3

MỤC LỤC
Trang
LỜI NÓI ĐẦU 5
Unit 1. TRANSLATION AND TRANSLATION THEORY 6
1.1. Definition of translation and translation theory 6
1.2. Translation history 9
1.3. The dynamics of translation 9
1.4. Translation and culture 11
1.5. Pre-translation considerations 22
1.6. Questions for discussion 39
Unit 2. TRANSLATION PROCESS AND METHOD 40
2.1. Translation process 40
2.2. The approach to translation 41
2.3. The unit of translation 42
2.4. Translation methods 42
2.5. Questions for discussion 46
Unit 3. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE AND TRANSLATION 47
LOSS
3.1. Translation equivalence 47
3.2. The equivalent effect 57
3.3. Translation loss 59
3.4. Questions for discussion 60
Unit 4. GRAMMATICAL SKEWING AND TRANSLATION 61
SHIFTS
4.1. Grammatical skewing 61
4.2. Translation shifts 68
4.3. Questions for discussion 69
Unit 5. STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS 70
5.1. About language 70
5.2. Strategies for translators 71
5.3. Questions for discussion 81
Unit 6. TRANSLATION EVALUATION 82
6.1. Why evaluate the translation? 82
 4

6.2. Who evaluates the translation? 83

6.3. Translation criteria 83
6.4. Ways of evaluating translation 86
6.5. Questions for discussion 90

91
Unit 7. INTERPRETATION AND INTERPRETING IN
SPECIALIZED AREAS
7.1. What is interpreting? 91
7.2. Modes of interpreting 91
7.3. Interpreting process 95
7.4. Attributes for interpreting 95
7.5. Interpreting in specialized areas 102
7.6. Codes of ethics for liaison interpreters 113
7.7. Questions for discussion 114
TÀI LIỆU THAM KHẢO 116
 5

LỜI NÓI ĐẦU

Lý thuyết dịch là một môn học trong chương trình đào tạo đại học ngoại
ngữ chuyên ngành ngôn ngữ Anh tại Học viện Khoa học Quân sự. Đây là một
môn học khó yêu cầu người học phải nắm được một lượng kiến thức lớn về lý
thuyết. Nhằm đáp ứng yêu cầu giảng dạy, năm 2002, Khoa tiếng Anh đã biên
soạn cuốn Giáo trình Lý thuyết dịch để phục vụ cho việc giảng dạy môn học này.
Tuy nhiên, do thời gian biên soạn đã khá lâu nên nhiều nội dung đã không còn
phù hợp với kiến thức hiện nay. Bên cạnh đó, cuốn giáo trình biên soạn năm 2002
chưa đề cập đến quá trình dịch các chuyên ngành, đặc biệt là dịch tiếng Anh quân
sự. Được sự chấp nhận của Thủ trưởng Học viện, chúng tôi đã lựa chọn và biên
soạn một cuốn giáo trình Lý thuyết dịch mới với mục đích cung cấp một cái nhìn
hệ thống hơn và bám sát với điều kiện thực tế hơn phục vụ cho việc giảng dạy
môn Lý thuyết dịch tại Khoa Tiếng Anh, Học viện Khoa học Quân sự.
Giáo trình Lý thuyết dịch gồm 7 bài, giới thiệu về các vấn đề cơ bản nhất
trong lý thuyết dịch. Bài 1 giới thiệu các vấn đề chung của dịch thuật và lý thuyết
dịch. Bài 2 giới thiệu về quá trình dịch (translation process) và các phương pháp
dịch (translation methods) phổ biến. Bài 3 giới thiệu về tương đương
(equivalence) và mất nghĩa (loss) trong khi dịch. Bài 4 giới thiệu về các vấn đề
bất tương xứng trên phương diện ngữ pháp (grammatical skewing) và chuyển dịch
(translation shift). Bài 5 đề xuất một số chiến lược dịch (translation strategies) cho
người dịch. Bài 6 giới thiệu những nội dung về đánh giá bản dịch. Bài 7 giới thiệu
về hoạt động phiên dịch và phiên dịch trong các lĩnh vực chuyên ngành.
Giáo trình này được sử dụng cho các đối tượng đào tạo đại học ngoại ngữ
cấp Phân đội, đại học ngoại ngữ Dân sự và văn bằng 2. Mỗi bài sẽ được dạy trong
4 tiết. Tuy nhiên, ở một số bài, tuỳ theo yêu cầu của từng đối tượng đào tạo và
thời gian dành cho môn học, giáo viên cần lựa chọn những phần trọng tâm ở từng
bài để giảng dạy. Đối với những phần còn lại, người học tự nghiên cứu ở nhà để
nắm vững những vấn đề liên quan. Do lý thuyết dịch là một môn khó, bao hàm
nhiều quan điểm khác nhau nên chúng tôi rất mong nhận được ý kiến đóng góp
của các đồng nghiệp và các chuyên gia để giáo trình được hoàn thiện hơn.
Các tác giả
 6

Unit 1
TRANSLATION AND TRANSLATION THEORY
1.1. Definition of translation and translation theory
1.1.1. What is translation?
There has been a plethora of definitions which Nida (1964, pp.161-164) has
elaborately surveyed. He rightly elucidates: Definitions of proper translating are
almost as numerous and varied as the persons who have undertaken to discuss the
subject.
This diversity is in a sense quite understandable; for there are vast
differences in the materials translated, in the purpose of the publication, and in the
needs of the prospective audience. Nevertheless, a definition which is not
confined to the mere transference of meaning is furnished by Nida and Taber
(1964, p.12) who postulate translation consists in reproducing in the receptor
language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in
terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.
Bell (1991, pp.5-6) seems to have pursued the same line of emphasis on
meaning and style in his translation of translation “Translation is the expression
in another language (or the target language) of what has been expressed in
another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences”.
The above definitions also stress the significance of ‘equivalence’
which underlies the following definitions given by Catford (1965, p.20):
“Translation is the replacement of a text in one language by a replacement
of an equivalent text in a second language” and “Translation is the
replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual
material in another language (TL)”.
On the other hand, functionalists view translation differently: Translation
is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a
given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanded
function of the target text (Nord, in Shutttle Worth and Cowie, (1997, p.182).
Nord, however, distinguishes between two senses of translation: wide and
narrow. Translation is, in a narrow sense, any translational action where a
source text is transferred into a target culture and language.
According to the form and presentation of the target text we distinguish
between oral translation (‘interpreting’) and written translation (‘translation’ in
the narrow sense) (Nord, 2001, p.141). Widening the above definitions, Sager
(1989, p.293) maintains that translation should reflect the environment in which
the professional translation activity takes place: Translation is an extremely
motivated industrial activity, supported by information technology, which is
diversified in response to the particular needs of this form of communication. In a
similar vein, Koller (1989, p.196) describes translation as a ‘text processing
 7

activity and simultaneously highlights the significance of ‘equivalence’:

Translation can be understood as the result of a text-processing activity, by means
of which a source-language text is transposed into a target-language text. Between
the resulting text in L2 (the target-language text) and the source text L1 (the
source language text) there exists a relationship which can be designated as
translational, or equivalence relation.
Amongst the above definitions, Nida and Taber's (1964) may serve as a
basis for our concept of translation as a TL product which is as semantically
accurate, grammatically correct, stylistically effective and textually coherent as
the SL text. In other words, the translator's main attention should not be focused
only on the accurate semantic transference of SL message into the TL, but also on
the appropriate syntax and diction in the TL, which are explicitly the translator's
(not the source author's) domain of activity which displays his true competence.
Indeed, according to Wilss (2001, p.95), "the notion of translation competence,"
"is aptly assessed in transfer situations that require at least some degree of
adaptation to new and challenging textual demands." He describes such situations
as "accommodatory situations" which need "structural adjustment" (ibid) and
generally textual manipulation. In point of fact, the competent translator performs
multiple tasks with inevitable intricacies of performance. His approach to
translating expressive, emotive or expository texts in particular is deemed to be
creativity-oriented, that is, hermeneutic/manipulation rather than routine-oriented.
In short, translation is concerned with the written word. Hence, the
translators render written texts from one language into another. Translators are
required to undertake assignments, which range from simple items, such as birth
certificates and driving licenses, to more complex written material, such as
articles in specialized professional journals, business contracts and legal
documents.
 8

1.1.2. What is translation theory?

Translation theory, in a narrow sense, is concerned with the translation
method appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is therefore dependent
on a functional theory of language. However, in a wider sense, translation theory
is the body of knowledge that we have about translating, extending from general
principles to guidelines, suggestions and hints.
Since the mid 1980s there have been some major translation theories in the
world.
- Linguistic Theory of Translation by Catford (1965), Nida (1975) focuses
on finding the equivalence (of meaning, grammar, content...)
- Functionalist Theories of Translation (German school) by Reiss (2000),
Neubart (1985) do not pay attention to source texts. Their main aim is what we do
with translation.
- Translation as Cultural Events Theory by Hormer (1975) sets up an
integrated approach to translation.
- Manipulation School of Translation by Bassnett (1980) points out the
power of translation.
- Deconstructionist Theories by Gentzler (1993) (USA) forget source texts
and regard translation as the second original.
- Culture and Context Theories by Newmark (1984) focus on culture and
context during the translation process. As this is the most suitable for
undergraduate students, the theory, which is introduced below, is based on
Newmark's.
Translation theory, in a narrow sense, is concerned with the translation
method appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is therefore dependent
on a functional theory of language. However, in a wider sense, translation theory
is the body of knowledge that we have about translating, extending from general
principles to guidelines, suggestions and hints.
What translation theory does is, first, to identify and define a translation
problem (no problem - no translation theory!); second, to indicate all the factors
that have to be taken into account in solving the problem; third, to list all the
possible translation procedures; finally, to recommend the most suitable
translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation.
Translation theory’s main concern is to determine appropriate translation
methods for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories. Further, it
provides a framework of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating
texts and criticizing translations, a background for problem-solving.
1.2. Translation history
 9

Translation has always been done by somebody for somebody. The first
trace of translation dates from 3000 B.C, during the Egyptian Old Kingdom,
the area of the First Cataract, Elephantine, where inscriptions in two languages
have been found. It became a significant factor in the West in 300 BC Luther's
Bible translation in 1522 laid the foundations of modern German. In the 19th
century translation was mainly a one-way means of communication between
prominent men of letters and, to a lesser degree, philosophers and scientists
and their educated readers abroad, whilst trade was conducted in the language
of the dominant nation, and diplomacy, previously in Latin, was in French.
The 20th century has been called the “age of translation” to which one
may add “and interpreting”. International agreements between states, between
state, public and private organizations are now translated for all interested
parties, whether or not the signatories understand each other's language. The
setting up of a new international body, the constitution of an independent state,
the formation of a multinational company, gives translation enhanced
importance. The exponential increase in technology (patents, specifications,
documentation), the attempt to bring it to developing countries, the
simultaneous publication of the same book in various languages, the increase in
world communication, has correspondingly increased requirements. That the
very survival of such bodies as the United Nations is crucially dependent on
interpreting and translation can be taken as a good example of the importance
of translation and interpreting.
1.3. The dynamics of translation
According to Newmark (1988), there are some participants/actors in the
translation process:
 10

L1 C1 L1 C1 L1 C1 L2 C2
Author  Reader Translator  Reader
L2 C2

Translation Initiator

Translation Commissioner

9. The truth (the facts of the matter)

1. SL writer 5. TL readership

2. SL norms 6. TL norms

TEXT

3. SL culture 7. TL culture

4. SL setting 8. TL setting
and tradition and tradition
10. Translator
Figure 1.2. Newmark’s participants/actors in the translation process
A text is pulled in ten different directions, as follows:
(1) The individual style or idiolect of the source language (SL) author when
should it be preserved, normalized?
(2) The conventional grammatical and lexical usage for this type of text,
depending on the topic and situation.
(3) Content items referring specifically to the SL, or the third language
(i.e. not source language or target language (TL) cultures.
 11

(4) The typical format of a text in a book, periodical, newspaper etc, as in

influenced by tradition at the time.
(5) The expectations of the putative readership, bearing in mind their
estimated knowledge of the topic and the style of language they use, expressed in
terms of the largest common factor, since one should not translate down (or up)
to the readership.
(6), (7), (8). As for (2),(3) and (4) respectively, but related to the TL.
(9) What is being described or reported, ascertained or verified (the
referential truth). Where are possible independently of the SL text and the
expectations of the readership.
(10) The views and perfidies of the translator, which may be personal and
subjective, or may be social and cultural, involving the translator’s “group
loyalty factor”, which may reflect the national, political, ethnic, religious, social
class, sex etc, assumptions of the translator.
1.4. Translation and culture
Language and culture may thus be seen as being closely related and both
aspects must be considered for translation. When considering the translation of
cultural words and notions, Newmark proposes two opposing methods:
transference and componential analysis (Newmark, 1988, p.96). As Newmark
mentions, transference gives "local colour," keeping cultural names and concepts.
1.4.1. Definition of culture
Culture here is defined as the way of life and its manifestations that are
peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of
expression. There is a clear distinction between ‘cultural’, ‘universal’ and
‘personal’ language. ‘Die’, ‘live’, ‘star’, ‘swim’, ‘mirror’ and ‘table’ are
universals – usually there is no translation problem there. ‘Monsoon’, ‘steppe’,
‘dacha’, ‘tagliatelle’ are cultural words – there will be a translation problem
unless there is cultural overlap between the source and the target language (and its
readership). Universal words such as ‘breakfast’, ‘embrace’, ‘pile’ often cover the
universal function, but not the cultural description of the referent. And if one
expresses himself in a personal way – ‘you’re weaving (creating conversation) as
usual’, his “underlife” (personal qualities and private life) is evident in that
poem’, ‘he’s a monologer’ (never finishes the sentence) – he uses personal, not
immediately social language, what is often called idiolect, and there is normally a
translation problem.
All these are broad and fuzzy distinctions. You can have several cultures
(and sub-cultures) within one language. When a speech community focuses its
attention on a particular topic (this is usually called ‘cultural focus), it spawns a
plethora of words to designate its special language or terminology – the English
on sport, notably the crazy cricket words (‘a maiden over’, ‘silly mid-on’,
 12

‘howzzat’), the French on wine and cheeses, the Germans on sausages, Spaniards
on bull-fighting, Arabs on camels, Eskimos on snow, the Vietnamese on bamboo
and bamboo products. Frequently where there is cultural focus, there is a
translation problem due to the cultural ‘gap’ or ‘distance’ between the source and
the target languages.
It should be noted that language is not regarded as a component or feature
of culture. If it were so, translation would be impossible. Language does however
contain all kinds of cultural deposits, in the grammar (genders of inanimate
nouns), forms of address (like chú bác, cậu mợ, cô dì) as well as the lexis (the sun
sets) which are not taken account of universals either in consciousness of
translation. The more specific a language becomes for natural phenomena (e.g.
flora and fauna) the more it becomes embedded in cultural features, and therefore
creates translation problems.
Most ‘cultural’ words are easy to detect, since they are associated with a
particular language and cannot be literally translated, but many cultural customs
are described in ordinary language (‘topping out a building’, ‘time, gentlemen,
please’, ‘mud in your eyes’), where literal translation would distort the meaning
and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive functional equivalent.
Cultural objects may be referred to by a relatively culture-free generic term or
classifier (e.g. tea) plus the various additions in different cultures.
1.4.2. Cultural categories
A few general considerations govern the translation of all cultural words.
First, your ultimate consideration should be recognition of the cultural
achievements referred to in the SL text, and respect for all foreign countries and
their cultures.
Two translation procedures which are at opposite ends of the scale are
normally available; transference, which, usually in literary texts, offers local
colour and atmosphere, and in specialist texts enables the readership (some of
whom may be more or less familiar with the SL) to identify the referent –
particularly a name or a concept – in other texts (or conversations) without
difficulty. However, transference, though it is brief and concise, blocks
comprehension, it emphasizes the culture and excludes the message, does not
communicate; some would say it is not a translation procedure at all. At the other
end, there is componential analysis, the most accurate translation procedure,
which excludes the culture and highlights the message. Componential analysis is
based on a component common to the SL and the TL, say in the case of dacha,
‘house’ to which you add extra contextual distinguishing components (for the
wealthy’, ‘summer residence’). Inevitably, a componential analysis is not as
economical and has not the pragmatic impact of the original. Lastly, the translator
of a cultural word, which is always less context-bound than ordinary language,
has to bear in mind both the motivation and the cultural specialist (in relation to
the text’s topic) and linguistic level of the readership.
 13

The first part of this chapter brings together, under a single heading, a
number of issues directly connected with the fact that translating involves not just
two languages, but a transfer from one culture to another. The second part looks at
two related translation techniques necessitated by the transfer from one cultural
mode of expression to another: compromise and compensation
a) Ecology
This category consists of words that designate the ecological features of a
country, particularly in terms of flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills. The typical
words of this group are loch, dune, snowdrop, honeysuckle, lim, sến, trung du,
đồng chiêm trũng …
Geographical features can be normally distinguished from other cultural
terms in that they are usually value-free, politically and commercially. All these
words would normally transferred, with the addition of a brief culture-free third
term where necessary in the text.
b) Material culture (artefacts)
Material culture concerns with the physical aspects of the culture including
food, clothes, houses, towns, transport and communication: .
- Food
Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national
culture: sake, nem, tương, nước mắm, sushi, pho, etc; food terms are subject to the
widest variety of translation procedures. Various settings: menus – straight,
multilingual, glossed; cookbooks, food guides; tourist brochures; journalism
increasingly contain foreign food terms.
- Clothes
National costumes when distinctive are not translated, e.g., sari, kimono, áo
dài, kilt, kimono, Saree, Hanbok and jeans (which is an internationalism, and an
American symbol like ‘coke’)
Clothes as cultural terms may be sufficiently explained for TL general
readers if the generic noun or classifier is added: e.g., ‘shintigin trousers’ or
‘basque skirt, Kufi or kufi cap or Kente cloth’, if the particular is of no interest,
the generic word can simply replace it. However, it has to be borne in mind that
the function of the generic clothes is approximately constant, indicating the part
of the body that is covered, but the description varies depending on climate and
material used.
- Houses and towns
Many language communities have a typical house which for general
purposes remains untranslated: ‘palazzo (large house); chalet, bungalow, nhà sàn,
nhà rông, Treetops, Oaklands’.
- Transport
 14

Transport is dominated by American and the car. American English has 26

words for the car. Now, the names of planes and cars are often near-
internationalisms for educated readerships: ‘747’, ‘727’, ‘DC-10’, ‘jumbo jet’,
‘Mini’, ‘Ford’, ‘BMW’, ‘Volvo’. In this case, the generic word should be added to
make it clear for the general readership. In other cases, words remain
untranslated: ‘cyclo, xích lô, double-decker bus, or xe ôm’
c) Social culture – work and leisure
The obvious cultural words that denote leisure activities in Europe are the
national games with their lexical sets: cricket, bull-fighting, hockey. To these
must be added the largely non-team games: tennis, snooker, squash, badminton,
fives, and a large number of card games, the gambling games and their lexical sets
being French in casinos.
1.4.3. Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts
a) Political and administrative
The political and social life of a country is reflected in its institutional
terms. Where the title of a head of state (President’, ‘Prime Minister’, ‘King’) or
the name of a parliament (‘Quốc hội’, Camera dei Deputati) are ‘transparent’, that
is, made up of ‘international’ or easy translated morphemes, they are through-
translated (‘National Assembly’, ‘Chamber of Deputies’). Where the name of a
parliament is not ‘readily’ translatable (Bundestag (Germany); Gosudarstvennaja
Duma (Russia), Congress, Senate, it can be transferred or translated by using a
generic term and the country’s name (Quốc hội Đức, Đu-ma quốc gia Nga, Quốc
hội Mỹ, Thượng viện). A government inner circle is usually designated as a
‘cabinet’ or a ‘council of ministers’ and may be informally be referred to by the
name of the capital city. Some ministries and other political institutions and
parties may also be referred to by their familiar alternative terms, i.e., the name of
the building – Elysée, ‘Pentagon’, ‘White House’, ‘Westminster’ – or the streets
where they are housed.
Names of ministries are usually literally translated, provided they are
appropriately descriptive. Therefore ‘Treasury’ becomes ‘Bộ tài chính’; ‘Home
office’, ‘Ministry of the Interior’ – Bộ Nội vụ; ‘attorney-general’, ‘chief justice’ -
Bộ trưởng Bộ tư pháp, or the appropriate cultural equivalent; ‘Defence Ministry’,
‘Ministry of National Defence’.
Where a public body or organization has an ‘opaque’ name, say, Maison de
la Culture, ‘British Council’, ‘National Trust, ‘Arts Council’, ‘Privy Council’ –
the translator has first to establish whether there is a recognized translation and
secondly whether it will be understood by the readership and is appropriate in the
setting; if not, in a formal informative text, the name should be transferred, and a
functional, culture-free equivalent given (Maison de la Culture, ‘cung văn hoá’);
such equivalent may have to extend over a word group: ‘National Trust’, tổ chức
bảo tồn tượng đài và công viên quốc gia của Anh; in some cases, a cultural
 15

equivalent may be adequate; ‘British Council’, Alliance francaise, Goethe-

Institut, but a literal translation is not enough; Hội đồng Anh, and in this case, the
functional equivalent is preferable, e.g. ‘tổ chức của nhà nước chịu trách nhiệm
truyền bá tiếng Anh và văn hoá Anh ở nước ngoài’
b) Religious
In religious language, the proselytizing activities of Christianity,
particularly the Catholic Church and the Baptists, are reflected in manifold
translation. The language of the other world religions tends to be transferred when
it becomes of TL interest, the commonest words being naturalized.
c) Artistic terms
The translation of artistic terms referring to movements, processes and
organizations generally depends on the putative knowledge of the readership. For
educated readers, ‘opaque’ names such as ‘the Leipzig Gewandhaus’ and ‘the
Amsterdam Concertgebouw’ are transferred, transparent names (‘the Berlin’, ‘the
Vienna’, ‘the London’ philharmonic orchestras, etc.) are translated. Names of
buildings, museums, theatres, opera houses, are likely to be transferred as well as
translated, since they form part of street plans and addresses. Many terms in art
and music remain Italian, but French in ballet (e.g. fouetté, pas de deux). Art
nouveau in English and French becomes Jugendstil in German and stile liberty in
Italian. The Bauhaus and Neue Sachlichkeit (sometimes ‘New Objectivity’), being
opaque, are transferred but the various –isms are neutralized, even though
‘Fauvism’ is opaque. Such terms tend to transference when they are regarded as
faits de civilisation, i.e. cultural features, and to naturalization if their universality
is accepted.
d) Gestures and habits
For ‘gestures and habits’ there is a distinction between description and
function which can be made where necessary in ambiguous cases: thus, if people
smile a little when someone dies, do a slow hand-clap to express warm
appreciation, spit as a blessing, nod to dissent or shake their head to assent, kiss
their finger tips to greet or to praise, give a thumps-up to signal OK, all of which
occur in some cultures and not in others.
1.4.4. Cultural transposition
We shall use the general term cultural transposition as a cover-term for the
various degrees of departure from literal translation that one may resort to in the
process of transferring the contents of a ST into the context of a target culture.
That is to say, the various kinds of cultural transposition we are about to discuss
are all alternatives to a maximally SL-biased literal translation. Any degree of
cultural transposition involves the choice of features indigenous to the TL and the
target culture in preference to features with their roots in the source culture. The
result is to minimize ‘foreign’ (that is, SL-specific) features in the TT, thereby to
some extent ‘naturalizing’ it into the TL and its cultural setting.
 16

Although placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful to initiated

readers, he claims this method may cause problems for the general readership
and limit the comprehension of certain aspects. The importance of the
translation process in communication leads Newmark to propose componential
analysis which he describes as being "the most accurate translation procedure,
which excludes the culture and highlights the message" (Newmark, 1988,
p.96). The various degrees of cultural transposition can be visualized as points
along a scale between the extremes of exoticism and cultural transplantation
proposed by Hervey et al (1996, p.28), visualised as follows:
SL Bias TL Bias
_________________________________________________
Exoticism Cultural Calque Communicative Cultural
borrowing translation transplantation
Figure 1.4.4. Hervey’s cultural transplantation
Some of the most straightforward examples of the basic issues in cultural
transposition are offered by place-names and proper names. Translating names is
not usually a major concern, but a brief look at the question provides a simple
introduction to what is often complex problem.
a) Translating names
In translating a name there are, in principle, at least two alternatives. Either
the name can be taken over unchanged from the ST to the TT, or it can be adapted
to the phonic/graphic conventions of the TL. The first alternative is tantamount to
literal translation, and involves no cultural transposition. It is a form of
‘exoticism’. It may be impracticable if, as with Russian names, it creates
problems of pronounceability and comprehension in an oral TT, or problems of
spelling and memorization in a written one. The second alternative,
transliteration, is less extreme: conversional conventions are used to alter the
phonic/graphic shape of a ST name so that it comes more into line with TL
patterns of pronunciation and spelling. Transliteration is the standard way of
coping with, for example, Chinese names in English texts.
How a name is transliterated may be entirely up to the translator, if there is
no established precedent for transcribing the name in question, or it may require
following a standard transliteration created by early translators. Standard
transliteration varies, of course, from language to language. Examples are
common in the translation of place-names: Mat-xcơ-va/ Moscow/Moscou.
b) Exoticism
In general, the extreme options in signaling cultural foreignness in a TT fall into
a category of exoticism. A TT translated in an exotic manner is one which constantly
resorts to linguistic and cultural features imported from the ST into the TT with
 17

minimal adaptation, and which, thereby, constantly signals the exotic source culture
and its cultural strangeness. Of course, this may be one of the TT’s chief attractions, as
with some translations of Icelandic sagas or Arabic poetry that deliberately trade on
exoticism. However, such a TT has an impact on TL audience which the ST could
never have had on a SL audience, for whom the text has no features of an alien
culture: Xì-tốp, ma ket ting, mit tinh, etc.
c) Cultural transplantation
At the opposite end of the scale from exoticism is cultural transplantation,
whose extreme forms are hardly translations at all, but more like adaptations – the
wholesale transplanting of the entire setting of the ST, resulting in the text being
completely rewritten in an indigenous target culture setting. Cultural
transplantation sometimes can produce successful texts, but it is not normal
translation practice.
By and large, normal translation practice avoids both wholesale exoticism
and wholesale cultural transplantation. In attempting to avoid the two extremes,
the translator may have to consider the alternatives lying between them on the
scale given above: Khúc chiết, thanh niên, etc.
d) Cultural borrowing
The first alternative is to transfer a ST expression verbatim into the TT.
This is termed Cultural borrowing. The translators will resort to it when it proves
impossible to find a suitable TL expression of indigenous origins for translating
the SL expression. A vital for cultural borrowing is that the textual context of the
TT should make the meaning of the borrowed expression clear. Cultural
borrowing will be most frequent in texts on history or social or political matters,
where the simplest solution is to give a definition of terms, and then to use the SL
word in the TT.
Of course cultural borrowing only presents translators with an open and
free choice in cases where previous translation practice has not already set up a
precedent for the verbatim borrowing of the ST expression. The Saussurean
linguistic term ‘langue’ and ‘parole’ are good examples of this issue. The option
of translating ‘langue’ and ‘parole’ as ‘language’ and ‘speaking’ does exist, but
the fact that English texts frequently resort to the borrowed terms ‘langue’ and
‘parole’ in the precise linguistic sense prejudices the issue in favour of borrowing.
Furthermore, where terms with SL origins have already passed into the TL
without significant change of meaning, thus constituting standard conventional
equivalents of the original SL terms borrowed, the translator may not be faced
with a significant decision at all: Lão Phật gia, Mama Chuê, etc.
e) Communicative translation
In contrast with cultural borrowing, the translator may opt for
communicative translation. This is often mandatory for culturally conventional
formulae where a literal rendering would be inappropriate.
 18

