound with a strong
greenhouse gas potential and that participates in stratospheric ozone depletion when converted to
nitric oxide (NO) and (ii) ammonia (NH3) that can contribute to particulate matter formation. Use of
acidifying fertilizer products and anthropogenic emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and ammonia may also result in acidification of agricultural soils and natural ecosystems.
It is important to point out that mineral fertilizers are not the sole contributor of nutrient losses to the
environment, with manure, wastewater and energy combustion also responsible for significant losses,
but the fertilizer industry acknowledges and is actively working to promote enhanced nutrient use
efficiency.
Furthermore, while it may seem counterintuitive, it bears emphasis that higher nutrient use
efficiency across the board is not always a laudable goal. Sub-Saharan Africa serves as a good
example in this regard. Minimal or altogether lacking access to fertilizers has led to severe nutrient
mining and subsequent nutrient depletion, which in turn can speed up soil degradation and
desertification, in unacceptably large parts of the Continent
Environmental implications include:
 beneficial impacts, including minimization of nutrient run-off and toxic side effects in
soil and surrounding environment achieved by:
 improved application techniques and rates
 improved assessment and targeting of nutrient requirements
 reduction of toxic side effects of applied nutrients in crop plants negative impacts,
including over-spraying or run-off into
 external environment resulting in nutrient overload or excess water affecting things such
as:
 loading atmosphere with greenhouse gas
 mining native soil fertility, native plants
 natural waterways
 salinization
 water erosion
 water logging
 water tables and ecosystems
 methods which may aid in reversal of environmental degradation include:
 Allowing natural recovery and regeneration of native ecosystems responsible
fertilization and watering practices.
Impacts of soil erosion
Soil erosion has both on-farm impacts (reduction in yield and farm income) and off-farm impacts
(contaminated water due to the sediment and associated contamination from nutrients and
pesticides carried on the soil particle).
On-farm impacts due to the loss of soil and nutrients include:
 lower fertility levels

 development of rills and gullies in the field
 poorer crop yields
 less water infiltration into the soil
 more soil crusting
 more runoff in the spring and after storms
When fertile topsoil is lost, nutrients and organic matter needed by crops often are removed
along with it. Erosion tends to remove the less dense soil constituents such as organic matter,
clays, and silts, which are often the most fertile part of the soil.
Self-Check 2 Written Test
Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page
1. List all essential elements used for plant growth?

 macro nutrient
 micro nutrient
2. What is soil amendment mean? What soil amending material can be used?
3. What are the characteristics of good quality soil?
4. List five tools required in soil health program.
Unit
INFORMATION
Module Implementing a soil health and plant nutrition
SHEET # 3
document the soil health and plant nutrition program
LO3 and specification
3.1 Establishing detailed plan, objectives, specifications and associated costs
Detailed plan, objectives, specifications and associated costs are established based on program
requirements and are presented to land manager.
To document the soil health and plant nutrition program and specifications it is important to
establish the detail plan on soil health and plant nutrition program and this plan must have
objective which indicates or answers the question why the plan is under taken and this
objectives also have specifications which is describes the aim of your objectives and associated
cost to undertake soil health development and plant nutrition program in terms of man power,
equipment required, machinery required etc.
3.2 Developing detailed on-site procedures and schedules required for a program
Detailed on-site procedures and schedules required for program are developed and documented.
In this the description of on-site procedures which explain in detailed and the schedule required
for program are developed and clearly documented.
Now that you have completed the planning for your soil health and plant nutrition program, it is
time to organize the data into a suitable report to aid decision making.
Throughout this process it is important to keep in mind what the data will be used for, who will
use it and what their needs are. In this way, you will deliver a report that is practical, meaningful
and ‘fit for purpose’.
Collate all of your detailed planning information together to produce a final and cohesive soil
health and plant nutrition report which should include the following:
1. Title Page
2. Table of Contents
3. Executive summary (one page summary of key messages and recommended next steps)
4. Introduction
a. Brief description of enterprise, species and products
b. Goals and objectives of the soil health and plant nutrition program
c. Circumstances/issues/risks that are motivating you to develop a soil health and plant nutrition
program
5. Overview of Current Environment
a. Site Locality
b. History
c. Map
d. Land Capability / Land Class/ Land Resource Suitability
e. Water Supply
f. Protected Areas
g. Soils
h. Soil Contamination
i. Biodiversity
j. Plants
k. Pests
6. Future Environment and Gaps to be Addressed
a. Optimum Soil Health/ Plant Nutritional Requirements and Growing Conditions
b. Outcome of Soil, Plant, Water Testing Program
c. Risks/Issues/Gaps to be Addressed
7. Soil Health and Plant Nutrition Program
a. Soil Amendments, Management Practices and Fertiliser Strategies and Specifications
b. Resources Required, Costs and Suppliers
c. Cost/Benefit Statement
d. Schedule of Activities
e. WH&S Requirements
f. Environmental Impact Management
g. Legislative/Regulatory Requirements
8. Record Keeping and Monitoring Plan
9. Recommendations and Next Steps
10. Appendices
11. References