For example, many proverbs, idioms and clichés have readily identifiable
communicative equivalents in the TL. Only special contextual reasons can justify
opting against a standard communicative translation in such cases. Otherwise the
result is likely to be ludicrous translation. The translator has virtually no freedom of
choice in rendering stock institutionalized phrases such as ‘Beware of the
dogs(Fierce Dog)/ Nhà có chó dữ’, ‘Carry coal to Newcastle/ Chở củi về rừng,
Keep off the grass/ Không dẫm lên cỏ!, Tổng quản, Chuột túi, etc.’ The very fact
that the ST uses a set phrase or idiom usually part and parcel of its stylistic effect,
and if the TT does not use corresponding TL set phrases or idioms this stylistic
effect will be lost.
f) Calque
“The morning guest never stays long” is an instance of calque, an
expression that consists of TL words and respects TL syntax, but is unidiomatic in
the TL because it is modelled on the structure of a SL expression. In essence,
then, calque is a form of literal translation. A bad calque imitates ST structure to
the point of being ungrammatical in the TL; a good calque manages to
compromise between imitating a ST structure and not offending against the
grammar of the TL.
Calquing may also be called a form of cultural borrowing, although, instead
of verbatim borrowing of expressions, only the model of SL grammatical
structures is borrowed. For example, if ST ‘cherchez la femme’ in a detective
story is rendered in the TT ‘look for the woman’ would be calque. Like cultural
borrowing proper, and for similar reasons, translation by creating calques does
occur in practice. Furthermore, as also happens with cultural borrowing proper,
some originally calqued expressions become standard TL cultural equivalents of
their SL origins.
Clearly, there are certain dangers in using calque as a translation device.
The major one is that the meaning of calques phrases may not be clear in the TT.
In the worst cases, calques are not even recognizable for what they are, but are
merely puzzling to the reader or listener. This is why in our Hungarian example,
we suggested using a device like ‘you know the saying’ to signal the calquing
process. But, of course, it is not sufficient for the TT to make it clear that a
particular phrase is an intentional calque. The meaning of the calqued phrase must
also be transparent in the TT context. The most successful calques need no
explanation; less successful ones may need to be explained, perhaps in a footnote
or a glossary.
Like all forms of cultural borrowing, calque exhibits a certain degree of
exoticism, bringing into the TT the cultural foreignness and strangeness of the
source culture: ‘As ancient as the sun/Xưa như quả đất, as alike as 2 peas in the
pot/Giống nhau như hai giọt nước, It never rains but pours/Phúc bất trùng lai
hoạ vô đơn chí, and The early bird catches the worms/Trâu chậm uống nước
đục, etc.’ Consequently, it should generally be avoided in texts where exoticism is
 19

inappropriate, such as in instruction manual, whose prime function is to give clear

and explicit information. In any text, one should also definitely avoid
unintentional calquing resulting from too slavish a simulation of the grammatical
structures of the ST.
In brief summary of the discussion so far, where standard communicative
equivalents exist for a ST expression, the translator should give these first
preferences, unless there are particular reasons for not doing so. Where standard
communicative equivalents are lacking, and also a particular ST concept is alien to
the target culture, preference should be given to cultural borrowing, unless there are
particular reasons against it.
1. 1.4.5. Schema of textual filters
Translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two
languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 1978, p.200). As this statement
implies, translators are permanently faced with the problem of how to treat the
cultural aspects implicit in a source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate
technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language (TL).
These problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap
between the two (or more) languages concerned (Nida, 1964, p.30).
The cultural implications for translation may take several forms ranging
from lexical content and syntax to ideologies and ways of life in a given culture.
The translator also has to decide on the importance given to certain cultural
aspects and to what extent it is necessary or desirable to translate them into the
TL. The aims of the ST will also have implications for translation as well as the
intended readership for both the ST and the target text (TT) by looking at the
following schema by Hervey, Higgins and Haywood (1996, p.216).

TE
XT
 20

Figure 1.4.5. Schema of textual filters

1.5. Pre-translation considerations
1.5.1. Reading the text
The translator starts the first stage of the translation process, the
understanding stage.
The purpose is to extract all content and expressive value to then
reformulate them in the target language. Capturing and understanding the text
does not end the communication process opened by the author. Instead it restarts
it and the reader/translator becomes a spokesperson for the author of the original
text.
 21

At the same time, the reader/translator becomes the author of a text in

another language. The translator is also an unusual reader in the sense that he or
she has to read in a language other than their native one.
In each of the first two stages, understanding and re-expression, the
translator must have a linguistic competency that is optimal in both languages
and, of equal importance, a broad wealth of knowledge. The translator must work
hard on being the best reader of the text. On the first reading, the translator
familiarizes him or herself with the text in its setting. Textual problems (related to
lexical elements or unfamiliar concepts) require a specific solution. Extra-textual
problems (related to the desired motive and function of the translation) influence
on the translation strategy adopted in consideration of the text in its totality. An
intense reading is the basis of a syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic analysis of the
text.
1.5.2. The intention of the text
The understanding of a text naturally involves a search for the intention of
the text. By intention we mean the point of view of the text. Different texts may
describe a particular incident differently using the same facts and figures. But the
type of language used in the text, the ways of describing, and the style, etc.
display the intention of a text. They represent writer's attitude to the subject
matter. A translator must ascertain the intention of the text and has to represent it
in his translation. If a piece is redundant and confusing he can simplify, rearrange,
clarify, and detail the text maintaining the tone and point of view displayed in the
original.
In principle translator's intention is identical to that of the author of the SL
text. But there may be certain instances where a translator may differ. Take for
example a case of translation of advertisements where the translators need not
always match the intention of the copy-writer. If a translator is translating such a
text to persuade TL consumers to buy a certain product then he may have to
change the style and the way of presentation in his translation. However such
instances are rare and mostly translators are expected to follow the original
closely.
In literary translations, this subjective element plays a major role.
Though in principle translation theorists agree that translator should not impose
his intentions on a text or misrepresent a text, it is very difficult to judge it for
a literary text throws itself open for many kinds of readings. The notions of
authority and original become problematic as far as the literary texts are
concerned. Secondly, the politics of translation may also force a translator to
make some deliberate interventions in a particular cultural setting while
translating a text. However, sine Newmark does not concerned with such
dimensions of a literary translation these questions do not bother him.
Any translation is ultimately meant for a readership. Therefore, it is important
to characterize the readership of the translation in terms of expert or layman,
 22

informed or ignorant, age or young, etc. the likely setting of a text is that by which
we indicate where the translation would be published? This is another point to be
considered by the translator. Keeping nature of the readership and setting of
translation in view, a translator has to design his translation and its style of
presentation according to the requirements of his readership.
1.5.3. Text styles
Text categories and text types can be made either on the basis of subject
matter, focus or on consideration of the function of language in a given text.
Newmark and others distinguishes text-types on the basis of language functions.
The linguist, Halliday, distinguished three linguistically relevant language
functions: 'ideational' the 'interpersonal' and the 'textual', Karl Bühler
characterized language functions as 'representational', 'expressive' and 'conative'.
Famous linguist and translation theorist Roman Jackobson later modified these
three functions of language proposed by Bühler: "…. The main three functions of
language are the 'expressive' (the subjective 'I' form), the descriptive or
'informative' (the 'it' form) and the 'vocative' or directive or persuasive (the 'you'
form) and the minor functions being the 'phatic', the 'metalingual' and the
'aesthetic' as cited in Newmark (1988, p.21).
It is important to notice that the tripartite division is an attempt to generalize
language functions and these generalizations "directed towards sociological or
psychological inquiries" rather than linguistic. Moreover, in many texts all the three
functions may be found. Hence, the text-categories based on these generalizations
are helpful only to the extent of understanding the main focus of a particular text
which will, in turn, help translators to choose an appropriate translation method.
The following are the text categories.
a) The 'expressive'
Speaker's mind is central to this function of language. Experiences of an
author, his / her knowledge about the world, his / her feelings etc. are identified
by others as true or false when they are expressed. But the expression here has
nothing to do with such identification. An author or a speaker filled with intense
feeling would express his/her feelings irrespective of any response. The feeling is
important in such texts. The following are the expressive text types:
(1) Serious imaginative literature: Poetry, short-stories, novels, plays etc.
(2) Authoritative statements: This kind of texts have the personal 'stamp' of
their authors, and show certain originally as far as the quality of writing is
concerned. Authority of their authors derives from their status and quality of
writing. Political statements, speeches, documents, legal documents, academic
works, etc. constitute this text-type.
 23

(3) Autobiography, essays, personal correspondence, etc. are expressive

when addressed to the general readership and when they express very personal
feelings.
b) The ‘descriptive’ or 'informative'
In all types of fact-oriented, scientific and knowledge-based writing the
function of language can be characterized as informative. These texts are intended
to convey the truth and to keep their readers well-informed. They neither aim at
pleasing our senses nor appeal to our attitude. Hence, informative texts tend to use
standard, non-regional, non-class, non-dialectal language. The style is mostly
technical and non-emotive. Text-books, reports, research reports, academic articles,
scientific literature, etc. form this text-type.
c) The ‘vocative’
The readership or the addressee is central to the vocative function of language the
vocative texts usually try to impress upon their readership to act, think, feel and react in
the way intended by the text. Notices, propaganda and publicity materials, instructions
as well as advertisements etc. come under this category.
d) Other functions
Jackobson has proposed three other functions of language. These functions are
the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function.
- The Aesthetic Function: The language designed to please our senses and
appeal to our attitudes through sounds, repetitions, metaphors, similes,
onomatopoeia, alliteration, metre, rhyme, etc. intended to serve this function of
language. Poetry, nursery rhymes, advertising material etc. use this kind of
language. In these texts 'beauty; precedes the truth. We can regard aesthetic
function as a part of expressive function of language.
- The Phatic Function: Consider the sentences such as 'How are
you? , 'You know', 'Are you well?', 'See you tomorrow' (Newmark, 1988, p.43),
etc. in the Phatic function of language the speaker intends to establish an intimate
and friendly relationship with the addressee. If some phatic expressions are
universal, some others are culture-specific. The expression we use in writing in
order to win the confidence of the readership also serve the phatic function; e.g.
‘naturally’, 'of course', 'it is important to note that' etc.
- The Meta-lingual Function: Language has an ability to explain or criticize
its own features and functions. In other words, language can speak about itself.
The categories we use in linguistics such as 'verb', 'grammar’, ‘sentence', etc.
explains us the features of language by using a language. Apart from this, most
modern languages have expressions such as 'strictly speaking',' in the true sense
of the word', 'so-called',' literally', 'so to speak' (Newmark, 1988, p.44), etc. These
are either intended to criticize certain expression in language or to clarify them.
This function of language is the meta-lingual function of language.
 24

1.5.4. The readership

The readership is a group of readers that the text is aimed at and this group
is marked with level of education, the class, age and sex. In translation, as
Newmark (1988) claimed, the readership of SL text should be characterized, then
the readership of the translation to decide how much attention to pay to the TL
readers.
Newmark (1988) also states that there is a tendency to make the
translation for “educated, middle – class readership in an informal, colloquial
style”.
There are three types of readership: expert, educated layman, and the
uniformed.
You should characterize the readership of the original and then of the
translation, and to decide how much attention you have to pay to the TL readers.
You may try to assess the level of education, the class, age and sex of the
readership. The average text for translation tends to be for an educated, middle-
class readership in an informal, not colloquial style. All this will help you to
decide on the degree of formality, generality (or specificity) and emotional tone
you must express when you work on the text.
1.5.5. The quality of the writing
Another important thing the translator has to pay attention is the quality of
the writing in order to choose the translation method. The quality of the writing, as
Newmark (1988) claimed, depends upon the author’s writing skill, author’s
intention and the requirement of the subject matter. A text is considered to be a well
– written one when is uses the right words in right places, it has a minimum of
redundancy, it is logical, etc. The authority of a text is subject to the status of
writer in his field. If the text is written by an expert, of course, the accuracy is
better. If the text is written with “stereotyped phrased, poorly written”, the
translator at that time, has to deal with the badly written text. Hence, the translator
has to consider the quality of writing and the authority of the original text. Quality
of a text derives from the intention of the text, subject-matter and the style of writing.
If the writing efficiently fulfills the requirements of its subject matter and intention of
the author, it is a good writing. In a well-written text every nuance of meaning
should be regarded as important by the translator. S/He should follow and must make
her/his best efforts to retain them in translation. Good syntax, use of fresh words that
are rich in connotative meaning etc. attract us immediately for they are the qualities
of a high quality writing. A bad text would not only use stereotyped language
phrases and ideas but also words and jargons of the contemporary fashion.
Authority of text essentially derives from two things: from the quality of
writing and from the status of the author. A sensitive translator would grasp both
quality of writing and authority of the text and take his own decisions regarding
 25

translation in creative writing it is advisable to follow the style and every nuance of
words used and in informative texts 'truth' should be given prime consideration.
1.5.6. Codes of ethics
"Every translation shall be faithful and render exactly the idea and form of
the original – this fidelity constitutes both a moral and legal obligation for the
translator” - International Federation of Translators.
a) Professional conduct
- Interpreters and translators act at all times in accordance with the
standards of conduct and decorum appropriate to the aims of the national
professional association of interpreting and translation practitioners.
- Interpreters and translators take responsibility for their work and conduct;
they are committed to providing quality service in a respectful and culturally
sensitive manner, dealing honestly and fairly with other parties and colleagues,
and dealing honestly in all business practices. They disclose any conflict of
interest or any matter that may compromise their impartiality. They observe
common professional ethics of diligence and responsiveness to the needs of other
participants in their work.
- Confidentiality
+ Interpreters and translators maintain confidentiality and do not disclose
information acquired in the course of their work.
+ Interpreters and translators are bound by strict rules of confidentiality, as
are the persons they work with in professional or business fields.
- Competence
+ Interpreters and translators only undertake work they are competent to
perform in the languages for which they are professionally qualified through
training and credentials.
+ In order to practise, interpreters and translators need to have particular
levels of expertise for particular types of work. Those who work with interpreters
and translators are entitled to expect that they are working with appropriately
qualified practitioners. Practitioners always represent their credentials honestly.
Where formal training or accreditation is not available (e.g. in less frequently used
language combinations and new and emerging languages), practitioners have an
obligation to increase and maintain skills through their own professional
development or request employers, agencies or institutions to provide it.
- Impartiality
+ Interpreters and translators observe impartiality in all professional
contacts. Interpreters remain unbiased throughout the communication exchanged
between the participants in any interpreted encounter. Translators do not show
 26

bias towards either the author of the source text or the intended readers of their
translation.
+ Interpreters and translators play an important role in facilitating parties
who do not share a common language to communicate effectively with each
other. They aim to ensure that the full intent of the communication is conveyed.
Interpreters and translators are not responsible for what the parties communicate,
only for complete and accurate transfer of the message. They do not allow bias to
influence their performance; likewise they do not soften, strengthen or alter the
messages being conveyed.
- Accuracy
+ Interpreters and translators use their best professional judgment in
remaining faithful at all times to the meaning of texts and messages.
+ Accuracy for the purpose of this Code means optimal and complete
message transfer into the target language preserving the content and intent of the
source message or text without omission or distortion.
- Clarity of role boundaries
+ Interpreters and translators maintain clear boundaries between their task
as facilitators of communication through message transfer and any tasks that may
be undertaken by other parties involved in the assignment.
+ The focus of interpreters and translators is on message transfer.
Practitioners do not, in the course of their interpreting or translation duties,
engage in other tasks such as advocacy, guidance or advice. Even where such
other tasks are mandated by particular employment arrangements, practitioners
insist that a clear demarcation is agreed on between interpreting and translating
and other tasks. For this purpose, interpreters and translators will, where the
situation requires it, provide an explanation of their role in line with the principles
of this code.
- Maintaining professional relationships
+ Interpreters and translators are responsible for the quality of their work,
whether as employees, freelance practitioners or contractors with interpreting and
translation agencies. They always endeavour to secure satisfactory working
conditions for the performance of their duties, including physical facilities,
appropriate briefing, a clear commission, and clear conduct protocols where
needed in specific institutional settings. They ensure that they have allocated
adequate time to complete their work; they foster a mutually respectful business
relationship with the people with whom they work and encourage them to become
familiar with the interpreter or translator role.
+ Interpreters and translators work in a variety of settings with specific
institutional demands and a wide range of professional and business contexts.
Some settings involve strict protocols where the interpreter or translator is a
 27

totally independent party, while others are marked by cooperation and shared
responsibilities. Interpreters and translators must be familiar with these contexts,
and endeavour to have the people they work with understand their role. For
practitioners who work through agencies, the agency providing them with the
work is one of their clients, and practitioners maintain the same professional
standards when working with them as when working with individual clients. At
the same time agencies must have appropriate and fair procedures in place that
recognize and foster the professionalism of interpreting and translating
practitioners.
- Professional development
+ Interpreters and translators continue to develop their professional
knowledge and skills.
+ Practitioners commit themselves to lifelong learning, recognizing that
individuals, services and practices evolve and change over time. They
continually upgrade their language and transfer skills and their contextual and
cultural understanding. They keep up to date with the technological advances
pertinent to their practice in order to continue to provide quality service.
Practitioners working in languages where there is no standard training or
credential may need to assess, maintain and update their standards
independently.
- Professional solidarity
+ Interpreters and translators respect and support their fellow professionals,
and they uphold the reputation and trustworthiness of the profession of
interpreting and translating.
+ Practitioners have a loyalty to the profession that extends beyond their
individual interest. They support and further the interests of the profession and
their colleagues and offer each other assistance.
b) Code of conduct
- Obligations towards recipients of services
+ Professional conduct: Interpreters and translators maintain their integrity
and independence at all times.
+ Interpreters and translators undertake appropriate preparations for all
assignments.
+ Interpreters and translators complete assignments they have accepted,
unless they are unable to do so for ethical reasons.
+ Interpreters and translators adhere to appointment times and deadlines, or
advise clients promptly of any hindrance.
+ Interpreters and translators do not exercise power or influence over their
clients.
 28

+ Interpreters and translators do not solicit or accept gratuities or other

benefits. They may, however, accept typical small gifts in specific cultural
contexts.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators act at all times in accordance
with the standards of conduct and decorum appropriate to the aims of the national
professional association of interpreting and translation practitioners.
- Confidentiality
+ Interpreters and translators are bound by strict rules of confidentiality, as
are the parties they work with in professional or business fields.
+ Where teamwork is required, the ethical obligation for confidentiality
extends to all members of the team and/or agency.
+ Practitioners do not seek to take advantage of information acquired
during or as a result of their work.
+ Disclosure of information may be permissible with clients’ agreement or
when disclosure is mandated by law.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators maintain confidentiality and
do not disclose information acquired in the course of their work.
- Competence
+ The acceptance of an interpreting or translation assignment is an implicit
declaration of an interpreter's or translator's competence to carry out that
assignment.
+ Interpreters and translators are familiar with the varied contexts,
institutional structures, terminology and genres of the areas in which they accept
work.
+ Interpreters and translators clearly state their qualifications in particular
languages or language directions if requested by the client.
+ If it becomes apparent in the course of an assignment that expertise
beyond their competence is required, interpreters and translators inform the
client(s) immediately and work to resolve the situation, either withdrawing from
the assignment or following another acceptable strategy.
+ If a client wishes to change the language of the interpretation or
translation to a different language, this can only be done if the interpreter or
translator has relevant competence in the other language.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators only undertake work they
are competent to perform, in the languages for which they are professionally
qualified through training and credentials.
- Impartiality
 29

+ Professional detachment is required for interpreting and translation

assignments in all situations.
+ Where impartiality may be difficult to maintain because of personal
beliefs or other circumstances, interpreters and translators do not accept
assignments, or they offer to withdraw from the assignment.
+ Interpreters and translators are not responsible for what clients say or write.
+ Interpreters and translators do not voice or write an opinion, solicited or
unsolicited, on any matter or person during an assignment.
+ Interpreters and translators frankly disclose all conflicts of interest, e.g. in
assignments for relatives or friends and those affecting their employers.
+ Interpreters and translators do not recommend to clients any business,
agency, process, substance or material matters in which they have a personal or
financial interest, without fully disclosing this interest to the clients.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators observe impartiality in
professional contacts. Interpreters remain unbiased throughout the
communication exchanged between the participants in any interpreted
encounter. Translators do not show bias towards either the author of the source
text or the intended readers of their translation.
- Accuracy
+ Interpreters and translators provide accurate renditions of the source
utterance or text in the target language. Accurate is defined for this purpose as
optimal and complete, without distortion or omission and preserving the content
and intent of the source message or text. Interpreters and translators are able to
provide an accurate and complete rendition of the source message using the skills
and understanding they have acquired through their training and education.
+ Interpreters and translators do not alter, add to, or omit anything from the
content and intent of the source message.
+ Interpreters and translators acknowledge and promptly rectify any
interpreting or translation mistakes.
+ Where circumstances permit, interpreters and translators ask for
repetition, rephrasing or explanation if anything is unclear.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators use their best professional
judgement in remaining faithful at all times to the meaning of texts and messages.
- Clarity of role boundaries
+ Interpreters and translators do not, in the course of their interpreting or
translation duties, assume other roles such as offering advocacy, guidance or
advice. Even where such other tasks are mandated (e.g. by specific institutional
requirements for employees), practitioners insist that a clear demarcation is
agreed on by all parties between interpreting and translating and other tasks.
 30

+ Interpreters and translators respect the professional boundaries of other

participants involved in an assignment.
+ Interpreters and translators draw attention to any situation where other
parties misunderstand the interpreter or translator role or have inappropriate
expectations.
+ Interpreters and translators understand, and help their clients understand,
the difference between professional and personal interactions. They assume
responsibility for establishing and maintaining appropriate boundaries between
themselves and the other participants in the communicative interaction.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators maintain clear boundaries
between their task as facilitators of communication through message transfer and
any tasks that may be undertaken by other parties involved in the assignment.
- Maintaining professional relationships
+ Practitioners follow this Code whenever they are interpreting or
translating - as employees, as freelancers, as agency contractors or as supervisors
or employers of other interpreters and translators.
+ When working as freelancers, interpreters and translators deal with
clients and agencies honestly and transparently.
+ When working through agencies, interpreters and translators maintain the
same professional standards as when working with individual clients.
+ Interpreters and translators request briefing and access to reference
material and background information before their work commences.
+ In interpreting assignments, interpreters endeavour to secure a physical
environment that enables optimal message transfer in the given context. This
includes the use of any devices and aids which participants typically require for
hearing and speaking, such as appropriate standard booths for conference
interpreting or appropriate physical arrangements for confidentiality, or security
measures in cases of physical risk. It also includes provision of seating and
reasonable breaks to avoid interpreter fatigue.
+ In acknowledging the shared responsibility to provide effective language
services, interpreters and translators can expect that agencies, employers or clients
who stipulate this Code as mandatory for interpreter or translator behaviour have
appropriate procedures in place that recognise the professional obligations of the
practitioners, and that they support interpreters and translators in securing the
conditions outlined above.
+ Interpreters and translators are responsible for the quality of their work,
whether as employees, freelance practitioners or contractors with interpreting and
translation agencies. They always endeavour to secure satisfactory working
conditions for the performance of their duties, including physical facilities,
appropriate briefing, a clear commission and clear conduct protocols where
 31

needed in specific institutional settings. They ensure that they have allocated
adequate time to complete their work, they foster a mutually respectful business
relationship with the people with whom they work and encourage them to become
familiar with the interpreter or translator role.
- Professional development
+ Interpreters and translators enhance their skills and knowledge through
continuing education and professional development throughout their professional
career.
+ Interpreters and translators maintain proficiency in the languages and
familiarity with the cultures for which they offer professional interpreting and
translation services.
+ Interpreters and translators support and encourage professional
development within the profession and among their colleagues.
+ Interpreters and translators endeavour to keep themselves informed about
new trends and developments and the results of research in the field to improve
their competence and practice.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators continue to develop their
professional knowledge and skills.
- Professional solidarity
+ Interpreters and translators support and further the interests of the
profession and their colleagues and offer each other assistance.
+ Interpreters and translators resolve any disputes with their interpreting
and translating colleagues in a cooperative, constructive and professional manner.
+ Ethical principle: Interpreters and translators respect and support their
fellow professionals and they uphold the reputation and trustworthiness of the
profession of interpreting and translating.
- Conduct issues specific to translators
+ Before commencing work, translators ascertain the intended purpose of
the translation and the form of delivery required.
+ Translators obtain from the client as much information, terminology or
reference material as possible and necessary for the proper and timely execution
of the translation commission, and treat such material confidentially or as
expressly agreed. If the client possesses but fails to provide reference texts crucial
to the desired outcome, the translator is not responsible for inadequacies in the
translation that are demonstrably due to such aids being withheld.
+ Translators deliver a translation that completely and impartially renders
the meaning and intention of the source text within the parameters and
requirements of the target language and culture and is in keeping with the purpose
specified in the commission received from the client/initiator.
 32

+ Translators work only from source languages and into target languages in
which they are qualified.
+ Translators only perform work which they believe is within their
translation competence and relevant specialist competence and for which they
have the necessary resources, transfer abilities, level of understanding and
fluency, or which will be revised by a person with the relevant knowledge or
competence.
+ If the source text contains particular elements that need to be taken
into account in carrying out the translation, translators use their best
endeavours and apply professional judgment to bring this to the attention of the
client (except where the translated document is expected or required to be an
exact reproduction of all source text content, meaning, style and language and
needs to be thus certified). Such elements may include ambiguities, factual
inaccuracies, linguistic errors, imprecise terminology, language that in the
judgment of the translator is discriminatory, or wording or references that
would jeopardize achieving the purpose of the text in the target language
culture.
+ If a translator is contracted by an agency, he or she does not contact the
client of the agency directly, except as provided for under the terms of the relevant
agreement entered into with the agency. If contacted by the client of the agency
directly, the translator follows the procedures agreed with the agency.
+ Translators may sub-contract work only to other practitioners who they have
good reason to believe possess the necessary competence and resources and who
adhere to this Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct, and always in compliance with
any agreement entered into with the client. The responsibility for the translated text
in any case rests with the translator who sub-contracted the work to the other
practitioner, unless otherwise expressly agreed.
+ If a translation is subject to revision or checking by another translator, the
revision is returned to the original translator for approval and finalization. If
changes are made to the translated text after delivery to the client without the
translator's agreement and knowledge, the translator is no longer responsible for
the translated text.
+ Professional translators working in areas involving copyright matters
endeavour to follow the principles laid out in the Nairobi Recommendation of
UNESCO on the Legal Protection of Translators and Translations, and the FIT
Translator’s Charter.
- Conduct issues specific to interpreters
+ Interpreters prepare themselves by obtaining from the initiator/client as
much information and briefing as is necessary for the proper execution of their
interpreting, and treat such material confidentially or as expressly agreed.
 33

- Completeness in interpreting
+ In order to ensure the same access to all that is said or signed by all
parties involved in a meeting, interpreters relay accurately and completely
everything that is communicated.
+ Interpreters interpret in the first person.
+ Interpreters maintain the emotions of the speakers in their interpreting
and do not soften or enhance the force of messages conveyed or language used. In
specific contexts such as in court or psychometric assessments, incoherence,
hesitations and unclear statements are maintained in the interpretation.
+ If obvious untruths are uttered, interpreters convey these accurately in the
same manner as presented.
+ Relations with other parties and the interpreting role in dialogue situations.
+ In dialogue situations where some participants may be unaccustomed to
working with interpreters, the interpreter encourages such participants to address
each other directly.
+ In situations with a number of participants and where the interpreter is not
interpreting aloud to all, the interpreter enables each participant to remain
linguistically present where appropriate by whispered simultaneous interpreting or
other suitable means, when other participants are communicating in the language
not understood by the party or parties in question.
+ If anything is unclear, the interpreter asks for repetition, rephrasing or
explanation, informing all participants of what is happening.
+ In emergency situations where interpreters may not have had the
opportunity to be adequately briefed or given enough time to prepare, or if there
are safety/security issues, they communicate this to the responsible person or
initiator who is participating in the session.
+ Interpreters keep the participants informed of any side comments made
by any of the parties or of their attempts to engage the interpreter in a private or
any other conversation. In business or intergovernmental contexts where one or
more parties bring their own interpreter, it is appropriate for the interpreter to
relay side comments of the other party to his or her own party.
+ Various participants may place competing expectations on interpreters.
These expectations may contravene the interpreters’ ethics, therefore the onus is on
interpreters to clarify the boundaries of their role and assist their clients in
understanding how to achieve the best outcomes in an interpreted session.
Interpreters take care that conversations that may arise during periods of waiting
remain courteous but do not become personal, and that information divulged in the
course of such conversations also remains confidential.
 34

+ Interpreters testify to their qualifications and the accuracy of their interpreting

and, when requested, explain their linguistic choices, but do not testify to participants’
understanding of messages; this remains an issue for participants.
- Remote interpreting
+ Interpreters familiarize themselves with the increasing use of technology
for interpreting, including telephone, video and internet interpreting, and diverse
recording/transmitting devices. Interpreters who engage in interpreting using
these technologies prepare themselves by understanding the purposes of their use
and the way in which communication is shaped by these technologies.
Institutions, agencies and clients who use these technologies are encouraged to
develop protocols and brief interpreters on their use and on any particular
requirements they may have.
- Specific institutional settings of interpreting work
+ Where interpreters have roles in addition to that of interpreting due to
specific employment arrangements, they clearly indicate when they are acting as
interpreters and do not switch roles without notice.
+ In specific institutional settings where duty of care or security rules
regulate the behaviour of all participants, such as in health care or high security
settings, interpreters follow the relevant policies and procedures combining them
with their interpreting code of ethics.
+ The professional ethics of translation have traditionally been defined very
narrowly: it is unethical for the translator to distort the meaning of the source text.
As we have seen, this conception of translator ethics is far too narrow even from
the user's point of view: there are many cases when the translator is explicitly
asked to "distort" the meaning of the source text in specific ways, as when
adapting a text for television, a children's book, or an advertising campaign.
1.6. Questions for discussions
1. What is translation? What definition do you think is the most
appropriate? Can you give your own definition of translation?
2. What is the relationship between translation and culture?
3. How do you translate ecological features of a country? Give an example.
4. How do you translate material culture concerning the physical aspects of
the culture including food, clothes, houses, towns, transport and communication?
Give each type an example.
5. How do you translate culture concerning social culture such as work and
leisure? Give each type an example.
6. How do you translate culture concerning organizations, customs,
activities, procedures and concepts? Give each type an example.
 35

7. How do you translate culture concerning gestures and habits? Give each
type an example.
8. What is cultural transposition?
9. How many kinds of cultural transposition are there? What are they? Give
each type an example.
10. What are pre-translation considerations when translating?
 36

Unit 2
TRANSLATION PROCESS AND METHOD
2.1. Translation process
There are three main steps of translating activities. The first step is analysis,
or analyzing the SL text by understanding that text. In order to understand the
text, the content, meaning, and idea of the text, the translator has to read it first.
Understanding a source text is quiet difficult for a translator because texts genre
are vary and the translator’s knowledge is limited or has no deep knowledge in a
specific area. For example in translating literary text, science, economic, business,
or health that may contains a word in those area which is difficult for the
translator to understand it and finding the equivalence. For that reason a translator
may need help from the experts on the area of what the source text is about, so the
Target Language Text Content, Meaning, Message Content, Meaning, Message
Source Language Text the translator will be able to understand some difficult
words, then transferring them and finding the equivalence of the words into the
target text, thus the inner process.
The second step of the translation process, the translator uses his/her mind
to do that. Here is the most difficult part of the process, because sometimes the
translator faces some problems on how to convey the intention of the source text
into the target text. On this step the translator is also doing an evaluation and
revision of the transferred words or the equivalences that has been found before.
Then the third step, the last step in the translation process is restructuring.
In this step the translator is re-writing the text into the acceptable structural and
cultural form of the target text. The translator should make his/her writing as
natural as possible for the target readers and he/she should also consider about
their readability. After this process is finished, the translation work is done by the
translator but if a translator is doing it for the need of a publisher, it is not done
yet that the publisher is still consider it as a draft of translation that needs some
editing before can finally be published. Translation process can be interpreted as a
series of activities carried out by a translator when he transferred the message
from the source language into the target language.
According to Nida (1964, p.80), the process of translating consists of few
steps of activities, so a translator should do those 4 steps. To help understanding
about the steps of translation process here is a figure explaining about it by Nida:
 37

Figure 2.1. Translation process

2.2. The approach to translation
There are two approaches to translation:
(1) You start translating sentence by sentence, for say the paragraph or
chapter, to get the feel and the feeling tone of the text, and then you deliberately
sit back, review the position, and read the rest of the SL text;
(2) You read the whole text two or three times, and find the intention,
register, tone, mark the difficult words and passages and start translating only
when you have taken your bearings.
Which of the two methods you choose may depend on your temperament,
or on whether you trust your intuition (for the first method) or your powers of
analysis (for the second). You may think: the first method more suitable for a
literary and the second for a technical or an institutional text. The danger of the
first method is that it may leave you with too much revision to do on the early
part, and is therefore time wasting. The second method (usually preferable) can be
mechanical.
 38

2.3. The unit of translation

The unit of translation can vary. It is what you are translating at that
moment. It can range from a word, a sentence to a paragraph or whole passage.
However, normally you translate sentence by sentence, running the risk of not
paying enough attention to the sentence joins. If the translation of a sentence has
no problem, it is based firmly on literal translation. Since the sentence is the basic
unit of thought, presenting an object and what it does, is, or is affected by, so the
sentence is your common unit of translation. In each sentence, it is the object and
what happens to it that you sort out first.
Below the sentence, you go to clause, both finite and non-finite. Within the
clause, you may take next the two obviously cohesive types of collocations,
adjective-plus-noun or verb-plus object, or the various groups that are less
context-bound.
2.4. Translation methods
For a good translator, which could be considered the utmost importance and
the guideline in translation job is translation methodology. It has been a central
problem whether to translate “literally or freely” at least since the first century
BC. Many years have gone, some methods have been identified and Newmark
(1988) has put the argument in the form of a flattened V diagram as the following:

Figure 2.4. V diagram of translation method

 39

2.4.1. Word-for-word translation

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words
are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to
understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as
a pre-translation process.
Word-for-word translation is a method in which the words are translated
“singly by their most common meanings, out of context”, the method in which the
“SL word-order is preserved”. This method is used to understand the mechanics
of source language and to attempt to analyze preliminarily draft of translation
process.
e.g. (1) Vietnamese: Tên anh là gì?
Word-for-word translation into English: Name you is what?
Appropriate translation into English: What is your name?
(2) English: I can swim.
Word-for-word translation into Vietnamese: Tôi có thể bơi.
Appropriate translation into Vietnamese: Tôi/Mình biết bơi.
2.4.2. Literal translation
This kind of method is somehow similar to word-for-word translation in that
“the lexical words are again translated singly” except for one thing, that is, it lays
focus on the conversion of the SL grammatical construction into their nearest TL
equivalents. In other words, the SL grammatical construction is converted to its
nearest TL equivalent but the lexical words are again translated out of context. It
is also a translation that closely follows the form of the SL text. Because language
derives a great deal of meaning from its form, a literal translation may distort the
original meaning.
e.g. (1) English: I love you!
Literal translation into Vietnamese: Tôi yêu bạn!
Suggested translation into Vietnamese: Anh yêu em!/Mẹ yêu con! etc.
(2) Vietnamese: Cô ấy thích đi mua sắm.
Literal translation into English: She likes going shopping.
Suggested translation into English: She likes shopping.
2.4.3. Faithful translation
This method reproduces the precise contextual meaning of the original
and deals with the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. Its aim is to be
“completely faithful” to the intentions and the text-realization of the SL writer.
 40

e.g. (1) English: Mary has done well.

Faithful translation into Vietnamese: Mary đã làm tốt.
(2) Vietnamese: Mary vừa bị ngã.
Faithful translation into English: Mary has just fallen out.
2.4.4. Semantic translation
Semantic translation takes into account the aesthetic value – the beauty of
the SL text. It is more flexible than faithful translation in that it admits creative
exception to 100% fidelity and allows the translator’s intuitive empathy with the
original.
e.g. (1) Vietnamese: Đừng dẫm lên cỏ.
Semantic translation into English: Keep off the grass.
(2) English: He is a book-worm.
Semantic translation into Vietnamese: Anh ta là mọt sách.
2.4.5. Adaptations
For this type of translation, the SL culture is converted to TL culture and
the text is re-written by the experts in the field of the text content. It is used
mainly for plays and poetry. It is the “freest” form of translation.
e.g. (1) Vietnamese: Chào. Đang làm gì đấy?/Bác đi đâu đấy?
Adaptation translation into English: Hi! How are you?
(2) English: Where do you go when you’re lonely?
Where do you go when you’re blue?
Where do you go when you’re lonely?
I’ll follow you
When the stars go blue. (Ryan Adams LISEY’S STORY)
Adaptation translation into Vietnamese:
Đơn côi đâu chốn em về?
Nỗi buồn buông xuống bộn bề, xa xăm?
Đơn côi đâu chốn em về?
Đi đâu tôi cũng nguyện thề theo em.
Khi những vì sao,
Nhuốm buồn! Sáng xanh!
2.4.6. Free translation
Free translation reproduces the manner without paying attention to the
manner. t expresses the content without the form of the original.
 41

e.g. (1) Vietnamese: - Bạn khỏe không? - Tớ không khoẻ lắm. Cảm ơn.
Free translation into English: - How are you? – I’m under the weather.
Thank you.
(2) English: Killing two birds with one stone.
Free translation into Vietnamese: Một mũi tên trúng hai đích.
2.4.7. Idiomatic translation
This type of translation conveys the “message” of the original text. And
with idiomatic translation, nuances of meaning are transmitted to TL text by
colloquialisms and idioms which do not have in the original.
e.g. (1) Vietnamese: - Anh ta bị ném đá.
Idiomatic translation into English: He faces the music.
(2) English: This exercise is a piece of cake.
Idiomatic translation into Vietnamese: Bài tập này dễ.
2.4.8. Communicative translation
Communicative translation presents the exact contextual meaning of the
original in such a way that both content and language are made to be acceptable
and comprehensible to the readers of TL language.
On analyzing the method of translation, it is experienced that
communicative translation is appreciated. However, depending on the text type,
the translation method is chosen because with this kind of text, this method is the
best but it is not good for the others.
e.g. (1) Vietnamese: Họ giống nhau như 2 giọt nước.
Communicative translation into English: They are as alike as 2 peas in the
pot.
(2) English: Beware of dog!
Communicative translation into Vietnamese: Nhà có chó dữ.
2.5. Questions for discussion
1. What is translation process? How many steps are there in the translation
process?
2. How many translation methods are there? What are they?.
3. What are the differences between a literal translation and an idiomatic
translation?
4. What is faithful translation? Give one example.
5. What is adaptation translation? Give one example.
6. What is free translation? Give one example.
 42

7. What is idiomatic translation? Give one example.

8. What should you do to translate a text idiomatically?
 43

Unit 3
TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE AND TRANSLATION LOSS
3.1. Translation equivalence
Translation equivalence (TE) is, in the first instance, an intuitive
commonsense term for describing the ideal relationship that a reader would
expect to exist between an original and its translation, hence respectively termed
source text (ST) and target text (TT). But the difficulties of clarifying this
relationship are reflected in the varied and often contradictory formulations of
what there is to be measured and how, if at all possible, it is to be measured.
Whilst some have questioned the very resort to the term equivalence as vague and
misleading or have indulged in historical and etymological explorations into the
vagaries of its use and introduction, all writers on translation have had to use it as
a convenient starting point for explicating the relationship between the ST and
TT.
Translation is not just a replacement of a ST by a TT. It is essentially a
communicative act employed across time and language. It therefore involves the
same problems and parameters that characterize an act of communication between
any two persons, between the writer and his or her audience, complicated by the
additional hurdle of the inter-linguistic barrier and the intervention of a third
writer and reader. The latter, the translator, as it were, faces both ways, directing
his or her gaze toward both the world of the ST and that of the TT which involves
yet another audience or set of readers. Some of them will be relating to the TT as
an original text, others to it as a translated one; yet others will be responding
simultaneously to both the ST and TT especially if they are both printed alongside
or inter-linearly. To characterize TE it will be necessary to articulate all of the
features of the total text situation processed consciously and unconsciously by the
translator which subsequently condition the finished product in a variety of ways.
3.1.1. Features to be matched in translation equivalence
The features of the linguistic objects or products which are candidates for
matching are: (a) phonic or sound units providing the rational and auditory basis;
(b) the graphic units involving the visual, spatial basis; (c) the grammatical units;
and (d) the semantic or meaning, content units. The product can be matched
across different stretches of language, ranging from shorter word, phrase, or even
morphemic units to sentence, paragraph, and longer discourse ones. At the same
time, these two products, the ST and TT, encapsulate two producer worlds or
situations – that of the author, actual or implied, interacting with his or her
audience and that of the translator interacting with his or hers. This may be
regarded as the pragmatic level, articulating the individual, the social and the
cultural norms involved.
These pragmatic or interpersonal aspects may be linked to the language
functions that have been distinguished: the expressive, focusing on the writer, the
 44

impressive, directed toward the reader and the phratic where language is used to
initiate and facilitate social contact. The first three product categories, phonic,
graphic, and grammatical are significantly linked to the process of achieving
aesthetic and stylistic equivalence, which is particularly important for literary and
poetic translation.
The fourth product category, the semantic, is more strongly associated with
scientific texts where the information function is the uppermost consideration. It
should be borne in mind that these features of the total text situation are, as it
were, being forcibly extracted from what is a unified whole in the interests of
analytical convenience. They impenetrate and are in view of the varied ways in
which they are categorized in the literature, tentative.
e.g. Film dubbing, technical documents, etc.
3.1.2. Functional equivalence
Seeking an equivalence or approximate correspondence for all these
variables may seem a formidable or even impossible task. And when the cultural
gap is wide, some translation theorists have indeed maintained that the task is
impossible. The answer to this assertion is twofold. First, TE is not identity but
must be regarded as approximate correspondence involving resourceful
manipulation by the translator to compensate for the language differences.
Second, not all these variables are relevant in every situation. For instance,
spatial equivalence is relevant in a newspaper headline situation, phonic matching
in film dubbing, in poetic alliteration, or where a songwriter is translating to fit a
musical score. The translator’s choice of expression is determined by interplay of
all the features outlined above.
Equivalence is a matter in each case of weighing up priorities, sometimes
sacrificing the natural syntactic ordering of the TL in the interests of reproducing
a particular poetic effect that the translator feels to be functional at the time. Thus,
a seventeenth-century translator rendered the familiar opening verse of the
readability Psalm as ‘The Lord to me a shepherd is, want therefore shall I not.’ In
his view the English meter performed the poetic function that was a crucial
feature of the ST, outweighing the consideration of TL syntax.
The determination of what is functional is a decision taken either
deliberately or intuitively by the translator every time he or she translates. This is
the case even when the identical ST is being retranslated by the same or a
different translator, accounting for the fact that one ST will produce many
‘equivalent’ TTs, particularly if they are meant for different audiences, at
different periods of history. For example, at the lexical level the familiar Hebrew
greeting shalom can be variously translated, depending on the context, as hi,
hello, good morning, hail, farewell, peace. These are thus actual instances of
translation which thereby become a set of potential equivalents of the class of
occurrence of shalom in text. The determination of their appropriateness can be
 45

modeled in terms of a matching procedure beginning either from the lower sound
level, working its way upward to the higher levels of the semantic and pragmatic
aspects or proceeding in reverse order from higher to lower.
No doubt, unconscious or intuitive translation is characterized by an
unordered simultaneous matching. It is only the highest level that all the proposed
translations become possible renderings. The options are progressively narrowed
by the specific context which determines the relative weight of the different
aspects of the total text situation – graphic, phonic, semantic, pragmatic, etc. Thus
all the translations of shalom share at the highest level the performance of the
phatic function of making conversation and serving as an opening or closing
greeting. If phonic matching is the primary consideration then the English hello in
an formal register might be referred to the American hi because it shares the
bisyllabic sound and durational structure of the SL. Peace might constitute an
appropriate poetic, archaic, or even political rendering and not necessarily a bad
over literal one .
To determine functional equivalence the translator must adopt, as in any
communicative situation, a top-down approach, considering first the general
nature of the whole discourse from both the ST and TT angles and then working
down to matching the lowest level of linguistic units. TE will usually be regarded
as most complete and faithful where there is ‘matching at the lowest possible
level’. Translation, in this context involves the mere matching of diphthongs:
/ↄi/-/ai/, /ai/-/ei/, and would usually be regarded as reflecting the closest degree of
TE. But this is not necessarily so. ‘My son did not arrive in time’ might be
considered an equally valid if not preferred translation if it was closer to the
Southern Standard register. In such a case pragmatic considerations would
override the lower matching criterion of TE.
e.g. “Chào” can be translated into English as “Hi, Hello, Good morning,
Bye, Cheerio, Good day, How are you?”, etc.
3.1.3. Bridging the differences across languages
The differences between individual languages at all levels determine that
there is bound to be variation in the amount and character of the information
carried by the respective source and target texts, contributing a Russian meaning
to a Russian text and an English meaning to an English one.
At the same time these differences or lack of correspondences occur within
a perceptibly universal framework that both permits translation as an unconscious
natural phenomenon and enables the translator to analyze deliberately and
facilitate translation adequacy and acceptability. Such a framework is utilized in
the contrastive, componental analysis of linguistic items in the SL and TL in order
to indicate the different linguistic means employed in each language to express
these universal functions.
 46

These include objects, qualities, and relations into which semantic

structures have been divided, the experience of time, agency, causality, modality,
forms of address, body parts, color, flora and fauna, cooking, dress, speech acts,
etc. To take but one example the words speakers use to refer themselves ‘self-
reference’, are comparatively limited in English with the first person pronoun
being the most frequently used. In Japanese, however, there are seven most
commonly used words for I depending on the sex, status of the speaker, and
kinship relation to the addressee. Similarly, speech acts can be contrastively
analyzed and TE assessed by the criterion of their interchangeability in the same
situation. Thus public signs in different countries referring to such identical
situations as the prohibition of smoking should be contrasted rather than the texts
translating literally.
Assuring TE by the criterion of situational interchangeability is a
comparatively straightforward matter in the restricted context of tourist catching
phrases and public notices. Very often, however, the determination of situation
involves whole array of not easily isolatable factors. It may be difficult in some
cases to establish a common language-independent situation.
e.g. addressing, public signs, personal pronouns: “I”, “you”, etc.
3.1.4. Translation of metaphor
In the late twentieth century, the question of whether metaphors pose a
special problem for TE has attracted attention, with views ranging from the
assertion that they are untranslatable or specifically difficult to the view that they
constitute no problem; indeed that they are even easier to translate than ordinary
language. It is useful to distinguish between creative, innovative metaphors and
the stock or dead metaphors which have become part and parcel of the general
vocabulary and which imperceptibly merge into polysemic items and idioms. It
should be emphasized that even the creative metaphors occur in all kinds of texts
and are not just a feature of poetic and literary ones.
Translation procedures that are advocated vary from word-for-word
translation to paraphrase and creative adaptation. The unavoidable conclusion
must be that the translation of metaphor in common with all other linguistic
occurrences must be conditioned by the two languages involved. Where there is
no cultural overlap, explanatory paraphrase, replacement by a non-metaphor, or
even omission may be called for. Whether any of these procedures can be
justified as TE will ultimately depend on weighing up the various factors in the
overall translation situation. It is sufficient to give one example of two different
procedures of metaphor translation of the same text. Obviously, both of the
translation procedures adopted, literal and almost word-for-word, on the one
hand, or non-metaphorical conceptual adaptation, on the other, can be justified
in terms of the audience for whom the translation is designed.
The closer the cultural overlap in metaphor translation, the less problematic
the translation. The more frequent the occurrence of the metaphor, the greater is
 47

the feasibility of drawing up an inventory of equivalent metaphors in the SL and

TL. The less predictable and more open the phenomenon, the greater the necessity
for creative adaptation, Thus while cleverness and cunning is associated in many
Indo-European and Semitic languages with the Fox, in African languages these
qualities are assigned to a variety of different animals and insects such as
tortoises, hares, and spiders. But even in languages as culturally close as English
and German there are significant differences. The cat in German is associated
with agility and grace, in English with spite. In this connection, Osgood’s work on
semantic differential data is helpful in clarifying the varying emotional
associations that must be taken into account of in achieving TE in the field of
metaphor as in other fields.
e.g. As poor as a church mouse (nghèo kiết xác); as bitter as gall (đắng như
bồ hòn); as deaf as an adder /a beetle/a stone/ a doorpost (điếc lòi); etc.
3.1.5. Text types and overall translation strategies
The choice of translation procedures at the level of the shorter units of
language, of the parts, will have predictable correlations with the wholes, with
the overall strategies or types of translation and the variety of source texts
being translated. The distinction between literal and free translation has a long
story. Some writers on translation have regarded the former as exhibiting a
higher degree of TE. But others have awarded that evaluation to the latter. We
can indeed describe the differences between these two clearly divergent
strategies of translation in terms of their relation to the source and target
worlds. Literal, word-for-word, and interlinear translation is associated with
greater deference to the world of the ST and the maximum formal and
linguistic correspondence with the SL. Dynamic and free translation focuses on
adapting to the world of the TT and the TL idioms. But there is no necessary
association between the degree of TE and the type of translation adopted, be it
literal or dynamic. There is, too, no straightforward correlation between these
overall translation strategies and text varieties. Another distinction that has
been made in the field of translation types is that existing between covert and
overt translations; between a TT which is not regarded as a translation and that
which is either known to be one or explicitly treated as one. This distinction
becomes significant in the light of the phenomenon of pseudo-translation.
These have been undertaken when the source culture was prestigious and an
avowed or overt translation sold better than an original. But audience
awareness of the linguistic and cultural origins of their reading is just one of
the factors determining the translation strategy adopted and eventually
assessment of the degree of TE.
What is apparent in the literature on translation is a variety of
categorization of translation types: communicative, philological, pragmatic,
ethnographic, dynamic, formal, literal, poetic, aesthetic, etc. What emerges is
that some classify according to the actual types of texts being translated –
 48

literal, poetic, journalistic, technical, etc.; others according to the linguistic

functions of the texts – expressive, impressive, or informative; and yet others
by the overall translation strategy adopted – literal, formal or free-dynamic.
The most useful approach is therefore to formulate a descriptive
framework which takes account of all the factors that can be identified as
entering into the total translation situation and relate them tentatively to such
broadly distinctive categories as informational or referential, literary and
poetic, and literal-interlinear. In some cases a translator may decide to
transform the ST type from a poetic to a prose text or from an adult satire to a
children’s story as in Gulliver’s Travels or Don Quixote. Both the nature of the
ST and the linguistic differences between the SL and TL will condition the
type of overall strategy of translation and the way all the elements in the total
translation situation are fused. Conversely, the type of translation to which the
actual TT identifiably belongs will constitute an indication of the way the
translator has viewed the ST, on the one hand, and the needs of the readers, on
the other, and how these two factors have been harmonized.
a) A descriptive framework of translation types
Some idea of the complex web of relationships involved in TE is
provided in the accompanying chart. All the basic elements of the ST for which
the translator seeks correspondence or an equivalent are listed horizontally.
They include the four linguistic levels followed by the subdivision into
syntagmatic units of shorter and longer stretches of language; from morpheme
to sentence and discourse. Two more columns are added under the product or
object heading for marking the idiomatic features of the SL and TL. A literal
fidelity-form translation will focus on word-for word translation heavily
influenced by the SL structure. A free-dynamic translation will endeavor to
match larger sentence, paragraph, and discourse units, submitting itself
principally to the idiomatic demands of the TL. There will, of course, be
intermediary procedures. The last two columns under the producer heading,
alluding to pragmatic and stylistic features are divided into author and reader-
oriented aspect.
Product Producers
__________________________________ ______
Translation types Sm Ph Gr Sy M W P L S D SL TL A R
Referential a - c - - - - - - - - a - a
Literary poetic b a - a - - - - + + - a b a
Literal-Interlinear c - - a - + + + + - a c a a
Sm = semantic; Ph = phonetic; Gr = graphic; Sy= syntax; M = morpheme; W
= word; P = phrase; L = line; S = sentence; D = discourse; SL = source
language; TL = target language; A = author; R = reader
 49