INFORMATION Unit
LO4 Monitor production and evaluating the program
4.1. Monitoring program implementation and results
Program implementation and the results of the program should be monitored regularly for
identifying the problems and give mitigation measures for the problems and also to select best
practices or results that can helps to achieve the enterprises target.
Establishing a monitoring program

• Start by selecting at least 3-5 areas that will be regularly monitored.
These should represent a range of planting conditions on the property such as:
–– Areas at different points in a standard crop rotation (same soil type)
–– Areas on different soil types under the same rotation
–– Areas with typically good vs. typically poor crop performance
–– Areas which represent different soil management practices (e.g. minimum vs. conventional tillage,
grazing, permanent crops).
Avoid fence lines, gateways, tramlines, water troughs, shelterbelts and areas of double cultivation. Also
avoid obvious dung and urine patches, stock camps and small areas of unusual crop growth (high or
low).
• Determine the properties of the soil to be monitored in each area.
• Measure soil property indicators once each year, at about the same time each year and under
approximately the same environmental conditions.
• Follow a consistent pattern of sample collection and measurement on each area.
• Record results.
• Identify areas with indicator values that fall outside the optimum range and determine a suitable
course of action.
• For each indicator, note consistent patterns of change in the short term (2–3 years) and trends over
the longer term (>3 years).
Soil monitoring can be carried out after harvest each year as this is when the soil is at its most
depleted. Do not monitor directly after the application of soil amendments or fertilizer application
Once test results are available, they need to be interpreted. Laboratory test results can be complex
to decipher and many labs may offer additional services where consultants/experts/agronomists
will provide a report to assist in understanding the results
4.2. Review and refining program
Program review is a process where program or service-area data is collected and analyzed,
providing the opportunity to:
 Examine current programming, services, directions, organizational efficiency, and

resource capabilities;
 Validate strengths and identify opportunities for improvement;
 Communicate about institutional effectiveness; and
 Achieve high-level performance results.
4.3 Identifying Non-compliance with documented objectives and specifications

While reviewing and refining the program, it is important to identify non-compliance with
documented objectives and specification and take remedial action to alleviate or overcome
identified short coming of the program.
Non-compliance with documented objectives and specifications is identified and remedial actions are
implemented to alleviate or overcome identified shortcomings in the program.
• Remedial action to improve plant nutrition is taken and documented.
• Agreed changes are incorporated into a detailed plan.
Of course monitoring outcomes may not always lead to positive feedback. Often deficiencies or gaps in
the system are identified. Whilst many producers may feel uncomfortable providing ‘negative’ feedback,
the fact is that ‘doing nothing’ is the worst possible outcome. Deficiencies and gaps should be seen in a
positive light as actions can be taken to resolve the issues or prevent further investment in the wrong
solution.
One of the advantages of frequent monitoring and good record keeping is that you can respond quickly
to issues that arise and prevent/minimize further losses. If things do get out of control and objectives
are unlikely to be achieved, then you and your staff need to know exactly what to do to get back on
track. This is referred to as a remedial action. These actions should get the situation back
on track so that objectives can be met.