What has been analyzed as the expressive and impressing functions of the
communicative situation as well as the social psychological and cultural factors of
the respecting author, translator, and reader worlds will be located here. The
choice of register in Bible translation, for instance, between a reverential-formal
or colloquial-familiar style will be determined by a combination of author and
reader factors. This in turn will condition the lexical choice and the freedom or
fidelity, that is, the higher or lower levels of the linguistic matching. The choice
of a familiar style will usually, but not necessarily, be associated with a dynamic
translation, a formal reverential one with a literal fidelity one.
b) Translation equivalence in scientific and technical texts
Three types of translation are listed vertically on the chart. The way that
they focus on the different characteristics of the translation situation is marked on
a descending three-point scale: (a), (b), and (c). The first type, the referential, is
associated with instruction manuals and scientific technical literature. It focuses
on matching content or semantic units which are therefore given an (a) marking.
There may be some graphic focus, too, if the information has to share the same
printing layout or be inserted into the same spatial dimension. Accordingly, the
graphic column is marked (c). The translator has, in this case, to take into account
the reader’s world and the language structure of the TL in order to provide an
adequate and serviceable translation. Cases where he fails to do so are not
unusual, resulting in bafflement to the unfortunate native reader and a source of
amusement to the bilingual one into whose hands the translation happens to fall.
These aspects of the translation process are accordingly given the mark (a) on the
three-point scale. The author orientation and the phonic and syntactic levels of the
ST are not usually relevant to the translator’s choices and are therefore left blank.
On the whole, this will be a free, dynamic translation.
c) Translation equivalence in literary and poetic texts
The second type listed is the literary poetic one where the semantic
information is chiefly filtered through the aesthetic means. The translator focuses
on finding equivalence in the TL for the phonosyntactic features of the ST and the
author’s idiosyncratic exploitation of the cultural and linguistic expectation of the
readership. The semantic column is accordingly marked (b), the phonosyntactic
features associated with the aesthetic function (a), with the author and reader
column marked (b) and (a), respectively. The result will be a dynamic translation.
But the relationship between the translator’s commitment to the form of the ST
and the demands of the TL as well as his or her sensitivity to reader’s needs will
vary.
The graphic aspect ignored in this description will be relevant in marking
the difference between prose and poetry and different poetic genres. The graphic
aspect has been marked in the poetic subtype, indicating the linear matching of
the ST. The SL has been given a (b) marking suggesting that this type of poetry
translation attempts to reflect, to the certain extent, the SL idiom. The increased
 50

focus on imparting the flavor of the author’s style even at the expense of violating
reader expectations, sometimes a characteristic of original poetry as well, is
reflected in the marking scale. Different types of literary translation will call for a
different weighting of the parameters. The translator may, for instance, attach
greater importance to daring cultural adaptation in deference to reader needs,
though it is more likely that the reverse will be the case.
In poetry, too, the translator can adopt a variety of different approaches. The
unit of translation may be the line, couplet, or stanza; the translation type may be
dynamic or literal. It might closely preserve the phonosyntactic structure, the meter,
stress, or verse form of the original, though this would undoubtedly affect the range
of lexical and semantic choices resulting in a less faithful translation at that level. A
translator might opt for a strict matching of meaning components but ignore any
matching of the sound and syntactic aspects. This would probably result in a prose
translation or paraphrase.
d) Translation equivalence in literal, interlinear, and dramatic texts
The third type exemplified in the chart is the literal and interlinear translation
which strives to produce the syntactic form of the original even at the expense of
violating TL norms. It can even involve the deliberate risk of not clearly conveying
the sense of the ST or of reproducing the incomprehensibility or obscurity of the
original. The translators of the KJB clearly felt it was sacrilegious to make the TT
less obscure than the ST. They wrote: ‘For as it is a fault of incredulity to doubt of
those things that are evident; so to determine of such things such as the Spirit of God
hath left (even in the judgement of the judicious questionable) can be no less than
‘presumption’.
The criteria of obscurity and intelligibility vary with the type of
readership. The translator bears in mind the expectations of the readers, some of
whom demand an explicit text whilst others prefer a difficult, implicit one.
Interlinear and literal translations are often criticized for their obscurity and
oddity. But even free translations have evoked this warning note from Nida
‘Making clear what is intentionally obscure in the original text is a violation of
the intent of the author and the spirit of the text.’ Interlinear translations may
also involve graphic, spatial, considerations. The cline of literary or choice of
level matching may vary from morpheme to word or phrase and this is marked
accordingly in the chart.
Drama translation might be regarded as a type of specialized covert
translation in which TE is achieved through the focus on ‘speakability’. It is
important for the translator to reproduce the appropriate speech rhythms and
recreate the dramatic situation. Other types may be added but actual translation
will be a mixture of types which are, after all, hypothetical constructs. The
feature chart can be elaborated and refined, but no explication of TE can capture
all the varieties of approximation resorted to in achieving it.
3.1.6. Translation more an art than a science
 51

Translation is more of an art than a science. The complex arrays of

options facing the translator have been suggestively outlined. On every single
occasion that he practices his skill the translator has to mediate between them
determine which combination of them is most appropriate to the context and in
some way derivable from the ST. There can be explicit rules against the
impossible, against mistranslation or functional mismatch, but hardly any for
defining and choosing what is more appropriate. Appropriacy which is the
maximum measure of TE is forged in the last resort in target terms, conditioned
by the needs of the potential readership as understood by the translator.
3.2. The equivalent effect
The literature of translation studies has generated a lot of discussion of
what is generally known as the principle of equivalence effect. In a nutshell, this
principle stipulates that the TT should produce the same effect (or one as close as
possible) on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of
the original. This as also called the ‘equivalent response’ principle. Nida (1964)
calls it ‘dynamic equivalence’.
Newmark (1988) considers equivalent effect an important intuitive
principle which could be tested, but he also emphasizes that ‘equivalent effect’ is
the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation. It is an unlikely result
in two cases: a) if the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation is
to inform (or vice versa); a) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the SL
and the TL texts.
However, in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent
effect is not only desirable, it is essential; it is the criterion by which the
effectiveness, and therefore the value, of the translation of notices, instructions,
publicity, propaganda, persuasive or eristic writing, and perhaps popular fiction, is
to be assessed. The reader’s response – to keep off the grass, to buy the soap, to
join the Party, to assemble the device – could even be quantified as a percentage
of the success of the translation.
In informative texts, equivalent effect is desirable only in respect of their (in
theory) insignificant emotional impact; it is not possible if SL and TL cultures are
remote from each other, since normally the cultural items have to be explained by
culturally neutral or generic terms, the topic content simplified, SL difficulties
clarified. Hopefully, the TL readers read the text with the same degree of interest as
the SL reader, although the impact is different.
In semantic translation, the first problem is that for serious imaginative
literature, there are individual readers rather than a readership. Secondly, whilst
the reader is not entirely neglected, the translator is essentially trying to render the
effect the SL text has on himself (to feel, to emphasize with the author), not on
any putative readership. Certainly, the more ‘universal the text, the more a broad
equivalent effect is possible, since the ideals of the original go beyond any
cultural frontiers.
 52

However, the more cultural (the more local, the more remote in time and
space) a text, the less equivalent effect even conceivable is unless the reader is
imaginative, sensitive and steeped in the SL culture.
Communicative translation, being set at the reader’s level of language and
knowledge, is more likely to create equivalent effect than is semantic translation
at the writer’s level.
Other theorists like Hervey and Higgins (1992) find the principle of
equivalent effect too vague to be useful in a methodology of translation. In so far as
‘equivalence’ is taken as synonym of ‘sameness’, the concept runs into serious
philosophical objections. The claim that ST and TT effects and features are
‘equivalent’ in the sense of ‘the same’ is in any case unhelpful and misleading for
the purposes of translation methodology, for two main reasons.
First, the requirement that the TT should affect its recipient in the same
way as the ST does (or did) its original audience raises the difficult problem of
exactly how any one particular recipient responds to the text, and the extent to
which texts have constant interpretations even for the same person on two
different occasions. Before one could objectively assess textual effects, one would
need to have recourse to a fairly detailed and exact theory of psychological effect,
capable, among other things, of registering the aesthetic sensations that are often
paramount in the text.
Second, the principle of equivalent effect also presumes that the translator
can know in advance what the effects of a TT will be on its intended audience. In
the face of these problems, the temptation for translators is to covertly substitute
their own subjective interpretation for the effects of the ST on recipients in
general, and also for the effects of the TT on its intended audience.
Unlike intralingual translation, translation proper has the task of bridging
the cultural gap between monolingual speakers of different languages. The
backgrounds, shared knowledge, cultural assumptions and learnt responses of
monolingual TL speakers are inevitably culture-bound. Given this fact, SL
speakers’ responses to the TT audience is bound to produce a fundamental
dissimilarity between the effect of the ST and those of the TT – such effect can be
best be similar in a global and limited sense; they can never be ‘the same’.
Another point one must query about the principle of objective equivalent
effect concerns the requirement that the TT should replicate the effects of the ST
on its original audience. This might conceivably possible for a contemporary ST,
but for a work of any appreciable age it may not be feasible, or even desirable. It
may not be possible for the translator to determine how audiences responded to
the ST when it was first produced. But even if one assumes that such effects can
be determined, one still faced with a dilemma: should the effects of the TT
matched to those of the ST on its original audience, or on a modern SL audience?
 53

In any case, the translator should have a sound attitude to translation

methodology. He should avoid an absolutist attempt to discover sameness in things
that are crucially different (ST and TT), in favour of a relativist attempt to minimize
dissimilarities between things that are clearly understood to be different. Once the
latter approach is accepted, there is no objection to using the term ‘equivalence’ as a
shorthand term for ‘not dissimilar in relevant respects’.
3.3. Translation loss
It is much more realistic to start by admitting that the transfer of meaning
from ST to TT necessarily involves a certain degree of translation loss; that is, a
TT will always lack certain cultural relevant features that are present in the ST.
Once one accepts the concept of inevitable translation loss, a TT that is not, in
all important respects, a replica of its ST is not a theoretical anomaly, and the
translator can concentrate on the realistic aim of cutting down on translation
loss, rather than the unrealistic one of seeking the ultimate translation of the ST.
An important corollary of this concept of translation loss is that it
embraces any failure to replicate a ST exactly, whether this involves losing
features in the TT or adding them. Hence, translation loss, as we have defined it,
is inevitable, even where the ST gains in, say, economy, vividness, or avoidance
of ambiguity. The challenge to the translator is thus not to eliminate translation
loss altogether, but to reduce it by deciding which of the relevant features in the
ST it is most important to preserve, and which can most legitimately be
sacrificed in preserving them. The translator should strive to reduce translation
loss, to minimize difference rather than to maximize sameness.
3.4. Questions for discussion
1. What is translation equivalence?
2. Why do functional (dynamic) equivalence rather than formal equivalence
(correspondence) is often sought for in translation practice?
3. What is the equivalent effect in translation?
4. What are the text types and overall translation strategies?
5. How can the fact of loss in translation occur?
6. Why is translation a kind of art?
7. How many frameworks of translation types are there? What are they?
Give one example for one type.
8. How are these framwork treated in translation?
9. What is translation loss?
10. What should you do to avoid translation loss?
 54

Unit 4
GRAMMATICAL SKEWING AND TRANSLATION SHIFTS
4.1. Grammatical skewing
The word ‘skewing’ is used to describe the lack of a one-to one correlation
between a grammatical form and the meaning represented by that form. A single
grammatical form may have several meanings, or functions. One of these is the
primary function. All the others are skewed: that is, there is a mismatch between
the grammatical form and the meaning.
4.1.1. The fact of skewing
It is well known that lexical items have secondary meaning. Similarly,
grammatical forms have secondary functions. They are not always used in their
primary meaning. For example, the question ‘When are you going to clean your
room?’ is grammatically an interrogative sentence. If the speaker were really
inquiring about the time when the event of ‘cleaning the room’ was to take place,
there would be no skewing. However, when spoken by a mother who is very
angry at her son for not doing his part of the family chores, the meaning is not one
of asking for information but rather a command given with strong rebuke. The
interrogative form is used but a command is indicated. There is a grammatical
skewing.
Skewing of this kind occurs at all levels of the grammatical structure of a
language, from single affixes, to words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs,
and to full texts. Skewing is a characteristic of languages that has important
implications for translators since the skewing found in one language will not
match the skewing found in another language.
4.1.2. Skewing at various levels of the grammatical hierarchy
In order to illustrate more fully how grammatical skewing affects the
work of translating, it is necessary to begin by comparing the grammatical
hierarchy with the semantic hierarchy. In the grammatical hierarchy units are
grouped into increasingly larger units: words are grouped together to form
phrases, phrases to form clauses, clauses to form sentences, sentences into
paragraphs, paragraphs into sections, and so on until a complete text is
achieved. The grammatical hierarchy is not necessarily the same from one
language to another, but the one given below is typical. Semantic structure
can also be viewed as being a hierarchy, although as a matter of fact, it is a
configuration of units in which there is networking and often simultaneity.
Nevertheless, for the purpose of comparison it is helpful to consider these
configurations as a hierarchy. When there is no skewing, the semantic
hierarchy and, the grammatical hierarchy can be compared in the following
way:
- meaning component: morpheme (root and affix)
 55

- concept: word
- complex concept: phrase
- proposition: clause
- propositional cluster: sentence
- semantic paragraph: paragraph
- episode: section
- episode cluster: division
- semantic part: part
- discourse: text
In a given language, a direct correspondence between the semantic
structure and grammatical structure is common. However, skewing between these
two structures is not infrequent. Because of the great amount of skewing at all
levels of the hierarchy, translators are constantly challenged to find the lexical
items and the grammatical forms of the TL which most nearly communicate the
meaning intended by the author of the ST.
a) Morpheme and word level
The smallest grammatical unit, the morpheme sometimes represents a
single meaning component as with the English -s plural suffix for the word ear.
More frequently a morpheme refers to a number of meaning components
simultaneously. For example, the word ewe includes the meaning of ‘sheep’,
‘adult’, and ‘female’.
Different languages package meaning components differently. Often a
translator needs to use several words to carry the meaning of one word in the ST.
For example, the verb lẫy in Vietnamese cannot be translated by using one word
in English.
When there is no skewing, nouns and pronouns are used to refer to things;
verbs are used to refer to events or activities; adjectives and adverbs to attributes
of the things and events respectively. When there is skewing, an action is referred
to by a noun, or a thing is used as an adjective to modify some other thing. For
example, in the sentence ‘I heard Peter’s call’, the word call is a noun in the
grammar but it encodes an event. The skewing can be eliminated by restating as
follows: ‘Peter called. I heard him’ or ‘I heard Peter when he called’. In the
restatement grammatical class and the semantic class match since a verb is used to
encode an event. The sentence ‘The man’s coffee drinking amazed me’ might be
restated ‘I was amazed that the man drank so much coffee.’ A translator may be
able to keep the same skewing when translating between related languages, but
between unrelated languages, a completely different grammatical structure may
be required in order to translate abstract nouns such as call and drinking in the
preceding examples.
 56

An important part of the grammar of any language is the pronominal system.

The fact that systems differ calls for certain adjustments in translation. Pronouns
often have secondary meanings which complicate translation. Moreover, pronouns
have different functions in different languages.
The editorial in English is an example of a secondary meaning. A speaker
may begin by saying, ‘We are going to talk about...’ when it is very clear that he
alone is going to do the talking. In translation the use of the first person plural
pronoun would communicate the wrong meaning in many receptor languages.
Similarly, a nurse may say to a patient, ‘It’s time for our medicine.’ but without
any intention of taking medicine.
b) Phrase level
There are many different types of phrase structure in languages: noun
phrase, genitive constructions, prepositional phrase, etc. Skewing is characteristic
of many of them in that the grammatical phrase is often a shortcut for implying
much more than is actually stated in the phrase itself.
Skewing is often found in noun phrases. A common form of noun phrase is
a modifier with a noun. When the modifier is an adjective, there is no skewing
since the function of attributes is to modify things. Very often a noun phrase
includes modifier that is actually a noun or verb, and this results in skewing of the
sort in which the phrase is encoding a proposition. For example, dog house has
the grammatical pattern of modifier-noun. The underlying meaning is ‘a house
where the dog stays/lives/sleeps.’ ‘The coming storm will destroy the crops’
includes a noun phrase with a verb as modifier. The meaning being encoded is
‘the storm which is coming.’
Possessive noun phrases such as his house may encode a variety of
meanings: ‘he owns the house,’ ‘he built the house,’ ‘he rents the house,’ or even
‘he is the architect who designed the house.’ The larger context, including the
situation in which the phrase is used, will help the hearer to decipher the meaning.
The unskewed meaning of a possessive noun is ‘possession.’ In all the other
meanings, there is an underlying proposition not explicit in the grammatical form.
Possessive noun phrases such as his kindness, his mistake, and his humility
also show skewing in that the underlying meaning is a proposition – ‘he is kind,’
‘he made a mistake,’ and ‘he has the quality of humility.’ Very often noun phrases
cannot be translated by noun phrases in non-Indo-European languages. Skewing
found in one language does not match the skewing found in another.
A number of European languages have a phrase form called the genitive
construction. This grammatical form encodes a variety of semantic structures:
therefore, it may need considerable adjustment in the translation process since not
all languages have a corresponding grammatical form. Even when an equivalent
form occurs in the target language, it may function quite differently.
 57

In English, the genitive construction consists of a noun followed by of

followed by a second noun, for example, cup of water, meaning ‘a cup containing
water.’ It is used to encode a wide variety of semantic structures as shown by the
following examples. In these examples the genitive construction is restated as it
might be if there were no skewing of semantics and grammar:
e.g. (1) a crown of gold: ‘a crown is made of gold’
(2) a city of Asia: ‘a city is in Asia’
(3) the goodness of Mary: ‘Mary is good’
(4) the obedience of the children: ‘the children obeyed someone’
(5) the death of Peter: ‘Peter died’
(6) the fear of the enemy: ‘some feared the enemy’ or ‘the enemy feared
someone’
In the following examples, the event is left implicit by the use of the
genitive construction. Therefore there is skewing:
e.g. (1) the days of Luther: ‘the days when Luther lived’
(2) the violence of the men: ‘the men were acting violently’
(3) the law of Moses: ‘the law which Moses wrote’
A genitive construction may encode two propositions, each noun in the
construction encoding a whole proposition:
e.g. (1) fear of starvation: ‘someone fears that he will starve’
(2) knowledge of fishing: ‘someone knows about how people fish’
In order to translate from a language with many genitive constructions into
a language that does not use this grammatical form so frequently, it is helpful to
the translator to rewrite the genitive construction, making the meaning completely
explicit and thus eliminating the skewing in the ST.
In English, prepositional phrases may exhibit skewing similar to that of
noun phrases and possessive phrases. The same preposition may have very
different meaning:
e.g. (1) I ate ice cream with my spoon.
(2) I ate ice cream with my wife.
(3) I ate ice cream with my pie.
The same grammatical form is encoding three different semantic relations
– instrument, accompaniment of the agent, and accompaniment of the affected
(ice cream).
c) Clause level
 58

A clause encodes a proposition. Propositions are also called kernel

sentences. There is no skewing in English between the proposition and the clause
or simple sentence when the agent concept is the subject, the patient concept is
the goal, the location concept is the object of a locative preposition, and so forth.
For example: ‘Mary ate the chocolates’. However, in such structures as ‘the
chocolates were eaten by Mary’, ‘the chocolates which Mary ate’ and ‘the
chocolates eaten by Mary’ there is skewing.
Passive verbs are a grammatical form found in many languages; however,
their function varies from language to language. In English the active form is the
nonskewed, the passive is the skewed:
e.g. Active: Peter cleaned the office.
Passive: The office was cleaned by Peter.
The passive form is often used to maintain the topic of a paragraph by
having the subject of each sentence refer to the same person as in the following
sentences: ‘Alice went to the store. She stopped at the post office and then started
home. She was hit by a car at the first corner. She was hurt and had to be taken to
the hospital.’ The change to passive verbs in the last two sentences makes it
possible to keep Alice as the topic by having as the subject either Alice or she
throughout the paragraph.
d) Sentence level
Semantic communication relations are often encoded by conjunctions,
prepositions, or, in many languages, by verbal forms. These relation markers each
have a primary function but if they are used with any one of their various
secondary functions skewing results. The conjunction but in English means
‘contrast’. In the sentence ‘John went to the store, but he didn’t stop at the post
office’ there is no skewing. However, in the sentence ‘Mark is small, but he is a
good player’ the relation is one of ‘concession-counter-expectation,’ not of
‘contrast.’ The meaning is ‘even though Mark is small he is a good player.’ The
conjunction so, in English, encodes ‘grounds-conclusion.’ But in its secondary
function it means ‘reason-result’ as in the sentence ‘Alice was tired and so she
went to bed.’ The unskewed form would be ‘Because Alice was tired she went to
bed.’ The translator must be alert to the secondary functions of grammatical forms
that encode relations between propositions.
Languages differ in how much skewing of order is acceptable and natural.
Events happen in chronological order in real life. Clauses encoded in a sentence
on an order different from the chronological order are skewed. Such changes of
order are unnatural in many languages. For example He bound up his wounds,
pouring on medicine.
e) Paragraph level
 59

Skewing occurs in English when different words are used to refer to one
thing in order to avoid repetition. Sometimes the clauses within a sentence may
occur in an order that does not match the chronological or logical order of the
semantic structure, so the sentences within a paragraph may be presented in an
order quite different from the underlying structure. The same relations that occur
between clauses in a sentence also occur between sentences in a paragraph.
f) Discourse level
Each discourse type, or genre, has a primary function. In narrative
discourse the author’s purpose is to recount; in expository discourse, to explain; in
descriptive discourse, to describe; and in hortatory discourse, to command or
make a suggestion. When there is no skewing, a narrative employs first or third
person and the past tense, and it consists of a line of events as the backbone of the
discourse. A hortatory discourse employs second and consists of a series of
injunctions as the backbone of the discourse. There are many examples, however,
of texts with a structure that does not match the expectation of the genre type or
the underlying structure. Such skewing may be used at the peak of the narrative to
add vividness and get the attention of the audience or reader. It may be used
throughout the text as in the following extract taken from a tourist brochure. It is a
description of a place in Mexico but the text is written in second person as a
procedural text rather than a description: Turning your eyes upward, you get a
wonderful view of the great long stalactites ... After seeing this underground
fairyland, you get into your car again, travel back to the main highway, and start
for Taxco, the most picturesque village in central Mexico.
Another example of skewing is the change of tense in a narrative. The
grammatical tense forms are skewed for the stylistic purpose of highlighting the
denouement.
A great deal of skewing occurs in special genres such as poetry,
advertisements, jokes, and drama. The problem for the translator is that patterns of
skewing are different for different languages especially in these genres.
4.1.3. Skewing of illocutionary functions
Skewing may occur between the primary illocutionary force intended by
the speaker and the primary meaning of the grammatical form. The primary
function, or illocutionary force, of a statement is to give information; and the
primary illocutionary force of a question is to ask for information; and the
primary illocutionary force of a command is to encourage or solicit action from
the hearer.
The following chart shows the unskewed relationship between the
illocutionary force and the grammatical form:
Statement declarative clause or sentence
Question interrogative clause or sentence
 60

Command imperative clause or sentence

If the illocutionary force and the grammatical form match, as in the chart,
there is no skewing and the translation process is relatively straightforward.
However, there are many examples of skewing. A speaker may use an
interrogative form to encode a command; likewise he may use a declarative
sentence to encode a command.
In English the sentence ‘Why don’t you feed the birds?’ is a polite way of
communicating the meaning ‘I suggest that you feed the birds.’ It is a polite
command.
Most languages use the interrogative form with rhetorical functions, but the
functions vary from language to language. Sometimes the interrogative is used to
emphasize a known fact: ‘How can I leave now when the weather is so bad?’
really means ‘I cannot leave now because the weather is too bad.’
4.2. Translation shifts
Gentzler (1993, p. 86) wrote Popovic’s opinion about shift (1970, p. 78)
that each individual method of translation is determined by the presence or
absence of shifts in 4 the various layers of the translation. All that appears as new
with respect to the original or fails to appear where it might have been expected
may be interpreted as a shift. So, when the form in source language has a new
form or different form from target language, it is called shift. According to Baker
(1992, p. 20), non-equivalence at word level means that the target language has no
direst equivalent for a word which occurs in the source text. The type and level of
difficulty posed can vary tremendously depending on the nature of non-
equivalence. Different kinds of non-equivalence require different strategies, some
very straightforward, others more involved and difficulty to handle. Since, in
addition to the nature of non-equivalence, the context and purpose of translation
will often rule out some strategies and favour others.
There is an important way in which equivalent SL and TL texts may differ
from each other, even when they refer to essentially the same situational features.
This is the manner in which different languages often express one and the same
category by quite different means. In such cases the TL may be said to ‘shift’ the
expression of the category to a quite different level, or to a different grammatical
means of expression.
There are other, less obvious examples, in which a particular grammatical
category may appear to be absent from one of the two languages involved, but can
be at least in some cases, be perfectly well expressed by quite different
grammatical means. Thus, English with its system of articles expresses the
difference between a noun indicating an identified referent and one indicating an
unidentified referent by selection of either ‘definite’ or ‘indefinite’ article.
Here the equivalent of the English difference between definite and
indefinite articles is a difference in the sequence of elements of the Vietnamese
 61

clause. The translation equivalence is perfectly good, although there is no formal

correspondence between the SL and TL texts; the grammatical means of
expressing the same categories in entirely different.
In other cases, categories that are expressed by stress and intonation in one
language may have to be expressed quite differently in another, as in these
examples of a brief conversation exchange in English and Vietnamese between
people looking at a photograph:
- Is that your brother? - Có phải kia là anh trai cậu không?
- Yes. - Đúng rồi.
- Ah, I thought it was! - A. Mình nghĩ là vậy
- Is that your brother? - Có phải kia là anh trai cậu không?
- No. - Không phải đâu.
- Oh, I thought it was! - Ồ, mình nghĩ là vậy
4.3. Questions for discussion
1. What is the definition of skewing? Give an example to illustrate the case
of grammatical skewing at morpheme and word levels.
2. How many levels levels of the grammatical hierarchy are there? What
are they? Give one example for each level.
3. What is skewing of illocutionary functions?
4. What is translation shilt?
5. How many types of shift do translators often encounter? What are they?
Provide examples to illustrate them.
 62

Unit 5
STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS
5.1. About language
5.1.1. Words
When people get together, they talk to each other. All our talk comes in
words, which we use with their unchangeable meanings. In English, we know that
the idea of 10 is expressed as "ten", and in Vietnamese "mười".
5.1.2. Syntax
Then there are rules, which tell us how to put the words together in their
sequence. I can say in English: I have a white iPad, but the Vietnamese would
say: I have an iPad white. Every language has its own order of words in the
sentence and we must respect that. Once we know a language, we can use the
rules; we can make new sentences and phrases.
5.1.3. Idiolect
All native speakers of a language have a particular way of speaking, which
depends on their age, sex, mood, education, etc. This very personal way of
speaking is called IDIOLECT. It allows us to recognize a person by his voice,
even if we do not see him. There are about 400,000,000 English speakers in the
world. Each of them, we might say, speaks a different idiolect of English.
5.1.4. Dialects
Regional variations of a language are called dialects. New Zealand and
Australian and US English can be considered dialects of English. It is very
difficult, however, to define a dialect as such, i.e. to decide when two tongues are
to be classified as separate languages instead of one being a dialect of the other.
There is a rule of thumb, which states that two dialects become different
languages when they are mutually unintelligible, when people of one language
group can no longer understand members of the other group.
5.1.5. Slang
Slang words occur frequently in speech. Although we use slang on many
occasions, it is rather difficult to define it. The use of slang, or colloquial
language, creates new forms by combining existing words, (beat it, rip-off) giving
new meaning to words (grass, pig) or introducing completely new words into the
language (selfie).
5.1.6. Jargon
All professions, sciences, trades and occupations, including the less
honorable ones have a language, which includes words known only to their
members or initiates. These "languages" are called jargon.
 63

A doctor was being examined as a witness for the defense in an assault

case. If the doctor told his patient: "Go home and get affairs in order”, it would be
the doctor’s code for “prepare to die”.
5.1.7. Idioms
Finally, in addition to single or compound words that we know in a
language, there are phrases called idioms, the meaning of which cannot be
inferred by the individual words they consist of. Here are some examples of
English idioms: to take for a ride, to give a piece of one’s mind, to bite one's
tongue.
5.2. Strategies for translators
The following strategies have been suggested by translators, commissioners
of translations, and others involved in translating as ways to approach difficulties
in translation from English to Vietnamese. This list reflects only the main issues.
5.2.1. How to deal with non-equivalence at word-level
It is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese
for English words. It may be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnamese
translators, as in the case of “gender”, which is, in fact, a relatively new concept
in general, and a very difficult concept to understand and explain in many
languages. It may also be that the concept is known or understood but there is no
specific word in Vietnamese used to express it. Another difficulty is that, in
addition to their concrete meaning, some words have special connotations that are
not conveyed by the Vietnamese word for the same thing. The strategies listed
below can be used to handle cases of non-equivalence.
a) Translating by a more specific word
In some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific
word to translate an English word into Vietnamese. This usually involves
choosing among several different words, as there may be many Vietnamese words
that correspond to the general category or meaning expressed by English word.
For instance, Vietnamese has many words that mean “to carry” with
distinction being made depending on the size and shape of the object; its animate
(e.g. a child as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g. in the hand, or in the
arms...).
Similarly, the English word for “rice” can be translated by many different
Vietnamese words, depending on whether one is planting it, harvesting it, cooking
it, or eating it. In these cases, the English word alone is not enough to determine
the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it is necessary to examine the English
context.
b) Translating by a more general word
 64

In other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate

an English word with no specific Vietnamese equivalent.
For example, English makes distinctions among mopeds, scooters, and
motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and engines than both mopeds and
scooters. Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorized vehicles
as “xe máy”.
Similarly, the English words “paw”, “foot”, or “leg” may all be translated
by the Vietnamese word ‘‘chân’’, which does not suggest any problems of
comprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear from the context which of
these words is meant.
Another example can be found in a manual on community development,
which translates the word “matrix” by the Vietnamese word ‘‘ma trận’’.
However, in Vietnamese, ‘‘ma trận’’ has a specific use in mathematics only, and
does not have the additional sense of a model or a plan according to which
something is developed. In this example, “matrix” is better translated ‘‘bản’’,
which is a more general word used to classify a written plan or formula.
c) Translating by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with
one of the different meanings but similar impact in the translated text. Because of
their self-described “respect” for the original text, most Vietnamese translators
object to this strategy and tend to translate directly, even though it is in
appropriate.
For example, a farmer’s manual that has been translated into Vietnamese
suggests the planting of different types of fruit trees which are not even grown in
Vietnam. The original manual, which was developed in other parts in Asia, was not
modified at all for the Vietnamese context. Though some translators argue that it is
not the responsibility of the translator to change the text in this way, the translator
is in fact playing an important role in this task. Translators should be encouraged to
consider the appropriateness of the documents they are translating and suggest
changes to make them more culturally appropriate.
d) Translating by using a loan word plus explanation
There is some objection to this strategy in Vietnam as many translators
prefer to coin new words in Vietnamese rather than borrow English words.
However, this strategy is very useful when the translator deal with concepts or
ideas that are new to Vietnamese audience, culture-specific items, and proper
names of diseases or medicines that are widely known in English names.
For instance, HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used in
Vietnamese, as they are referred to by their English names in almost every part of
the world. Because these words have been in common used in Vietnam for a long
 65

time, they are often used without any accompanying explanation. Whenever a loan
word is used, it is better to give an explanation.
Another example is the acronym for oral dehydration salts, or ORS, which is
printed on every package and hence easily recognized; this is normally written in
English with an explanation in Vietnamese: ORS (muối bù mất nước)
e) Translating by using a paraphrase
This strategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that
does not exist in Vietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include
all the meanings conveyed by the English term for the same concept.
For example, in the sentence: “Pregnant women should avoid alcohol”, the
English “alcohol” includes all alcoholic drinks in its meaning. The Vietnamese
word “rượu” does not include beer in its definition, so the Vietnamese translation
should add the word beer to reflect the full meaning of the source language
sentence.
Another example is that the English words “abuse” and “neglect” signify a
whole range of behaviors, some of which are not conveyed by the Vietnamese
words alone. As a result, the English sentence: “Children should be protected
from abuse and neglect.” cannot be translated as simply as ‘‘Trẻ em nên được bảo
vệ khỏi sự lạm dụng và cơ lỡ’’. This translation does not account for their full
meaning, which must be unpacked for better understanding. This can be done by
paraphrasing as a translator has attempted in the following translation: ‘‘trẻ em
cần bảo vệ chống lại mọi hình thức bạo lực, gây tổn thơng hay xúc phạm, bỏ mặc
hoặc sao nhãng trong việc chăm sóc’’. Back translated roughly into English, this
sentence reads: “Children must be protected from all forms of violence causing
harm or offense, and from abandonment and negligence in their care.”
f) Translating by omission
Though some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is
sometimes appropriate to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the
meaning or impact of the text. This is especially true for words that would require
lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translations,
which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract the reader from the
overall meaning.
For example, the sentence “Much can be done even without being
physically present in the meeting.” is best translated into Vietnamese by ‘‘nhiều
việc có thể làm ngay cả khi không có mặt tại cuộc họp’’ which omit the word
“physically” in the translation. The difference in meaning between “being
physically present” and “being present” is so minimal that it does not justify
translation into Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the slight emphasis
implied here by the author, and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality of
a person’s presence.
 66

5.2.2. How to deal with idioms and fixed expressions

Idioms and fixed expressions can be dealt with in ways similar to those
discussed above. With idioms, however, there is the added difficulty that the
translator may not realize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression, since
more idioms may make sense when translated literally.
a) Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning and form
It is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or examples with a
similar meaning to an English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the
same way.
One example is the idiom "to fight like cats and dogs", which is expressed
using the same words in Vietnamese “cãi nhau như chó với mèo"; another is
"better late than never", which translates as "thà muộn còn hơn không". It is ideal
if such a match can be found, but this kind of correspondence is not common, and
it is usually necessary to use other strategies in dealing with idioms and fixed
expressions.
b) Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning but dissimilar form
It is also possible, and usually easier to find a Vietnamese idiom with a
similar meaning to an English idiom, but which is expressed differently.
A good example is the translation for "to carry coals to Newcastle": "chở
củi về rừng", which translates as "to carry firewood to the forest". The meaning
here is clearly the same in both idioms - to bring something to a place that already
has abundance of that thing - but the way in which each language expresses it is
bound to the culture of that language. It would be far more cumbersome to
translate this idiom word-for-word into Vietnamese with an explanation that
Newcastle is a well-known coal-producing city in England (as was suggested by
some Vietnamese translators), which would unduly interrupt the flow the text and
greatly diminish the idiom's impact. By substituting similar Vietnamese idiom,
then, the flow and the impact of the original text are retained in the translation.
c) Translation by paraphrase
When Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the
best way to deal with an idiom or fixed expression.
A good example can be found in an article on maternal mortality, which
includes the sentence, "But before the new estimates replace the old as a way of
packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has been made in
allowing statistics such as these to slip into easy language." The expression
"packaging up the problem" presented problems in translation, as it was
misinterpreted to mean "assembling" or "gathering together". However, even if
this phrase were clearly understood, it would be difficult to find a correct
equivalent in Vietnamese. In fact, it would be difficult to restate concisely in
English. This phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing, which in English should
 67

read something like, “summing up the problem by referring to it simply as a

number, which does not reflect its true magnitude or impact”. The expression “to
slip into easy usage" is problematic for the same reasons, and is also best dealt
with by paraphrasing, as a direct translation into Vietnamese would be
meaningless.
d) Translation by omission
As with single words, whole phrases may be omitted if they are not
essential to the meaning or impact of the text. This may be done with phrases that
would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural
translations. This may also be done when a phrase has two meanings, and one of
the meanings must be sacrificed for the other.
For instance, a book entitled, “Being Positive - Living with HIV/AIDS”
presents problems in translation because of the double meaning of "being
positive". Here, the meaning is both that a person is HIV positive and, more
idiomatically, that s/he should have an optimistic outlook on life. This may be
clear to a translator, who may interpret the phrase to mean simply that this book is
for and about people who are HIV positive. However, the double meaning should
be made clear through collaboration with the commissioner, after which a choice
must be made between the two meanings, for it would not be possible to translate
both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase. The meaning of the phrase could be
that a person is suffering from positive HIV and that s/he should have an
optimistic outlook on life. This may be clear to the translator, who may interpret
the phrase to mean that this book is for and about people who are HIV positive.
However, the double meaning should be made clear through collaboration with
the commissioner, after which a choice must be made between the two meanings,
for it would not be possible to translate both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase.
As the emphasis is on positive outlook on life but not on the fact of being HIV
positive, one translator has suggested the translation: ‘‘Hãy sống yêu đời dù
nhiễm HIV’’. This translation expresses the notion of being positive about life
without mentioning anything about being HIV positive status.
5.2.3. How to deal with voice, number, and person
a) Pasive voice
The passive voice is used very frequently in English and poses some
problems for translation into Vietnamese. Passive voice can be translated from
English into Vietnamese in the following ways:
- English: A to be done (by B)
Vietnamese:
(i) A được + động từ + (bởi B) positive meaning
A được/do + B + động từ
(ii) A bị + động từ (bởi B) negative meaning
A bị + (B) + động từ
 68

e.g. (1) This house was built by Frank in 1930. (Ngôi nhà này do Frank xây
năm 1930.)
(2) Tom is given a present by Mary. (Tom được Mary tặng một món quà.)
(3) Tom was attacked by a stranger last night. (Tom bị một kẻ lạ mặt tấn
công tối hôm qua.)
- English: A to be done
Vietnamese: (i) A được + động từ (positive meaning)
(ii) A bị + động từ (negative meaning)
(iii) Người ta/ai đó + động từ + A
e.g. (1) Tom has been promoted recently. (Tôm mới được đề bạt)
(2) The CD has been broken. (Chiếc đĩa CD đã bị vỡ, or Ai đó đã làm vỡ
chiếc đĩa CD rồi.)
The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, it
can be difficult to know which verb to use in the Vietnamese.
e.g. (1) The children were given injections.Vietnamese: “Các cháu được
tiêm” or “Các cháu bị tiêm” depending on whether receiving shots was considered
a positive or negative experience. On the other hand, when the positive or
negative connotation of the sentence is clear, it is more appropriate to retain the
passive voice in the Vietnamese.
(2) The H'Mong people do not like to be called Meo, they prefer to be
called H'Mong. Vietnamese: Người dân tộc Hơ Mông không thích bị gọi là dân
tộc Mèo, họ thích được gọi là dân tộc Hơ Mông.
Note: In Vietnamese, there are some cases where you see the word bị/được,
but they are not passive sentences in English at all.
e.g. (1) Anh ấy bị ngã. (He falls.)
(2) Chị Lan bị ho. (Lan has a cough.)
(3) Hôm nay chúng ta được đánh chén no nê. (We have an enormous and
fantastic meal today.)
b) Number
Though both languages have similar notions of number and countability,
each language expresses this in very different ways. In Vietnamese, number is
often not expressed at all. In English, number is expressed as a grammatical
category, that is, there are different grammatical forms for the singular and plural
nouns. In Vietnamese, however, no such distinction is made grammatically.
e.g. “Phụ nữ” can mean either “woman” or “women”
In Vietnamese, some plural markers such as “các”, “những”, “tất cả”,
“mọi”, “mỗi” etc. can be used in addition to the noun. “Các” generally means all
 69

of a given category of things, whereas “những” refers to some of the total number
of the things being discussed. “Mỗi” emphasizes the identity of the individual
members of the category without connoting anything of their totality, while “mọi”
expresses both the individuality of the items and the totality of the category. If it is
clear from the English context which of these plural markers should be used in the
Vietnamese, then the translator should choose accordingly.
Note: Some words that can be countable in Vietnamese but are uncountable in
English such as “information, equipment, furniture, potential, advice”, etc.
c) Person
Participant’s roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through
a very complicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship terms.
Unlike their English counterparts, Vietnamese pronouns convey many different
distinctions, depending on relationship within the family, familiarity, social status,
and even one's particular mood or attitude in a given situation. These distinctions are
not always clear in English and can usually be determined by the context, if at all. If
it is not possible to determine the distinctions of the English pronouns, the decision
should be based on consideration of tone and overall purpose of the document.
For example, a manual on health care contains sections written specifically
for children and adults. In the section for children, “you” is translated as “em” or
“các em”. In the section for adults, “you” should be translated as “chúng ta”,
which is the inclusive “we” - that is, the speaker is including the listener in a
group with him/herself. And in different contexts, “we” can be translated as
“chúng tôi” meaning “other people and I, but not you” or “chúng ta” meaning
“you and I”
Note: In English, age is often not important in the addressing system and
there is no distinction between the relatives of mother's side or father’s side.
e.g. Hai anh em (two brothers); Hai chị em (two sisters) Chú or Cậu or
Bác (uncle); Cô or Dì or Bác gái (aunt).
5.2.4. How to deal with proper names
a) Geographical terms
Geographical terms are either translated into another word in Vietnamese or
translated phonologically (“s” becomes “x”) or remained unchanged.
e.g. (1) Beijing → Bắc Kinh
(2) Kingdom → Vương quốc
(3) Singapore → Singapore or Xin-ga-po
(4) Commonwealth → Liên bang, Liên hiệp, Khối thịnh vương
(5) Australia → Úc or Ôxtrâylia
(6) Socialist → Xã hội chủ nghĩa
 70

(7) Brazil → Braxin

(8) Republic → Cộng hoà
(9) London → Luân-đôn
(10) People’s → Nhân dân
(11) the United States of → Hợp chủng quốc
b) Names of organizations
Names of organizations are translated into Vietnamese or unchanged or
only translatable parts are translated or add the words “Công ty”, “Hãng”, “Tổ
chức”, “Cơ quan”, etc.
e.g. (1) UNDP → Tổ chức UNDP
(2) ANZ Bank → Ngân hàng ANZ
(3) Phillip Fox → Công ty luật Phillip Fox
Translation from Vietnamese into English: often using the reverse order or
adjective + noun or noun + preposition + noun.
“Bộ”, “Sở”, “Ngân hàng”, “Tổng công ty”
Ministry of ..., Department of... Bank for ..., or Adjective + Bank
Corporation
e.g. (1) Ngân hàng Phục vụ Người nghèo → Bank for the poor
(2) Ngân hàng Công thương Việt Nam → Vietnam Industrial and
Commercial Bank
(3) Sở Giao thông Công chính → Department of Transport and Public Works
(4)Văn phòng Chính phủ → Office of Government
(5) Tồng cục Thống kê → General Statistic Office
(6) Bộ Kế hoạch và Đầu tư → Ministry of Planning and Investment
Proper names in medical texts: Tests, symptoms, diseases, syndromes, parts
of the body are named after one 'scientist' in one language community and a
different one, are given a more general term, in another. Check the spelling of all
proper names - this is where misprints are most common. Remember that while
English keeps the first names of foreign person unchanged, they may sometimes
be translated in Vietnamese.
5.2.5. How to deal with non-subject sentences
In Vietnamese-written passages, some non-subject sentences are often
come across. In this case, the following techniques of translation can be used:
- Passive voice
- It + to be + adjective + to do something
 71

- There is/ are

- V+ing (S)+V+O
Put in the real subject that is often found in the previous sentence(s)
e.g. (1) Cần đẩy mạnh công nghiệp hoá, hiện đại hoá. → Industrialization
and modernization should be promoted. → It is necessary to promote
industrialization and modernization.
(2) Vẫn chưa có cách cứu chữa bệnh AIDS. → There has been no cure/
remedy/therapy for AIDS.
5.2.6. How to deal with newspaper headlines
Some main characteristics of newspaper headlines:
- Present tense = past tense
- Present participle = event in progress
- To + infinitive = future events
- Past participle = passive voice
- Nouns
- Verb + Noun
e.g. (1) Chinese Professors Turn to Business. → Các giáo sư Trung Quốc
chuyển sang (con đường) kinh doanh.
(2) US Secretary of State Visiting Vietnam. → Ngoại trưởng Mỹ đang thăm
Việt Nam.
(3) Oil Price to Rise? → Giá dầu sẽ tăng?
(4) Three More Investment Projects Licensed This Year. → Thêm ba dự án
đầu tư nữa được cấp phép trong năm nay.
(5) Investment Boom → Bùng nổ đầu tư.
(6) See You in Court → Hẹn gặp tại tòa
5.3. Questions for discussion
1. What language factors should be taken into consideration in translation?
2. How many translation strategies are there? What are they?
3. How do you deal with non-equivalence at word-level? Give one example.
4. How do you deal with idioms and fixed expressions? Give one example.
5. How do you deal with voice, number and person? Give one example.
6. How do you deal with proper names? Give one example.
7. How do you deal with non-subject sentences? Give one example.
8. How do you deal with newspaper headlines? Give one example.
 72

Unit 6
TRANSLATION EVALUATION
6.1. Why evaluate the translation?
There are three main reasons for evaluating a translation. The translator
wants to be sure his translation is accurate, clear, and natural. These three
features are important throughout the translation, so the entire translation must
be checked for each one. In any sentence, there may be need for improvement in
accuracy, clarity, or naturalness. It is very easy, as one is translating, to
inadvertently omit some piece of information. Sometimes in restructuring, the
translator is working hard at getting across the meaning, and in so doing adds
more information which was not really in the ST. This information will need to
be deleted. Sometimes mistakes are made in the analysis of the ST or in the
transfer process and a different meaning result. It is because all translators make
these kinds of mistakes, that a careful check for accuracy is needed.
The second reason for evaluating a translation is to be sure that it is clear.
A translator may be accurate but still not communicate to the people who are to
use it. The forms of the language used should be those which make the message
of the ST as easy to understand as the ST itself to understand. The only way to
check for clarity is to evaluate it with persons who are not familiar with the ST
and ask questions which will show what they understand.
The third reason for evaluating the translation is to be sure that it is
natural. A translation may be accurate in that the translator understood correctly
the ST and is attempting to communicate that information, and it may even by
understandable, and yet the forms may not be the natural idiomatic forms of the
TL. The translation must be evaluated to see if the grammatical forms used are
those normally used. Does the translation “flows” easily? Does it “sound right” to
the speakers of the language or does it sound “foreign”. When we hear foreigners
speak our language, we can often understand them. The message is accurate and
clear but at the same time, they sound strange. The translator does not want his
translation sound “strange” or “foreign”. He wants it to sound natural, as if it
weren’t even a translation, but an original composition in the TL.