Remedial action is focused on:
• Identifying the non-compliance and its cause
• Adjusting the program to maintain control
• Recording the remedial action taken.
Once any change is made to a program, the following steps will need to be revisited:
• The soil health and plant nutrition plan will need to be amended
• Cost benefits will need to be determined
• Decision to proceed
• Modifications implemented and managed to completion
• Monitoring and record keeping systems updated
4.4 Documenting and reporting remedial action
Collect all the data’s that helps us to improve plant nutrition, then document the data’s that we
collect and report to the responsible organization or body. Remedial action undertaken to
improve plant nutrition include:-
 Adjusting to soil amendment

 Changing to fertilizer application and soil amendment
 Nutrient application rates and methods
 Use of foliar spray if other methods (like-broadcast, drill and placement are not
effective)
4.5 Incorporating agreed changes into a detailed plan
Once the soil health and plant nutrition program is developed, then it is important to see its profit
concerning to production. If the program is sounded to be good and solve the problem ,then it
is appreciated and document is kept for future analysis and use ,but if not it will be
incorporated to change the plan in detail.

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The Government of the National State of Tigray

Bureau of Technical and Vocational Education & Training

Implement a soil health and plant nutrition

Implementing a soil health and plant nutrition

TTLM Code: AGR NCD3M11TTLM 0117V2

 Determine relevant site characteristics

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Read the information written under “Information Sheet 1”.

3. Accomplish the “Self-check” under “Information Sheet 1”.

6.Read the information written in the next “Information Sheet”.

7. Accomplish the “Self-check”.

Implement a soil health and plant nutrition

1.1 Define Goals and target site

 Specific – Goals should focus on a specific problem or need.

•contacting neighboring properties,

•From local weather stations etc.

Environment and site conditions

In an agricultural context, soil testing is commonly used:

•To confirm nutrient status and warn of deficiencies

Platy - thin horizontal sheets overlapping each other

Prismatic - long vertical columns without rounded tops

Block-like - irregular shaped cubes

Refers to the movement of air and water within the soil.

Reaction: is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a soil. Acidity or alkalinity is determined by the

1.3 Developing soil, plant & water testing program

• Signs and symptoms of pests and disease

• Growth media used

• Availability of services and service providers

• What you are trying to achieve.

In an agricultural context, soil testing is commonly used:

• To confirm nutrient status and warn of deficiencies

Leaf Tissue Testing is valuable for:

• Trouble shooting for diagnosing and correcting existing nutrient problems

• Monitoring crop nutrient status for optimalcrop production

Ensuring balanced plant nutrient levels for top produce quality

• Understanding interactions between the soil and plant nutrient uptake.

• Formulating foliar spray programs to address nutrient deficiencies and imbalances.

Quality of irrigation water

The quality of irrigation water is determined by the following chemical characteristics:

1. Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity

 drains well and warms up quickly in the spring

Maintaining and improving soil quality

1. Physical degradation such as wind and water erosion and compaction;

1.5 Compiling and representing data and readings

• Does data fall within an acceptable range?

• How do the results compare to known guidelines or targets?

1.7 Determining seasonal variations and requirements

Properties and Composition of Soil

Some factors which destroy or degrade soil aggregates are:

The most chemical characteristics of soils are:

 Its content of essential nutrients and their availability to plants

III. The biological properties

Living organisms in soil

Many organisms inhabit soil: bacteria, fungi, algae, invertebrates (insects,

Self-Check 1 Written Test

1. How do you tell what texture your soil is? (5 points)

Implement a soil health and plant nutrition

• Compare the current and optimum environments

• Identify any gaps

assessed from the triple bottom line.

• Publications (farm, horticulture, organic magazines)

groups, council weed control officers

• Industry networks and their representatives