There is an important way in which equivalent SL and TL texts may differ

from each other, even when they refer to essentially the same situational features.
This is the manner in which different languages often express one and the same
category by quite different means. In such cases the TL may be said to ‘shift’ the
expression of the category to a quite different level, or to a different grammatical
means of expression.
There are other, less obvious examples, in which a particular grammatical
category may appear to be absent from one of the two languages involved, but can
 73

be at least in some cases, be perfectly well expressed by quite different

grammatical means. Thus, English with its system of articles expresses the
difference between a noun indicating an identified referent and one indicating an
unidentified referent by selection of either ‘definite’ or ‘indefinite’ article.
Here the equivalent of the English difference between definite and
indefinite articles is a difference in the sequence of elements of the Vietnamese
clause. The translation equivalence is perfectly good, although there is no formal
correspondence between the SL and TL texts; the grammatical means of
expressing the same categories in entirely different.
In other cases, categories that are expressed by stress and intonation in one
language may have to be expressed quite differently in another, as in these
examples of a brief conversation exchange in English and Vietnamese between
people looking at a photograph:
- Is that your brother? - Có phải kia là anh trai cậu không?
- Yes. - Đúng rồi.
- Ah, I thought it was! - A. Mình nghĩ là vậy
- Is that your brother? - Có phải kia là anh trai cậu không?
- No. - Không phải đâu.
- Oh, I thought it was! - Ồ, mình nghĩ là vậy
6.3. Questions for discussion
1. What is the definition of skewing? Give an example to illustrate the case
of grammatical skewing at morpheme and word levels.
2. How many levels levels of the grammatical hierarchy are there? What
are they? Give one example for each level.
3. What is skewing of illocutionary functions?
4. What is translation shilt?
5. How many types of shift do translators often encounter? What are they?
Provide examples to illustrate them.
 74

Unit 5
STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS
5.1. About language
5.1.1. Words
When people get together, they talk to each other. All our talk comes in
words, which we use with their unchangeable meanings. In English, we know that
the idea of 10 is expressed as "ten", and in Vietnamese "mười".
5.1.2. Syntax
Then there are rules, which tell us how to put the words together in their
sequence. I can say in English: I have a white iPad, but the Vietnamese would
say: I have an iPad white. Every language has its own order of words in the
sentence and we must respect that. Once we know a language, we can use the
rules; we can make new sentences and phrases.
5.1.3. Idiolect
All native speakers of a language have a particular way of speaking, which
depends on their age, sex, mood, education, etc. This very personal way of
speaking is called IDIOLECT. It allows us to recognize a person by his voice,
even if we do not see him. There are about 400,000,000 English speakers in the
world. Each of them, we might say, speaks a different idiolect of English.
5.1.4. Dialects
Regional variations of a language are called dialects. New Zealand and
Australian and US English can be considered dialects of English. It is very
difficult, however, to define a dialect as such, i.e. to decide when two tongues are
to be classified as separate languages instead of one being a dialect of the other.
There is a rule of thumb, which states that two dialects become different
languages when they are mutually unintelligible, when people of one language
group can no longer understand members of the other group.
5.1.5. Slang
Slang words occur frequently in speech. Although we use slang on many
occasions, it is rather difficult to define it. The use of slang, or colloquial
language, creates new forms by combining existing words, (beat it, rip-off) giving
new meaning to words (grass, pig) or introducing completely new words into the
language (selfie).
5.1.6. Jargon
All professions, sciences, trades and occupations, including the less
honorable ones have a language, which includes words known only to their
members or initiates. These "languages" are called jargon.
 75

A doctor was being examined as a witness for the defense in an assault

case. If the doctor told his patient: "Go home and get affairs in order”, it would be
the doctor’s code for “prepare to die”.
5.1.7. Idioms
Finally, in addition to single or compound words that we know in a
language, there are phrases called idioms, the meaning of which cannot be
inferred by the individual words they consist of. Here are some examples of
English idioms: to take for a ride, to give a piece of one’s mind, to bite one's
tongue.
5.2. Strategies for translators
The following strategies have been suggested by translators, commissioners
of translations, and others involved in translating as ways to approach difficulties
in translation from English to Vietnamese. This list reflects only the main issues.
5.2.1. How to deal with non-equivalence at word-level
It is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese
for English words. It may be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnamese
translators, as in the case of “gender”, which is, in fact, a relatively new concept
in general, and a very difficult concept to understand and explain in many
languages. It may also be that the concept is known or understood but there is no
specific word in Vietnamese used to express it. Another difficulty is that, in
addition to their concrete meaning, some words have special connotations that are
not conveyed by the Vietnamese word for the same thing. The strategies listed
below can be used to handle cases of non-equivalence.
a) Translating by a more specific word
In some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific
word to translate an English word into Vietnamese. This usually involves
choosing among several different words, as there may be many Vietnamese words
that correspond to the general category or meaning expressed by English word.
For instance, Vietnamese has many words that mean “to carry” with
distinction being made depending on the size and shape of the object; its animate
(e.g. a child as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g. in the hand, or in the
arms...).
Similarly, the English word for “rice” can be translated by many different
Vietnamese words, depending on whether one is planting it, harvesting it, cooking
it, or eating it. In these cases, the English word alone is not enough to determine
the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it is necessary to examine the English
context.
b) Translating by a more general word
 76

In other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate

an English word with no specific Vietnamese equivalent.
For example, English makes distinctions among mopeds, scooters, and
motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and engines than both mopeds and
scooters. Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorized vehicles
as “xe máy”.
Similarly, the English words “paw”, “foot”, or “leg” may all be translated
by the Vietnamese word ‘‘chân’’, which does not suggest any problems of
comprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear from the context which of
these words is meant.
Another example can be found in a manual on community development,
which translates the word “matrix” by the Vietnamese word ‘‘ma trận’’.
However, in Vietnamese, ‘‘ma trận’’ has a specific use in mathematics only, and
does not have the additional sense of a model or a plan according to which
something is developed. In this example, “matrix” is better translated ‘‘bản’’,
which is a more general word used to classify a written plan or formula.
c) Translating by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with
one of the different meanings but similar impact in the translated text. Because of
their self-described “respect” for the original text, most Vietnamese translators
object to this strategy and tend to translate directly, even though it is in
appropriate.
For example, a farmer’s manual that has been translated into Vietnamese
suggests the planting of different types of fruit trees which are not even grown in
Vietnam. The original manual, which was developed in other parts in Asia, was not
modified at all for the Vietnamese context. Though some translators argue that it is
not the responsibility of the translator to change the text in this way, the translator
is in fact playing an important role in this task. Translators should be encouraged to
consider the appropriateness of the documents they are translating and suggest
changes to make them more culturally appropriate.
d) Translating by using a loan word plus explanation
There is some objection to this strategy in Vietnam as many translators
prefer to coin new words in Vietnamese rather than borrow English words.
However, this strategy is very useful when the translator deal with concepts or
ideas that are new to Vietnamese audience, culture-specific items, and proper
names of diseases or medicines that are widely known in English names.
For instance, HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used in
Vietnamese, as they are referred to by their English names in almost every part of
the world. Because these words have been in common used in Vietnam for a long
 77

time, they are often used without any accompanying explanation. Whenever a loan
word is used, it is better to give an explanation.
Another example is the acronym for oral dehydration salts, or ORS, which is
printed on every package and hence easily recognized; this is normally written in
English with an explanation in Vietnamese: ORS (muối bù mất nước)
e) Translating by using a paraphrase
This strategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that
does not exist in Vietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include
all the meanings conveyed by the English term for the same concept.
For example, in the sentence: “Pregnant women should avoid alcohol”, the
English “alcohol” includes all alcoholic drinks in its meaning. The Vietnamese
word “rượu” does not include beer in its definition, so the Vietnamese translation
should add the word beer to reflect the full meaning of the source language
sentence.
Another example is that the English words “abuse” and “neglect” signify a
whole range of behaviors, some of which are not conveyed by the Vietnamese
words alone. As a result, the English sentence: “Children should be protected
from abuse and neglect.” cannot be translated as simply as ‘‘Trẻ em nên được bảo
vệ khỏi sự lạm dụng và cơ lỡ’’. This translation does not account for their full
meaning, which must be unpacked for better understanding. This can be done by
paraphrasing as a translator has attempted in the following translation: ‘‘trẻ em
cần bảo vệ chống lại mọi hình thức bạo lực, gây tổn thơng hay xúc phạm, bỏ mặc
hoặc sao nhãng trong việc chăm sóc’’. Back translated roughly into English, this
sentence reads: “Children must be protected from all forms of violence causing
harm or offense, and from abandonment and negligence in their care.”
f) Translating by omission
Though some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is
sometimes appropriate to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the
meaning or impact of the text. This is especially true for words that would require
lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translations,
which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract the reader from the
overall meaning.
For example, the sentence “Much can be done even without being
physically present in the meeting.” is best translated into Vietnamese by ‘‘nhiều
việc có thể làm ngay cả khi không có mặt tại cuộc họp’’ which omit the word
“physically” in the translation. The difference in meaning between “being
physically present” and “being present” is so minimal that it does not justify
translation into Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the slight emphasis
implied here by the author, and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality of
a person’s presence.
 78

5.2.2. How to deal with idioms and fixed expressions

Idioms and fixed expressions can be dealt with in ways similar to those
discussed above. With idioms, however, there is the added difficulty that the
translator may not realize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression, since
more idioms may make sense when translated literally.
a) Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning and form
It is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or examples with a
similar meaning to an English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the
same way.
One example is the idiom "to fight like cats and dogs", which is expressed
using the same words in Vietnamese “cãi nhau như chó với mèo"; another is
"better late than never", which translates as "thà muộn còn hơn không". It is ideal
if such a match can be found, but this kind of correspondence is not common, and
it is usually necessary to use other strategies in dealing with idioms and fixed
expressions.
b) Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning but dissimilar form
It is also possible, and usually easier to find a Vietnamese idiom with a
similar meaning to an English idiom, but which is expressed differently.
A good example is the translation for "to carry coals to Newcastle": "chở
củi về rừng", which translates as "to carry firewood to the forest". The meaning
here is clearly the same in both idioms - to bring something to a place that already
has abundance of that thing - but the way in which each language expresses it is
bound to the culture of that language. It would be far more cumbersome to
translate this idiom word-for-word into Vietnamese with an explanation that
Newcastle is a well-known coal-producing city in England (as was suggested by
some Vietnamese translators), which would unduly interrupt the flow the text and
greatly diminish the idiom's impact. By substituting similar Vietnamese idiom,
then, the flow and the impact of the original text are retained in the translation.
c) Translation by paraphrase
When Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the
best way to deal with an idiom or fixed expression.
A good example can be found in an article on maternal mortality, which
includes the sentence, "But before the new estimates replace the old as a way of
packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has been made in
allowing statistics such as these to slip into easy language." The expression
"packaging up the problem" presented problems in translation, as it was
misinterpreted to mean "assembling" or "gathering together". However, even if
this phrase were clearly understood, it would be difficult to find a correct
equivalent in Vietnamese. In fact, it would be difficult to restate concisely in
English. This phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing, which in English should
 79

read something like, “summing up the problem by referring to it simply as a

number, which does not reflect its true magnitude or impact”. The expression “to
slip into easy usage" is problematic for the same reasons, and is also best dealt
with by paraphrasing, as a direct translation into Vietnamese would be
meaningless.
d) Translation by omission
As with single words, whole phrases may be omitted if they are not
essential to the meaning or impact of the text. This may be done with phrases that
would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural
translations. This may also be done when a phrase has two meanings, and one of
the meanings must be sacrificed for the other.
For instance, a book entitled, “Being Positive - Living with HIV/AIDS”
presents problems in translation because of the double meaning of "being
positive". Here, the meaning is both that a person is HIV positive and, more
idiomatically, that s/he should have an optimistic outlook on life. This may be
clear to a translator, who may interpret the phrase to mean simply that this book is
for and about people who are HIV positive. However, the double meaning should
be made clear through collaboration with the commissioner, after which a choice
must be made between the two meanings, for it would not be possible to translate
both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase. The meaning of the phrase could be
that a person is suffering from positive HIV and that s/he should have an
optimistic outlook on life. This may be clear to the translator, who may interpret
the phrase to mean that this book is for and about people who are HIV positive.
However, the double meaning should be made clear through collaboration with
the commissioner, after which a choice must be made between the two meanings,
for it would not be possible to translate both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase.
As the emphasis is on positive outlook on life but not on the fact of being HIV
positive, one translator has suggested the translation: ‘‘Hãy sống yêu đời dù
nhiễm HIV’’. This translation expresses the notion of being positive about life
without mentioning anything about being HIV positive status.
5.2.3. How to deal with voice, number, and person
a) Pasive voice
The passive voice is used very frequently in English and poses some
problems for translation into Vietnamese. Passive voice can be translated from
English into Vietnamese in the following ways:
- English: A to be done (by B)
Vietnamese:
(i) A được + động từ + (bởi B) positive meaning
A được/do + B + động từ
(ii) A bị + động từ (bởi B) negative meaning
A bị + (B) + động từ
 80

e.g. (1) This house was built by Frank in 1930. (Ngôi nhà này do Frank xây
năm 1930.)
(2) Tom is given a present by Mary. (Tom được Mary tặng một món quà.)
(3) Tom was attacked by a stranger last night. (Tom bị một kẻ lạ mặt tấn
công tối hôm qua.)
- English: A to be done
Vietnamese: (i) A được + động từ (positive meaning)
(ii) A bị + động từ (negative meaning)
(iii) Người ta/ai đó + động từ + A
e.g. (1) Tom has been promoted recently. (Tôm mới được đề bạt)
(2) The CD has been broken. (Chiếc đĩa CD đã bị vỡ, or Ai đó đã làm vỡ
chiếc đĩa CD rồi.)
The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, it
can be difficult to know which verb to use in the Vietnamese.
e.g. (1) The children were given injections.Vietnamese: “Các cháu được
tiêm” or “Các cháu bị tiêm” depending on whether receiving shots was considered
a positive or negative experience. On the other hand, when the positive or
negative connotation of the sentence is clear, it is more appropriate to retain the
passive voice in the Vietnamese.
(2) The H'Mong people do not like to be called Meo, they prefer to be
called H'Mong. Vietnamese: Người dân tộc Hơ Mông không thích bị gọi là dân
tộc Mèo, họ thích được gọi là dân tộc Hơ Mông.
Note: In Vietnamese, there are some cases where you see the word bị/được,
but they are not passive sentences in English at all.
e.g. (1) Anh ấy bị ngã. (He falls.)
(2) Chị Lan bị ho. (Lan has a cough.)
(3) Hôm nay chúng ta được đánh chén no nê. (We have an enormous and
fantastic meal today.)
b) Number
Though both languages have similar notions of number and countability,
each language expresses this in very different ways. In Vietnamese, number is
often not expressed at all. In English, number is expressed as a grammatical
category, that is, there are different grammatical forms for the singular and plural
nouns. In Vietnamese, however, no such distinction is made grammatically.
e.g. “Phụ nữ” can mean either “woman” or “women”
In Vietnamese, some plural markers such as “các”, “những”, “tất cả”,
“mọi”, “mỗi” etc. can be used in addition to the noun. “Các” generally means all
 81

of a given category of things, whereas “những” refers to some of the total number
of the things being discussed. “Mỗi” emphasizes the identity of the individual
members of the category without connoting anything of their totality, while “mọi”
expresses both the individuality of the items and the totality of the category. If it is
clear from the English context which of these plural markers should be used in the
Vietnamese, then the translator should choose accordingly.
Note: Some words that can be countable in Vietnamese but are uncountable in
English such as “information, equipment, furniture, potential, advice”, etc.
c) Person
Participant’s roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through
a very complicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship terms.
Unlike their English counterparts, Vietnamese pronouns convey many different
distinctions, depending on relationship within the family, familiarity, social status,
and even one's particular mood or attitude in a given situation. These distinctions are
not always clear in English and can usually be determined by the context, if at all. If
it is not possible to determine the distinctions of the English pronouns, the decision
should be based on consideration of tone and overall purpose of the document.
For example, a manual on health care contains sections written specifically
for children and adults. In the section for children, “you” is translated as “em” or
“các em”. In the section for adults, “you” should be translated as “chúng ta”,
which is the inclusive “we” - that is, the speaker is including the listener in a
group with him/herself. And in different contexts, “we” can be translated as
“chúng tôi” meaning “other people and I, but not you” or “chúng ta” meaning
“you and I”
Note: In English, age is often not important in the addressing system and
there is no distinction between the relatives of mother's side or father’s side.
e.g. Hai anh em (two brothers); Hai chị em (two sisters) Chú or Cậu or
Bác (uncle); Cô or Dì or Bác gái (aunt).
5.2.4. How to deal with proper names
a) Geographical terms
Geographical terms are either translated into another word in Vietnamese or
translated phonologically (“s” becomes “x”) or remained unchanged.
e.g. (1) Beijing → Bắc Kinh
(2) Kingdom → Vương quốc
(3) Singapore → Singapore or Xin-ga-po
(4) Commonwealth → Liên bang, Liên hiệp, Khối thịnh vương
(5) Australia → Úc or Ôxtrâylia
(6) Socialist → Xã hội chủ nghĩa
 82

(7) Brazil → Braxin

(8) Republic → Cộng hoà
(9) London → Luân-đôn
(10) People’s → Nhân dân
(11) the United States of → Hợp chủng quốc
b) Names of organizations
Names of organizations are translated into Vietnamese or unchanged or
only translatable parts are translated or add the words “Công ty”, “Hãng”, “Tổ
chức”, “Cơ quan”, etc.
e.g. (1) UNDP → Tổ chức UNDP
(2) ANZ Bank → Ngân hàng ANZ
(3) Phillip Fox → Công ty luật Phillip Fox
Translation from Vietnamese into English: often using the reverse order or
adjective + noun or noun + preposition + noun.
“Bộ”, “Sở”, “Ngân hàng”, “Tổng công ty”
Ministry of ..., Department of... Bank for ..., or Adjective + Bank
Corporation
e.g. (1) Ngân hàng Phục vụ Người nghèo → Bank for the poor
(2) Ngân hàng Công thương Việt Nam → Vietnam Industrial and
Commercial Bank
(3) Sở Giao thông Công chính → Department of Transport and Public Works
(4)Văn phòng Chính phủ → Office of Government
(5) Tồng cục Thống kê → General Statistic Office
(6) Bộ Kế hoạch và Đầu tư → Ministry of Planning and Investment
Proper names in medical texts: Tests, symptoms, diseases, syndromes, parts
of the body are named after one 'scientist' in one language community and a
different one, are given a more general term, in another. Check the spelling of all
proper names - this is where misprints are most common. Remember that while
English keeps the first names of foreign person unchanged, they may sometimes
be translated in Vietnamese.
5.2.5. How to deal with non-subject sentences
In Vietnamese-written passages, some non-subject sentences are often
come across. In this case, the following techniques of translation can be used:
- Passive voice
- It + to be + adjective + to do something
 83

- There is/ are

- V+ing (S)+V+O
Put in the real subject that is often found in the previous sentence(s)
e.g. (1) Cần đẩy mạnh công nghiệp hoá, hiện đại hoá. → Industrialization
and modernization should be promoted. → It is necessary to promote
industrialization and modernization.
(2) Vẫn chưa có cách cứu chữa bệnh AIDS. → There has been no cure/
remedy/therapy for AIDS.
5.2.6. How to deal with newspaper headlines
Some main characteristics of newspaper headlines:
- Present tense = past tense
- Present participle = event in progress
- To + infinitive = future events
- Past participle = passive voice
- Nouns
- Verb + Noun
e.g. (1) Chinese Professors Turn to Business. → Các giáo sư Trung Quốc
chuyển sang (con đường) kinh doanh.
(2) US Secretary of State Visiting Vietnam. → Ngoại trưởng Mỹ đang thăm
Việt Nam.
(3) Oil Price to Rise? → Giá dầu sẽ tăng?
(4) Three More Investment Projects Licensed This Year. → Thêm ba dự án
đầu tư nữa được cấp phép trong năm nay.
(5) Investment Boom → Bùng nổ đầu tư.
(6) See You in Court → Hẹn gặp tại tòa
5.3. Questions for discussion
1. What language factors should be taken into consideration in translation?
2. How many translation strategies are there? What are they?
3. How do you deal with non-equivalence at word-level? Give one example.
4. How do you deal with idioms and fixed expressions? Give one example.
5. How do you deal with voice, number and person? Give one example.
6. How do you deal with proper names? Give one example.
7. How do you deal with non-subject sentences? Give one example.
8. How do you deal with newspaper headlines? Give one example.
 84

Unit 6
TRANSLATION EVALUATION
6.1. Why evaluate the translation?
There are three main reasons for evaluating a translation. The translator
wants to be sure his translation is accurate, clear, and natural. These three
features are important throughout the translation, so the entire translation must
be checked for each one. In any sentence, there may be need for improvement in
accuracy, clarity, or naturalness. It is very easy, as one is translating, to
inadvertently omit some piece of information. Sometimes in restructuring, the
translator is working hard at getting across the meaning, and in so doing adds
more information which was not really in the ST. This information will need to
be deleted. Sometimes mistakes are made in the analysis of the ST or in the
transfer process and a different meaning result. It is because all translators make
these kinds of mistakes, that a careful check for accuracy is needed.
The second reason for evaluating a translation is to be sure that it is clear.
A translator may be accurate but still not communicate to the people who are to
use it. The forms of the language used should be those which make the message
of the ST as easy to understand as the ST itself to understand. The only way to
check for clarity is to evaluate it with persons who are not familiar with the ST
and ask questions which will show what they understand.
The third reason for evaluating the translation is to be sure that it is
natural. A translation may be accurate in that the translator understood correctly
the ST and is attempting to communicate that information, and it may even by
understandable, and yet the forms may not be the natural idiomatic forms of the
TL. The translation must be evaluated to see if the grammatical forms used are
those normally used. Does the translation “flows” easily? Does it “sound right” to
the speakers of the language or does it sound “foreign”. When we hear foreigners
speak our language, we can often understand them. The message is accurate and
clear but at the same time, they sound strange. The translator does not want his
translation sound “strange” or “foreign”. He wants it to sound natural, as if it
weren’t even a translation, but an original composition in the TL.
6.2. Who evaluates the translation?
The translation will be of better quality if several people are involved in
evaluation. Of course, the translator her/himself will do a lot of careful checking
and evaluating. S/He will need to be responsible for what are called self-checks.
S/He may also do the comprehension evaluation. That is, s/he may go out and ask
various people to help her/him by reading the translation or listening to it, and
then answering questions about it. S/He will do some naturalness checking too,
by comparing her/his translation with texts in the TL, and by having people read
the translation or by reading it over and over to her/himself.
 85

If a translation consultant is available, s/he can be of tremendous help in

checking the translation, especially for possible inaccuracies and for the correct
use of translation principles. The consultant can also train the translator in how to
do other kinds of evaluation, and in the final manuscript preparation, s/he can
answer the many questions that will come up. It is especially advantageous for the
translator to have a working relationship with a consultant from the beginning of
the project. In that way, the consultant can encourage the translator throughout the
project and help her/him learn how to apply the principles s/he has learned. A
consultant can often help with difficult exegetical questions.
It is good if each translation project has some evaluators. If not, the
translator also will need to be the evaluator. But someone needs to evaluate the
translation with people who are unfamiliar with the ST in order to see if it
communicates clearly. This is done by using comprehension questions.
There will also be reviewers. They are people who are willing to read
through the translation and make comments about clarity and naturalness. If they
are familiar with the ST, they may also raise questions about accuracy.
The translator(s), consultants, evaluators, and reviewers will all need to
work together with one goal – to make the translation as accurate, clear, and
natural as possible.
6.3. Translation criteria
Since different principles apply to different types of V-E and V-E
translations, it is not easy to judge the relative merits of two or more
translations. However, three fundamental criteria are basic to the evaluation of
all translating, and in different ways help to determine the relative merit of
particular translations. These are: (1) general efficiency of the communication
process, (2) comprehension of intent, and (3) equivalence of response.
The efficiency of a translation can be judged in terms of the maximal
reception for the minimum effort of decoding. In other words, the maximizing
of redundancy reduces the work of decoding. At the same time, redundancy
should not be so increased that the noise factor of boredom cuts down
efficiency. Perhaps the factor of efficiency may be restated, hence, other
things being equal, the efficiency of the translation can be judged in terms of
the maximal reception for the minimal effort in decoding. Because of the
diversities in linguistic form and cultural backgrounds, however, translations
are more likely to be overloaded (and hence inefficient in terms of effort) than
so redundant that boredom results.
The second criterion in judging translations, comprehension of the
original intent (or, stated in other terms, the accuracy with which the meaning
of the source-language message is represented in the translation), is oriented
either toward the source culture (a formal-equivalence translation) or toward
the receptor culture (a dynamic-equivalence translation). In an E-V translation,
 86

the comprehension of intent must be judged essentially in terms of the context

in which the communication was first uttered; in a V-E translation this intent
must be understood in terms of the receptor culture. The extent to which intent
can be interpreted in a cultural context other than the one in which the
message was first given is directly proportional to the universality of the
message. This criterion of "comprehension of original intent" is designed to
cover what has often been traditionally spoken of as "accuracy," "fidelity,"
and "correctness." Actually, one cannot speak of "accuracy" apart from
comprehension by the receptor, for there is no way of treating accuracy except
in terms of the extent to which the message gets across (or should presumably
get across) to the intended receptor. "Accuracy" is meaningless, if treated in
isolation from actual decoding by individuals for which the message is
intended. Accordingly, what may be "accurate" for one set of receptors may
be "inaccurate" for another, for the level and manner of comprehension may
be different for the two groups.
Furthermore, comprehension itself must be analyzed in terms of
comprehending the significance of a message as related to its possible settings.
i.e. the original setting of the communication and the setting in which the
receptors themselves exist. This second criterion (i.e. comprehension of intent)
is in no sense designed to sidestep the issues of accuracy and fidelity, but to
place them in their right perspective - in terms of a total theory of
communication.
The third criterion in judging translations, equivalence of response, is
oriented toward either the source culture (in which case the receptor must
understand the basis of the original response) or the receptor culture (in which
case the receptor makes a corresponding response within a different cultural
context). The extent to which the responses are similar depends upon the cultural
distance between the two communication contexts.
In this description of the various criteria involved in the judging of
translations, intent and response have been isolated from each other. But actually
such isolation is impossible; for the nature of the response is closely tied to
intent, presumed or actual, and any final judgment of translations must deal with
both interrelated elements. At the same time, this formulation implies that the
orientation can be to either the source or the receptor context, while in actual
practice no either/or distinction can be made; rather, various grades of mixture or
interpenetration must be dealt with. The either/or distinction is primarily a matter
of principal focus of attention, or of priority of concern. In the same way, no
judgment on translations can completely isolate the source context from the
receptor one. Nevertheless, though the three criteria of efficiency, comprehension
of intent, and similarity of response cannot be fully isolated from one another,
they are all basic to an understanding and evaluation of different translations.
 87

Naturally, the translated versions should as objective as possible in terms of

validity and reliability.
Validity is the extent to which an evaluation measures what it is designed
to measure, such as translation skills (construct validity). Content validity is the
extent to which an evaluation covers the skills necessary for performance. For
example, is the content of a translation examination an appropriate sample of the
content of the course? Does the result of the evaluation accurately predict future
performance (predictive validity)?
Reliability is the extent to which an evaluation produces the same results
when administered repeatedly to the same population under the same conditions.
Thus an evaluation is reliable if evaluators’ decisions are consistent and criteria
are stable. Are there biases or undue variations in results over time? Is there a
mechanism for ensuring that evaluators do not fluctuate between excessive rigour
(purism) and extreme flexibility (laxism)? Is the evaluator always objective? Are
quality requirements clearly enough defined for decisions on borderline cases to
be made with consistency and ample justification?
6.4. Ways of evaluating translation
There are several ways of evaluating a translation. There is some overlap
between them, in that the same person may be involved in several kinds of
evaluates and the evaluator may give similar information about the translation.
The following ways will be discussed:
(1) comparison with the source text;
(2) back-translation into the SL;
(3) comprehension check;
(4) naturalness and readability evaluation;
(5) consistence checks.
Whatever kind of evaluation is being done, it needs to be done
systematically and notes need to be taken carefully. A “hit-or-miss” kind of
checking will not lead to a quality translation. The one who is checking must
know what s/he is checking for. Randomness in evaluation is ineffective because
a person cannot think about many things at once. Each kind of check should be
done separately, with specific goals, and with notes recorded for the translator to
use in revision. The notes are important, not for improving the translation which
was checked, but also for evaluating the errors which are repeated again and
again. By studying the notes, the translator will be able to identify her/his
weaknesses and overcome them in future work. The content of the notes will
depend on the kind of check which is being done. It is often helpful to have a
chart and tick off the completion of each kind of evaluate, section by section,
throughout the translation. At the time they are marked as completed, the results
should be filed in a place where they will be readily available for revision work.
 88

6.4.1. Comparison with the source language

A careful comparison with the ST will need to be made several times during
the translation process. The translator will want to do a careful comparison at
several points in the total project. Also when s/he considers the translation
completed, he will go back and do one more careful comparison. It is easy to make
mistakes at any step in the translation process. One of the main purposes of the
comparison is to check for equivalence of information content. This check is done
to be sure that all the information is included – nothing omitted, nothing added, and
nothing different. The comparison is a self-check: that is, it is done by the
translator. It could, of course, be done by someone else who knows both languages
well and knows translation principles.
After checking to be sure that all the information is there, the translator will
make another comparison of SL and TL texts, looking for any problems or
potential problems. S/He will note anything s/he wants to rethink or check with
other people. S/He needs to be as objective as possible and look at her/his own
work critically. At the same time, s/he should be cautious and not just change
things without carefully thinking about it.
The best way to do comparison check is to have a draft of the translation
which is typed with double spacing and wide margins so that ideas can be written
in the margin and so that alternatives can be written above the line for later
evaluation. The purpose is not to conform the translation to the forms of the SL.
We have already discussed in great detail the need to use the natural forms of the
TL. But it is important to be constantly checking to be sure that the meaning and
the dynamics of the ST are indeed communicated by the translation.
6.4.2. Back-translation
A second way to check the translation is by having someone else, who is
bilingual in the source and target languages, make a back-translation of the
translated text into the SL. This person takes the translation and writes out the
meaning he gets from it back into the SL. S/He should do this without having read
the ST used by the translator. This back-translation will let the translator know
what is being communicated to this person.
A back-translation is not meant to be a polished idiomatic text in the SL.
Rather, it is a literal rendering of the translation to be used for checking purposes.
It should have each lexical item rendered literally. The sentences used in the back-
translation may, however, be in the normal form of the SL grammar. Translating
and back-translating are very different. In translating, one uses natural and clear
forms; in back-translating, literal forms are used in order to show up the structure
of the translation being back-translated.
A back-translation makes it possible for the translator and a consultant to
make a careful comparison with the ST, looking for differences in meaning and
 89

for inadequate application of translation principles. It gives the consultant access

to the translation, even when he does not know the TL.
Care should be taken, however, in the use of a back-translation. Like most
other checking methods, it has some potential weaknesses. If the person who did
the back-translation lacks fluency in one or the other of the languages, or becomes
careless, the back-translation might be a poor back-translation of a very good
translation. Back-translations do not evaluate naturalness. The translation may be
less idiomatic than it seemed from the back-translation or more idiomatic. These
matters need to be checked by other methods. The back-translation focuses on
meaning equivalence rather than naturalness.
But, at the same time, a back-translation is an important tool. It is
especially helpful if the translator wishes to consult with someone who does not
speak the target language. The back-translation can then be used by the consultant
to understand what is being communicated by the translation. On the basis of the
back-translation, s/he will be able to ask questions about analysis of the source
text and the application of translation principles. In an extended translation
project, it is usually good to have someone trained as the back-translator. A
person who is truly bilingual and trained to do back-translation can be of great
help in improving the quality of the translation.
6.4.3. Comprehension Evaluation
Good comprehension evaluation is the key to good translation. The purpose
of this evaluate is to see whether or not the translation is understood correctly by
speakers of the language who have not seen the translation previously. It is
designed to find out what the translation is communicating to the audience for
whom it is intended. This type of evaluate involves having people retell the
content of the translation and answer questions about it. The results of such
evaluation will help the translator improve the translation so that it says what it is
meant to say and so that it is clear and uses natural target language form.
Comprehension evaluation may be done by the translator her/himself or by
some other person especially trained to do this type of evaluation. If the translator
her/himself does the evaluation, s/he will need to be very careful not to be
defensive of her/his work, but to want to really know the truth of what is being
communicated by the translation. Ideally, someone else will do this evaluation.
This is better because someone else takes a new look at the translation. Also, it
may be hard for translator to be objective about her/his work. Whoever does the
evaluation should be trained in translation principles.
Comprehension evaluation is done with persons who are fluent speakers of
the target language. These people should be ordinary people from various
segments of the society. Evaluation should be done with young people, middle
aged, and older people. It should be done with the more highly educated and with
the newly literate, if the translation is intended for all. If the translation is intended
 90

for a special group, then a variety of people from that group should be included as
respondents.
6.4.4. Naturalness evaluation
The purpose of naturalness evaluates, as suggested by the name, is to see if
the form of the translation is natural and the style appropriate. This evaluation is
done by reviewers. Reviewers are people who are willing to spend time reading
through the translation making comments and suggestions. They simply read the
translation looking for ways to improve the naturalness and style.
A reviewer should be taught to expect the translation to be meaningful and
easy to read. When it is not they should immediately write a comment about it,
giving any further reaction which might help the translator improve the translation at
the point. Different reviewers may be especially good at checking for different
matters. Some may be good at reviewing format problems. Some will be good at
checking accuracy by comparing the translation with the source text. All should be
looking for ways to improve the clarity, naturalness, flow of the discourse, and the
emotive impact on the readers.
6.4.5. Readability evaluation
The translator(s) and evaluator(s) alike may do readability evaluates. These
evaluates are done by asking someone to read a part of the translation aloud. It
should be a complete section: that is, a unit. As they read, the evaluator will notice
any places where the reader hesitates. Also, if s/he stops and re-reads the
sentence, this should be noted as it indicates some problem in readability.
Sometimes the reader will simply look puzzled, as if s/he didn’t understand why it
was said that way. There will be times when the reader will actually say
something different than what is written in the translation.
6.4.6. Consistency checks
As the translation comes near to completion, it is very important that
consistency checks of various kinds be made. Some of these have to do with the
content of the translation and others have to do with the technical details of
presentation. All those who are evaluating the translation should be alert for
reading problems related to formatting as well as content.
The source text will have had certain key terms which were identified and
for which lexical equivalents were found. If the document being translated is a
long one, or done over a long period of time, it is possible that the translators have
been inconsistent in the use of lexical equivalents for some key terms. At the end
of the translation project a check should be done for such terms. This will be
especially true in technical, political, or religious documents. There may also be
key phrases, that is, phrases which are used over and over and have the same
meaning in each occurrence.
 91

Consistency in editing matters requires careful attention. There should be

consistency in the spelling of the names of people and places, for example. This
will require a careful proofreading of the entire text.
6.5. Questions for discussion
1. Why is translation evaluation needed?
2. How is translation evaluated?
3. Who does the testing?
4. What are the criteria for translation evaluation?
5. How many ways of translation evaluation are there? What are they?
6. What, do you think, is the best way for evaluation? Why?
 92

Unit 7
INTERPRETATION AND INTERPRETING IN SPECIALIZED AREAS
7.1. What is interpreting?
Interpretation occurs during cross-cultural communication when two
interlocutors do not share a language. By bridging the gap between languages, the
interpreter helps speakers to discharge their duty to make themselves understood
and helps listeners to satisfy their need to understand what is being said. The goal
of interpretation is that a message makes the same impact on the target audience
that a speaker/signer intends for an audience of her/his same language.
Communication involves intention, context, form, gist, gesture, tone, relations of
power, etc. The different situations where interpretation takes place make very
different demands of the interpreter.
Interpretation requires superior language ability in at least two languages. It
also requires the ability to accurately express information in the target language.
Besides deep knowledge of both languages, it is crucial that an interpreter also
understands the subject matter of the text or speech he is interpreting.
Interpretation is not a matter of substituting words in one language for words in
another. It is a matter of understanding the thought expressed in one language and
then explaining it using the resources and cultural nuances of another language, so
they can express the source text or speech so that it sounds natural in the target
language.
The interpreter relies mainly on the ability to get the gist of the message
across to the target audience on the spot as an interpreter is expected to convey
the essence of the message immediately in satisfactory paraphrase or a rough
equivalent in order not to keep the audience waiting.
Interpreting is rendering information and ideas from one language into
another language by means of speaking. Interpreters are concerned with the
spoken word. They convey orally whether to an individual or a group the meaning
of the spoken word, from one language to another.
7.2. Modes of interpreting
There are two main modes of interpreting: consecutive and simultaneous
interpreting. Both of these types will be dealt with in this session.
7.2.1. Simultaneous interpreting
a) The concept of simultaneous interpretation.
This mode is considered a harder mode of interpreting and involves the
interpreter continuously interpreting from the source language into the target
language as the source speaker is speaking.
Simultaneous interpreting is rendering an interpretation continuously at the
same time someone is speaking. Simultaneous interpreting is intended to be heard
 93

only by the person receiving the interpretation and is usually accomplished by

speaking in whispered tones or using equipment specially designed for the
purpose in order to be as unobtrusive as possible. It is usually used in a
conference or in a big seminar.
According to Seleskovitch (1978, p.125) in Mikkelson (1996), in
simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is isolated in a booth. He speaks at the
same time as the speaker and therefore has no need to memorize or jot down what
is said. Moreover, the processes of analysis-comprehension and of reconstruction-
expression are telescoped.
The interpreter works on the message bit by bit, giving the portion he has
understood while analyzing and assimilating the next idea. Because of the short
time frame and the complexity of language, a simultaneous interpreter must be
quick-thinking and decide on the most likely interpretation and follow it through.
To spend unnecessary time agonizing over the speaker`s phrasing could amount
to losing important information in the next sentence.
According to Hatim and Mason (1999, p. 45), texture comes to the fore in
simultaneous interpreting. The term texture refers to various linguistic devices
applied in a text with a purpose to build a flow of sense and to make a sequence of
sentence operational or what are said as cohesive and coherence. In simultaneous
interpreting, the interpreter should react and interact from one utterance to other
utterance where overlapping between various element of sequence is unavoidable. It
is impossible to get the whole structure nor the context of a text in simultaneous
interpreting. As an anticipating strategy, an interpreter should pay attention on the
variety of cohesive devices used in the text as a reference as texture provides the
interpreter with “a point of departure” that enable him/her to be able to follow the
sequence or the flow of the text.
b) Types and context of simultaneous interpretation
- Sight translation: a written SL text is read aloud as if written in the TL text;
- Whispered interpretation: e.g. at a meeting without interpreting equipment
or in court;
- Electronic hook-up: e.g. at a conference with microphones and headsets
and booths for interpreters.
c) Requirements of simultaneous interpretation
- Simultaneous interpreters do not wait for a speaker to finish a segment
and pause before beginning to interpret but follow the speaker and interpret what
the speaker is saying.
- It is expensive to pay for electronic equipment and simultaneous
interpreters.
 94

- Due to its high level of difficulty, this type of interpreting is briefly

introduced here for students' information only rather than being part of the
training program at the University for undergraduate students.
7.2.2. Consecutive interpreting
a) Concept of consecutive interpreting
Unlike the simultaneous interpreting where the interpreter has at least
something to embark upon, the consecutive interpreter has to wait before he/she
can deliver the output text. It means that it will add pressure and extra load on
memory, which results that information related to texture and context become
rather too detail to hold.
According to Hatim and Mason (1999, p.42), consecutive interpreter,
whose output comes after the source text has been delivered, tends to focus on
information relevant to text structure. Effective consecutive output thus exhibits a
clear outline of the way the text is structured.
Consecutive interpretation is a mode in which the interpreter begins their
interpretation of a complete message after the speaker has stopped producing the
source utterance. At the time that the interpretation is rendered the interpreter is
the only person in the communication environment who is producing a message.
Good memory is a prerequisite of good interpreting. Memory in consecutive
interpreting refers to the capacity for storing and retrieving information of the
interpreter. Many people say that although they can understand the message the
speaker is delivering, they find it difficult to commit content of the message to
their memory. As a result, it is impossible for them to interpret what has no longer
been retained in their mind into a different language. Then the major problem here
is how to supplement the memory for consecutive interpreting. And the solution
to the problem is to acquire note-taking skill. Notes can serve as an effective aid
to the memory of the interpreter but they can never replace the role of memory. A
basic principle for successful consecutive interpreting is that memory comes first
and notes function to support it. Target language reproduction should not be based
on notes only but on the combination of memory and notes.
b) Types and context consecutive interpretion
- Unilateral
+ Sentence by sentence, paragraph by paragraph interpretation
+ The whole speech, which may last five, ten minutes, up to half an hour or
one hour.
- Bilateral:
+ Liaison interpreting
In a consecutive interpreting situation, an interpreter gives a rendering of
lengthy passages of speech after a party has finished speaking. S/he should give a
 95

structured and accurate rendering of the meaning of the statement with no major
distortions of meaning, changes to the logical order of the statement or serious
omissions of detail.
Consecutive interpreting is often used in the following situations:
- Escorting a non-English speaking group within a large gathering of
English speakers at a trade fair or exposition.
- Conferences where smaller working parties meet in room which lack
telephonic interpreting facilities. In this case, interpreters often sit alongside
speakers and interpret at intervals.
c) Requirements of consecutive interpretation
The qualities required of a consecutive interpreter are:
- Proficiency in two languages and two cultures
- Quickness of speech and mind
- Good techniques in memorizing verbal utterances and converting them
rapidly, accurately and completely into another language
- Power of concentration
- High moral standards
- Sense of responsibility
- High level of education and culture
- Familiarity with a number of specific terms and situations, e.g. health,
education, legal, social welfare areas, etc.
- Remaining impartial and not taking sides.
- Being able to take notes of segments of discourse if required.
- Being able to work under stressful conditions.
- Note-taking skills of a very high order.
7.3. Interpreting process
The interpreting process can be diagramed as follows:
 96

Figure 7.3. Interpreting process

I = The input stage. The interpreter must have excellent hearing and receive
the message without interference.
U = Understanding. This is the most important stage of the, interpreting
triangle. Not understanding will result in a breakdown of communication.
D = Deciphering. At this stage the interpreter gets rid of a11 the words,
retaining the concept, the idea.
T = Transference. The concept or idea is now transferred into the other
language.
C+C = Context and Culture. During the transfer stage the meaning is
clarified by cultural and contextual considerations.
O1 = Output 1. The interpreter finds an equivalent idiomatic expression.
O2 = Output 2. The interpreter transfers the meaning.
7.4. Attributes for interpreting
7.4.1. Hearing ability
For obvious reasons, it is essential that interpreters have acute hearing.
Potential interpreters who have, or feel that they might have, a hearing disability
should seek medical advice. In some cases hearing adequately compensate for
hearing loss.
7.4.2. Public speaking skills
In any interpreting situation, an interpreter should not mumble, stutter or
speak too quickly or slowly. It is obviously necessary to have a clear, well-
modulated voice and a smooth style of delivery. Learners who feel insecure when
speaking in public might consider joining a club to develop their public speaking
skills.
7.4.3. Conversion Skills
Interpreters should be able to think quickly and “on-their feet”. Interpreting
is an immediate process, which leaves little margin for thought before action must
take place.
7.4.4. Memory Skills
The short-term memory is used for the temporary storage of segments of
speech so that they can be decoded and re-encoded.
To improve short-term memory and speaking style, students are advised to
do the following exercises:
a) Newspaper translation
Take a newspaper article 75-100 words in length and study it for about one
minute; then first, put the article face down and repeat it as precisely as possible
 97

(note: use the language of the article), second translate the article aloud. Speak
evenly without pause or stutter. Do two passages a day until you can speak without
hesitation. It is a good idea to use a tape recorder to record and check your
performance. This may need frequent practice over 12 weeks or so.
b) Translating from speech
Ask a friend or member of your family to read to you fairly slowly a
passage of about 300-400 words. Make notes and then reproduce the passage as
accurately and completely as you can in the other language. Again use a tape
recorder to check your performance.
The reading should be as slow as required by dictation.

c) Radio translation
Tape record short passages of speech in your language from the local radio
stations and try to interpret as much as you can. Or tape-record news and science
reports in English from VOA or BBC or ABC and reproduce these as accurately
as you can in Vietnamese.
d) Interpreting practice
Ask friends or members of your family to "act out" interview in which you
work as the interpreter.
e) Observing high-level interpreters
Take particular notice of high-level interpreters, such as Prime Ministers'
interpreters, who appear on TV news, and observe their technique.
7.4.5. Note-taking skills
The interpreter should begin taking notes as soon as one of the parties
begins speaking. When taking notes, the interpreter should take as many notes as
required to help the memory concerning all pertinent points but not so many that
s/he is distracted from what is being said. The interpreter needs to remember what
has been said rather than rely exclusively on notes, which should be a back up to
the memory.
Note taking has been proved to be very useful for the interpreter working
consecutively. First, notes improve concentration; prevent distraction, thus
facilitating the reception and analysis of the speech. Second, notes help the
interpreter relieve the memory. Although the interpreter may have understood the
ideas of a speech, he or she cannot remember every point
in the speech because one characteristic of short-term memory is that it only
keeps information for a limited amount of time, cognitive scientists also show that
for nearly all speakers of all languages, list retention peaks at around seven items,
 98

plus or minus two. By recording the specific details and data such as proper
names, numbers, figures, lists of things, or specialized terms, technical
expressions, etc, notes release the interpreter from bearing the whole thing in
mind. Third, notes activate the memory of the interpreter with cues or
signals that call up the information in the speech. With notes, the main ideas, the
secondary elements and the links among them become clear and easier for the
interpreter to visualize. Finally, notes can also be used to highlight missing
details, inconsistencies within the speech and anything implausible that needs
attention latter. Obviously, the skill of note-taking is very helpful to interpreters,
the content and structure of a speech are reflected in notes, and the notes in turn
are used as a path to verbalize the speech. Thus notes play an important part in
consecutive interpreting. However, taking proper notes needs a lot of practice, and
the gap between the “theory of note-taking” and “actual notes” can be very large.
In order to bridge the gap, first, an understanding of note-taking process is
required.
According to Hanh (2006), the process of note-taking is not a simple one. In
order to make notes become an aid to enhance consecutive interpreting, the
interpreter should answer the three basic questions as follows:
(i) what to note;
(ii) how to note;
and (iii) when to note.
 99

Figure 7.4.5.a. The process of note-taking

a) What to note
- Main idea
+ Notes can be considered as the frame outline of the speech shaped with
main ideas and the links between them. It is crucial for an interpreter to have the
ability to identify, select and retain important ideas and omit anything which is
not relevant to the understanding of the original speech. Moreover, the interpreter
can easily trace back the structure of the speech; hardly misses out important
ideas; and always keeps fidelity to the original content by recording the main
ideas in notes.
- Links between ideas
+ The links between ideas is the following thing the interpreter should
consider in note taking. The relations between individual ideas influence the
overall meaning of the text. Thus it is obvious that the interpreter should realize
and render the such links.
+ According to Jones in Hanh (2006), the ways in which ideas may be
linked together are:
(i) the logical consequence which is expressed clearly with words such as
consequently, as a result, accordingly or therefore;
(ii) the logical cause which can be recognized with the words because, due
to, as, or since;
(iii) opposition which often goes with but, yet, however or nevertheless
- Verb tense
+ According to Jones in Hanh (2006), it is also important to note down
tenses of verbs. That means “when noting verbs, interpreters should thus take
care to note the tense correctly, and if appropriate the mode, in particular
conditional”. The modes and tenses of verbs have decisive influence on the
meaning of a sentence.
b) How to note
How to note is also very important. Obviously, notes that are clearly
separated and logically organized help the interpreter avoid all confusion when
reading back notes. And notes using abbreviations and symbols are very helpful
in activating the most information with the least effort.
- Abbreviation
+ To take notes quickly, the interpreter can use abbreviations.
Additionally, abbreviations can also help the interpreter in saving time spent on
other activities in the process of interpreting. In order for the interpreter to
understand immediately when reading back notes, these abbreviations must be
 100

definitive and unambiguous because under time pressure the interpreter has no
chance to reconsider the meaning of abbreviations.
+ According to Hanh (2006), there are many principles and rules for the use
of abbreviations. The following suggestions about creating abbreviations are
based on the truth that the fewer strokes are written; the more time can be saved.
(i) Write what is heard: The interpreter can write a word by recording its
sound only. For example: high- hi; know- no; free- fre; fee- fe; night- nite; etc.
(ii) Drop medial vowels. For example: build- bld; legal- lgl; bulletin- bltn;
save- sv; budget- bjt etc.
(iii) Write initial and final vowels. For example: office- ofs; easy- ez;
follow- flo; value- vlu; open- opn; etc
- Abbreviation of common international organization should be
remembered by the interpreter. The interpreter must have some background
knowledge about it. The following are some common names in abbreviation:
+World Bank: WB
+ European Union: EU
+ Asian Development Bank: ADB
+ World Trade Organization: WTO
+ World Health Organization: WHO
+ International Monetary Fund: IMF
+ United Nations Children's Fund: UNICEF
+ North Atlantic Treaty Organization: NATO
+ Food and Agriculture Organization: FAO
+ Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation: APEC
- Symbols
+ A symbol is something such as an object, picture, written word, sound, or
particular mark that represents something else by association, resemblance, or
convention.
+ Symbols are quicker and easier to write than words. Similar to
abbreviations, first symbols need to be prepared in advance. Any symbol
improvised in the middle of interpretation could drive the interpreter into a
difficult and intense situation. One basic rule for the interpreter: only use the
symbols which are already stuck in the mind. Second, symbols must be
consistent. That means symbols are instantly associated for the interpreter himself
with the meaning he gives them. Attending to this point, the interpreter can avoid
mistakenly “deciphering” the meaning of the symbols he or she uses.
 101

+ Followings are some symbol examples retrieved from electronic source at

Interpreter Training Resource.

Figure 7.4.5.b. Some common symbols

The most important of all, abbreviation must be well understood by the
member of interpreter’s group.
c) When to note
An interpreter should know when to take notes. It is a very important and
also tough decision that requires the interpreter to arrive at properly and wisely.
Interpreters should start the notes as soon as possible without having to wait for a
complete “unit of meaning”. Therefore, when the interpreter can sense the
meaning of a sentence which might has not been completed, he or she should note
it down. Here the interpreter has the ability to “forecast” or “feel” upcoming
things. Besides the interpreter is not required to take everything exactly the same
way as the speaker, his or her notes are not presented in exact order as they were
said by the speaker, so there is no need for the interpreter to wait until the speaker
finishes an utterance to take note. It is also worth mentioning that as soon as
speakers finish their utterance(s), the interpreter should stop taking notes instantly
and start reproducing ideas. If the interpreter is too preoccupied with notes, he or
she will delay the interpretation, which is not wanted. The interpreter cannot
afford to take longer than the speaker. He or she is expected to react immediately
after the speaker has finished.
7.5. Interpreting in specialized areas
7.5.1. Military interpreting
Military interpreter is a commissioned officer of an armed force who
interprets to facilitate military operations. A military interpreter is an individual
primarily responsible for interpreting and sight translating between Vietnamese and a
foreign language in areas such as checkpoints, medical support, training host nation
armed forces, VIP escort, and cultural awareness.
 102

Interpreter officers are used extensively in multinational operations in

which two or more countries do not share the same language, or in expeditionary
missions where communication with the local population is crucial. Interpreter
officers also work in the intelligence gathering and analysis together with civilian
interpreters, translators, and analysts. In other words, military interpreting is an
essential activity within a country’s armed forces during war and peace times.
A military organization’s demand for interpreters changes according to the
location of the military conflict. Behind the lines interpreters play an important
role in logistics and diplomacy. When an elected official visits a military base,
military interpreters serve as escort interpreters for said dignitaries. They also
participate in media relations with local news agencies, and in the acquisition of
supplies from local merchants. Interpreters also listen to radio reports, watch local
TV stations, and skim newspapers to gather information about local issues.
Military interpreters have been essential to most historical events in the
world. Besides the examples mentioned above, military interpreters come from all
walks of life.
Like all interpreters, military interpreters do consecutive and simultaneous
interpretation as well as sight translation; however, the way the services are
rendered and the environment where they are provided are very different from
other types of interpreting. Sight translation is a very important part of their work.
There are two kinds of sight translation: The “traditional sight translation” used
primarily for strategic and intelligence purposes, and the more widely used
summary sight translation. This type of sight translation is used during house
searches, enemy searches and searches of local civilian population. The
interpreter looks at the document, skims through it, and summarizes its contents
for his superior officer. Then the superior officer decides, based on the
information provided by the interpreter, if the document merits a more detailed
sight translation or even a written translation.
The most commonly used interpretation is a combination of simultaneous
and consecutive rendition. When negotiating with the local elders or with enemy
forces, interpreters often simultaneously interpret to their superior officer what the
counterpart is saying. They do this by whispering into the superior officer’s ear;
next, they interpret the superior officer’s words (questions and answers) to the
counterpart using a consecutive rendition. Of course, this can vary depending on
the number of officers the interpreter is interpreting for; if there are several, then
the interpreter will do everything consecutively. The interpreter’s courage and
skill are admirable as very often they perform the work under adverse
circumstances such as choppers flying over their heads, shots being fired at them,
or being surrounded by wounded people crying for help.
Because of their function, military interpreters work under a different code
of professional responsibility. Yes, they are ethically bound to do a professional
job, to interpret with accuracy, to prepare for the assignment and to interpret to
 103

the best of their ability. They are also ruled by a different set of values and
constraints: A military interpreter’s top priority and obligation is to his country
and to his fellow soldiers, sailors, marines, or airmen. Her/His rendition can and
should suffer when he must take care of other priorities such as cover a fellow
soldier, take cover himself/herself, assist a wounded soldier, or comply with an
order from a superior officer. Their loyalty is to their platoon or battalion. They
are not neutral communicators; they are partial and serve one side: their armed
forces. Military interpreters are required to interpret everything that the enemy or
counterpart says, but they should only interpret back what they are told to
interpret. If a superior officer tells them not to interpret to the counterpart either a
portion of a speech or a paragraph of a letter, they must remain silent. They are
always on duty as they may come across valuable intelligence at any time. It is
important to understand that military interpreters are the only interpreters who
work in an environment where one of the parties may be the enemy, and may
want to kill him. Other interpreters, even court and diplomatic interpreters work in
scenarios where there is an adversarial situation, but never with an enemy.
Military interpreters are the only ones who hold a weapon while doing their
rendition, and the only ones who, if necessary, have to be prepared to shoot one of
the persons they are interpreting for. Military interpreters are motivated and
moved by the highest principles of love of country and protection of their fellow
citizens. This is important because the ethical justification to their job comes from
this top values that most societies embrace. Military interpreters go to work every
day ready to give their life for their country, and indeed this is common
occurrence. Native military interpreters work under tremendous pressure and face
incredible danger.
As already stated, military interpreting has always been around and it is
expected to continue to be an essential component of the armed forces. Languages
may change and tactics could differ, but the profession as such will remain
basically the same.
7.5.2. Legal interpreting
Legal interpretation refers to interpretation that takes place in a legal setting
such as a courtroom or an attorney's office, wherein some proceeding or activity
related to law is conducted. Legal interpretation is subdivided according to the
legal setting into (1) quasi-judicial and (2) judicial interpreting or what is
normally referred to as court interpreting.
There are basically four legal situations in which an interpreter may
become involved: interview between lawyer and client (or witness); interview
between police officer and person suspected of committing an offence; giving
evidence in court and interpreting in court.
The requirements for competent legal interpreting are technical fluency
in English and Vietnamese; an understanding of the conceptual and cultural
background to those languages and an extensive knowledge of the social,
 104

economic and political organizations and conditions of Vietnam and the other
country.
There are common requirements for all professional interpreters: outline
knowledge of the respective legal system; a broad comparative understanding of
the most common legal concepts; a reasonable working knowledge of the relevant
professional terminology and an awareness of the expectations of lawyers,
magistrates and judges.
The interpreter is there to enable communication between people of different
cultures speaking different languages. Thus, where it becomes apparent to the
interpreter that communication is being impeded by a language difficulty, different
cultural concepts or the like, it is the interpreter's duty to bring that to the attention
of the court, lawyer or police officer concerned.
7.5.3. Business interpreting
Business interpreiting, sometimes, is known as commercial or trade
interpreting. Gentile et al. (1996, p.166) define the term broadly: In the narrowest
sense, the term denotes two or more business people discussing business matters
through an interpreter. ... However, we take interpreting in business settings in its
broadest possible sense, to include all [liaison] interpreting situations which are
outside the welfare/medical/legal rubric. We do not include relationships
characterized by a marked differential in power or status within a given society.
Examples of these interpreting settings range from arts, sport, tourism and
recreation to patent negotiations or government-to-government meetings and
delegations.
Another setting where interpreting takes place with increasing frequency is
the workplace, where the employer or supervisor speaks the official language of
the country and employees speak a minority language; which could also be
considered business interpreting and it does involve a differential in power.
Frishberg (1986) reports that sign-language interpreters are called upon to
interpret with increasing frequency in commercial settings, whether for employers and
employees or for interlocutors who are on a more equal footing. Business interpreting
may entail either consecutive or simultaneous interpreting.
After the promulgation of the Law on Foreign Investment in Vietnam, many
foreign investors have come to Vietnam to look for business opportunities. A good
working knowledge of the Law will be helpful for an interpreter.
In business, clothes are important. Business people often wear formal
clothes. Hence, an interpreter should wear proper clothes (e.g. suit, jacket suit, tie,
clean shoes…) to be in line with the formal setting of business meetings.
During meetings and discussions, an interpreter must interpret what is said
to the best of his/her knowledge. If and when the interpreter does not understand
any technical terms or jargons, s/he should ask for clarification. An interpreter
 105

must not take sides and must keep confidential all information of the meetings
and discussions.
The requirements of a good interpreter are good fluency in both languages
(English and Vietnamese); good understanding of the culture of the business
partner and of Vietnamese culture in general, and an understanding of the
differences between the two; extensive knowledge of business, economic situation
of Vietnam (and the other country); a large business vocabulary; well-presented
and punctual; accurate interpreting without omission, alteration and addition.
7.5.4. Medical interpreting
Alternative terms are health care interpreting and hospital interpreting.
According to Frishberg (1986, p.115), "Interpreting in medical settings
encompasses a variety of situations, from routine consultation with a physician to
emergency procedures, from prepared childbirth classes to support for complex
laboratory testing." Many experts include mental health interpreting as a
subcategory of medical interpreting.
There may be occasions where the intimacy of the questioning may
embarrass or confuse the interpreter or the patient but these questions are not
asked in an idle fashion but are all very necessary in making a diagnosis.
A patient may feel cut off and feel that s/he is very secondary to a
conversation between doctor and interpreter. A doctor gets a glimmer of this
when the interpreter talks to the patient. The interpreter should, therefore, advise
the doctor to look at the patient during the conversation to reduce the language
barrier to a small extent.
Sex and age of interpreter can cause difficulties in many cultures. For example,
an elderly English male may not wish to talk about his urinary problems in front of a
young female interpreter, or an elderly Vietnamese lady may not wish to discuss her
gynaecological problems in front of a young male interpreter. Generally, more mature
interpreters seem more acceptable to most patients.
The best arrangement seems to be with the doctor sitting directly opposite
the patient. The doctor should always try to talk directly to the patient and the
interpreter should be sitting just to the side so the patient can face the interpreter if
s/he wants to.
The interpreter should understand the difference between the patient giving a.
symptom and the patient giving a diagnosis, and that generally speaking a doctor is
interested only in the patient's symptoms, not the patient's diagnosis.
The interpreter must render the patient's story completely and accurately
without any omission or distortion. The interpreter must also be careful not to
place undue emphasis on any of the parts of the history perhaps because of
personal experience. It is the doctor who decides what importance to place on the
various symptoms.
 106

The interpreter should assist in handling grief and bereavement. It is

extremely difficult for a doctor to try to console a patient or relative through an
interpreter and particularly when the doctor has no knowledge of the patient's
culture.
It is necessary for the interpreter to understand medical terms. However, a
doctor should be able to explain to a patient in clear non-medical language and so
the doctor should be able to do the same for the interpreter. A good interpreter
must insist that the doctor makes himself/herself clear.
An interpreter must avoid taking sides. His or her job is to interpret
accurately and to provide guidance on cultural differences to patient and doctor,
making a clear distinction on what is language interpretation and what is culture
interpretation.
In short, the requirements of a good interpreter are: properly assessed
fluency in the language of the patient (English) and Vietnamese; good
understanding of the culture of the patient and of Vietnamese culture in general,
and an understanding of the differences between the two; mature person; not
squeamish; should not appear embarrassed or shy when very personal matters are
discussed; should not appear to make moral judgements; relaxed attitudes, not
impatient, quiet voice.
7.5.5. International relations interpreting
Interpreting in diplomatic settings involves not only language but a broad
range of elements and factors that make communication possible. Diplomatic
settings include national institutions - as ministries, Presidential Offices, National
Assembly, Houses of Parliament- and international institutions - as the United
Nations and its family of agencies, the European Union, WTO, NATO - and a
number of international or inter-regional military organizations.
The job of interpreters during the multilateral talks and international
conferences significantly differs from that during bilateral negotiations. While in
the first case the use of interpreters ensures the complete understanding of the
speeches, i.e. it is dedicated to avoid the eventual lack of linguistic competence,
interpretation in a bilateral situation, especially in diplomatic negotiations, is a
much more complex issue with a much wider scale of functions. A mistakenly or
intentionally incorrect interpretation can cause serious harms in diplomatic
relations.
The difficulties of interpreting might be the result of various factors. The
speaker might not be a talented orator and in case he is not well prepared for his
speech, he might struggle with the ways of expression himself, which also might
cause hardships for the interpreter. Especially when the speaker has a tendency of
accumulating negatives used within the same sentence, the interpreter might lose
count on these and finally he will not know whether it should be expressed in the
 107

negative or in the positive. It is quite awkward and not always possible to ask a
question to the speaker to clarify his meaning.
The various languages spoken in the different countries necessitate
solutions to bridge the linguistic gap during the interstate exchanges, which
challenge had been addressed by the actual political elites in numerous ways
throughout the history. Although the requirements of the multilateral
communicative situations cannot be compared to those of the bilateral meetings;
however, as a rule, the most commonly used method in both cases is the
employment of interpreters and translators.
It is often said that interpreters working in these settings participate in the
making of history. This privilege is not, however, void of hardships. On the
contrary, dealing with protocol and various ranges of etiquette puts on a heavier
burden on the shoulders of a practitioner who, more often than not, has not
received a specific training in that special field in terms of lexicon, texts and
contexts. As in most interpretation settings, job-specific training and
professionalization remain a sore spot. Interpretation schools across the world
today tend to differentiate their offer between liaison interpreting and conference
interpreting. To work in diplomatic settings an interpreter should have a solid
backbone made up by both. In such settings interpretation modes are both
consecutive and simultaneous techniques, although chuchotage, i.e. whispered
interpretation, remains the most widely adopted one.
Interpreters in this area need to have a wide-ranging knowledge, be familiar
with, and updated in international affairs in political, social and economic spheres.
Keeping abreast of international developments and being conversant with the
issues at stake and world current events is essential for interpreters and translators
working in any language mediation setting.
Extensive knowledge of the two or more working languages, ability to
express thoughts clearly, and above all great familiarity with the different cultures
is a must for the entire community of interpreters.
In diplomatic settings, however, good voice projection and modulation are
assets which seem to acquire even more weight not only because quite often
microphones are not used, but especially because whispered interpretation is most
frequently required.
Being the diplomatic milieu a very closed one, especially due to
confidentiality reasons, not much information is accessible beforehand.
Interpreters hired will need a “clearance”, when there is no in-house staff
available to interpret. Nevertheless, not all diplomatic missions, embassies or
consulates have their own interpreting staff. Diplomatic interpreting has its rules
and principles.
Although these practitioners work for the powerful people of the world, the
power relation changes: these language and culture mediators become power
 108

brokers themselves. Hence the footing on the conversational floor seems to be

enhanced if the spotlight is on the interpreter.
To be a true vehicle of multilingual communication, interpreters should
carry out several complex tasks at the same time. They have to listen to the
speaker and observe the non-verbal signs of his message, as well as the reactions
s/he may trigger among and between the recipients of that message; analyze the
explicit and implicit message comprehensively; interpret the message by
reproducing it in another language, taking due account of the formal and
substantive characteristics of a different culture. Most of these tasks rely on
establishing a constant, although discreet, eye-contact with the interlocutors and
the audience, if any, in order to be the true effective link in communication.
In diplomatic settings, the typical triad of communication/interpretation
becomes apparent. The interpreter is actually the critical link of communication
that occurs through the speech acts, crossing cultural barriers and overcoming other
lexical hurdles.
Interpreters are required to be neutral, unbiased and, even, invisible. With
regard to the latter, Translation Studies have produced many pages on the
metaphorical invisibility of translators (Venuti, 2001); yet, what is required of
interpreters is almost a physical invisibility, especially in most diplomatic
settings.
Dress codes and etiquette, demeanor, the correct forms of address with
dignitaries, and general good social practices, are subjects interpreting schools
seldom include in their educational offer. The same holds true for tact and savoir-
faire, together with the principles of being discreet and not censoring. Today,
however, partly due to the conspicuous migration flows crossing continents,
courses in cross-cultural communication are offered by many educational
institutions and, consequently, these issues are often included in the syllabi of
interpreter training courses. Furthermore, ethics has become a crucial topic in the
professionalization of interpreters, together with the issue of non-advocating in
the language mediation act.
Although translation and interpretation may appear to differ only slightly
and share everything but the medium that conveys the message into the other
language, these two professions differ as much as written language differs from
spoken language. There is much more to interpreting a passage or a sentence than
to translating a text. Lack of contextualization may make work harder and much
more risky for interpreters. Yet, no hesitation is admitted. When speeches are
delivered off-the-cuff the impact on the interpreter differs from when they have
been prepared and are being read. The pace at which a speaker reads is much
faster also because s/he does not have to pause and think about what s/he is going
to say. The sentence structure of a speech that is written is also more formal.
Decisiveness and experience will help practitioners cope with such time
constraints involved in different kinds of delivery. Translators, instead, who do
 109

find themselves delving into multidisciplinary technicalities, or solemn and

formal registers in written speech texts, seem to benefit from a slightly broader
margin.
Thoroughness is a crucial concern for both translators and interpreters. It is
never a matter of finding an equivalent, or substituting one word in one language
for a word in another language - the interpreter must understand the thought
expressed and what underlies the utterances. One cannot translate or interpret
something without fully understanding what has been said and -upstream -
without mastering the issues at stake.
Consequently, it is important for the institution hiring interpreters to make
sure that there is time to brief these professionals on the subject matters.
It is important to note that diplomatic jargon is a specialized discourse. The
terminology used in such contexts ranges, in fact, from economic, financial,
political, military and cultural to a host of highly technical fields.
Interpreters are under continuous scrutiny in diplomatic settings.
“Notetakers” or other members of the delegation at meetings, round tables, bilateral
talks and negotiation tables are always ready to provide another solution claiming it
is more pertinent. Moreover, interpreters and translators may be easily transformed
into scapegoats especially when there are misunderstandings or friction between
parties - straightforwardly attributed to misinterpretation.
Stressor agents play, indeed, a major role in such settings. The mere fact
that failures in communication must be avoided causes a rising tension and an
adrenaline release when involved in interpreting. Time and experience, however,
tend to ease this tension.
Yet, stressors include also interferences on the soundstage, such as the so-
called “cocktail party effect”. This is a phenomenon that tells us how attention
can affect the way perceptual stimuli are processed. During a conversation at a
party, or in a noisy environment, when there are many other conversations
occurring, we somehow manage to tune into the voice of the person that we are
interpreting. All the other voices seem to be filtered out and largely ignored, thus
enabling us to concentrate on one person’s voice.
Fatigue is still another stressor agent. Lengthy sessions may have a
negative impact, as interpreters in such settings usually work alone - not in a team
- or, in the best circumstances, with a colleague escorting the counterpart.
Consequently, it may happen that a working day goes far beyond the regular
working hours. Flexibility is, thus, required of interpreters because the working
conditions may not always be respected.
The unsaid, understatements, unspoken assumptions or subtle emphases,
innuendos and hedging increase stress on practitioners who will often resort to
prediction and anticipation techniques. Understatements represent a typical
characteristic of diplomatic professional jargon where the real weight of words
 110

and terms is much stronger than those same words in normal everyday speech.
Interpreters should, therefore, pay close attention to the pragmatic strategies used,
lending their ears also to the cultural aspects that might be involved in such acts,
and be ready to convey the message across linguistic and cultural barriers.
Communication, in fact, does not consist only in conveying information: it
means achieving mutual understanding. The bilingual and, thus, bicultural
interpreter will help bridge the cultural gaps and adequately present cultural
nuances.
There is much more to diplomatic interpreting than just travelling with
dignitaries and going to receptions. It is a job that rewards practitioners with a
wealth of knowledge and invaluable opportunities, a varied and gratifying
experience, giving a chance of somehow participating in the making of history,
but demands, in turn, a great responsibility and involves a high degree of
difficulty.
Diplomatic interpretation can take place in a wide variety of settings, not
only the formal venues such as state receptions, official meetings, and such, but
also inside offices as well as more informal settings in outside locations such as
agricultural projects, seaports, generating plants, development project, civil works
and others.
Diplomatic interpretation requires extreme skill, concentration,
appreciation of nuance, the ability to read body language, and the capacity to
marshal all of these abilities and select instantly the appropriate term from a wide
variety of options. An in-depth knowledge and instantaneous command of the
vocabulary of both source and target languages is essential. Diplomatic
interpretation also requires absolute self-control, alertness, and powers of
observation over a sustained period of time, which can sometimes be extensive;
the interpreter may be called on to work in an ice-cold meeting room or the super-
heated boiler room of a machine shop, or standing outdoors for hours under the
blistering noon-day sun in the center of a dense crowd. No matter what the
conditions, the interpreter is always required to maintain his poise, concentration,
and skill level. Other members of a delegation have the luxury of taking breaks
and enjoying time out for meals, whereas the interpreter is literally never off
duty.
Informal press conferences and interviews, for which there is no script or
program with which to prepare, can easily produce unpredictable and loaded
questions for the interviewee, who may very well be unaware of the implications of
a particular term or phrase within the local context. Each country has its own terms
and phrases that carry a particular historical or cultural association or significance,
which when translated literally may not convey to the interviewee the same meaning
that it will have for the ultimate local audience. It is the interpreter´s responsibility to
be totally familiar with all of these terms and phrases and their “weight” within the
local context, to interpret the original question to the interviewee and then his reply
 111

without using any of these “loaded” terms that could easily be misrepresented or
misunderstood.
Diplomatic interpretation requires in-depth knowledge of the culture of the
target language, the nuances, the “do’s-and-don’ts” both behavioral and
linguistic. The interpreter must be able to key in his client to messages or
expressions that might be misinterpreted by the listener because of a lack of
familiarity with their significance in the local language or culture.
Historically, the diplomatic interpreter is well educated, articulate, and
expressive, and is very often foreign-born with years of life experiences in his or
her second country/culture, and can thus bring a wealth of background and
understanding to the table. The diplomatic interpreter´s linguistic skills coupled
with this cultural understanding gradually can lead him to acquire a more active
participation in the communication process, eventually providing his client with
background information on the cultural, social, economic, and political realities of
his venue and occasionally ending as emissary or diplomat himself.
7.6. Codes of ethics for liaison interpreters
Besides the codes of ethics mentioned in unit 1, liaison interpreters need to
take the following requirements into consideration.
7.6.1. Before an interpreting assignment
Before an interpreting assignment, the interpreter needs to satisfy the
following requirements:
(1) Be well-presented;
(2) Be punctual;
(3) Think about guidance to be given to social worker, doctor, etc. on
ethnic differences if desired;
(4) Prepare pen and paper for notes;
(5) Suggest satisfactory seating arrangement;
(6) Brief on the subject;
(7) Prepare terminology
7.6.2. During an interpreting assignment
During an interpreting assignment, the interpreter needs to satisfy the
following requirements:
(1) Introduce yourself;
(2) Complete impartiality;
(3) Never be biased;
(4) Don’t rush;
 112

(5) Direct the pace of the conversation;

(6) Jot down notes if necessary;
(7) Attach importance to integrity;
(8) Attach importance to dignity;
(9) Be accurate;
(10) Be faithful;
(11) Never have any omissions;
(12) Never have any alternations;
(13) Never have any additions;
(14) Interpret short passages;
(15) Understand true meaning;
(16) Ask for repetition and clarification as necessary;
(17) Concentrate.
7.6.3. After an interpreting assignment
After an interpreting assignment, the interpreter needs to satisfy the
following requirements:
(1) Never accept any gifts;
(2) Never involve personally;
(3) Never pass on or reveal any confidential knowledge and information;
(4) Self-evaluate;
(5) Re-read notes;
(6) Re-read some practical techniques for on-site interpreting.
7.7. Questions for discussion
1. What is interpreting?
2. What are the major differences between translation and interpretation?
3. How many modes of interpretation are there? What are they?
4. What is the interpreting process?
5. What are the attributes for interpreting?
6. What is the role of note-taking in interpretation?
7. What should you do to take good notes?
8. What role does short-term memory play in interpretation?
9. How can you train your short-term memory?
 113

10. How many specialized fields of interpretation were mentioned in this

unit? Please clarify them.
11. What are codes of ethics for liaison interpreters?
 114

TÀI LIỆU THAM KHẢO

Vietnamese
1. Đickenx S., Ôlivơ Tuýt (Người dịch: Phan Ngọc), NXB Văn học, Hà Nội, 2006.
2. Nguyễn Quang Ngọc (CB), Tiến trình lịch sử Việt Nam, NXBGD, 2001.
3. Trần Quốc Vượng, Văn hóa Việt Nam: Tìm tòi và suy ngẫm, NXB Văn hóa
Dân tộc, Tạp chí VHNT, Hà Nội, 2000.
English
4. Aguirre, B., Barthelemy, R., David, B., Require, A., and Fitzpatrick, J.,
"Translating/Interpreting for the Schools: A Burgeoning Field" in Jerome-
O'Keefe (ed.), Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the American
Translators Association, Alexandria, VA: American Translators Association,
1997.
5. Asher, R. E. (ed.), Simpson, J. M. Y. (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Language and
Linguistics, Volume 9, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1994.
6. Baker, M., In other words: A Course-book on Translation, Routledge
Publishing House, UK, 1992.
7. Bassnet, S., Translation Studies Reader, Routledge-London and New York,
1980.
8. Bassnett, S., Translation Studies, London, Routledge, 1991.
9. Bell, R. T., Translation and Translating, Routledge-London and New York,
1991.
10. Bui Tien Bao and Dang Xuan Thu, Translation Theory, Hanoi University of
Foreign Studies, 1997.
11. Carr, S., Roberts, R., Dufour, A. and Stein, D., The Critical Link: Interpreters
in the Community, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing
Company, 1997.
12. Catford, J. C., A Linguistic Theory of Translation: an Essay on Applied
Linguistics, Oxford University Press, 1965.
13. Cokely, D., Towards a Sociolinguistic Model of the Interpreting Process:
Focus on ASL and English, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgetown
University, Washington, DC, 1984.
14. Frishberg, N., Interpreting: An Introduction, Silver Spring, MD: Registry of
Interpreters for the Deaf, 1986.
15. Garber, N., "Community Interpretation: A Personal View, "paper presented at
Critical Link 2, Interpreters in the Community”, Vancouver, BC, Canada,
publication of proceedings pending, 1998.
 115

16. Gentile, A., "Community Interpreting or Not? Practices, Standards and

Accreditation" in S. Carr, R. Roberts, A. Dufour, and D. Stein (eds.) The
Critical Link: Interpreters in the Community, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Company, 109-118, 1997.
17. Gentile, A., Ozolins, U. and Vasilakakos, M., Liaison Interpreting, A
Handbook, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1996.
18. Gentzler E., Contemporary Translation Theories, London and New York,
1993.
19. Gonzalez, R., Vasquez, V. and Mikkelson, H., Fundamentals of Court
Interpretation: Theory, Policy and Practice, Durham, NC: Carolina
Academic Press, 1991.
20. Halverson, S, The Concept of Equivalence in Translation Studies, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1997.
21. Pham Hong Hanh, Note-taking in consecutive interpreting English, Hanoi
University of Foreign studies, 2006.
22. Hatim, B & Munday, J., Translation-An Advanced Resource Book, Routledge,
2004.
23. Hatim, B. and Mason, I., The Translator as Communicator, Routledge: New
York, 1999.
24. Hervey S. and Higgins I., Thinking Translation, A Course in Translation
Method: French-English, London and New York, 1992.
25. Hervey, Higgins and Haywood, Thinking Translation: A Course in
Translation Method: French to English, London and New York: Routledge,
1996
26. Hervey, S., Higgins, I.,Thinking Translation, London, Routledge, 1992.
27. Homer. W. B., ‘Text Act Theory: A Study of Non-fiction Texts', Unpublished
PhD thesis, University of Michigan, 1975.
28. Jones, R., Conference Interpreting Explained, St. Jerome Publishing,
2002.
29. Koller, W., Equivalence in Translation Theory, Andrew Chesterman (ed.),
1989.
30. Larson, M. L., Translation and linguistic theory, In R. E. Asher (ed.), The
encyclopedia of language and linguistics, volume 9, Oxford and Tarrytown,
NY: Pergamon Press, 1994.
31. Larson, M. L., Meaning-based Translation: A Guide to Cross-language
Equivalence, University Press of America, 1984.
32. Martonova, K., "Court Interpreting and Legal Translation in the Czech
Republic" in Z. Rybinska and D. Kierzkovska (eds.), On the Practice of
 116

Legal and Specialised Translation, Papers from the Third International

Forum of Legal and Specialised Translation held in Cracow on 7th and 8th
September, 1996, 103-110, Warsaw: The Polish Society of Economic, Legal
and Court Translators (TEPIS), 1997.
33. Mikkelson, H., "The Professionalization of Community Interpreting" in M.
Jerome-O'Keefe (ed.), Global Vision: Proceedings of the 37th Annual
Conference of the American Translators Association. Alexandria, VA:
American Translators Association, 1996.
34. Munday, J., Introducing Translation Studies, Theories and Applications,
Londres-Nova York, Routledge, 2001.
35. Neubart. A., Text and Translation, Leipzig: VEB Verlag
Encyclopedia, 1985.
36. Newmark, P., A textbook of Translation, London and New York: Prentice Hall
International (UK), 1988.
37. Newmark, P., Approaches to Translation, Pergamon Institute of English,
Oxford, 1984.
38. Nida, E. & Taber. C., The theory and practice of translation, Leiden, E.J.
Brill, 1964.
39. Nida, E., "Principles of Correspondence," In Venuti, L. The Translation
Studies Reader, London: Routledge, 1964.
40. Nida, E. A., Language Structure and Translation: Essays, Stanford
University, Stanford, Calif, 1975.
41. Nord, C., Translating As a Purposeful Activity, Shanghai foreign language
education press, 2001.
42. Picker, C. (Ed.), The translator’s handbook, Aslib, London, 1989.
43. Reiss, K., Translation Criticism - The Potential and Limitations, Translated
by Errol F. Rhodes, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2000.
44. Roberts, R., "Community Interpreting Today and Tomorrow" in P.
Krawutschke (ed.), Vistas: Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the
American Translators Association, Medford, NJ: Learned Information, 127-
138, 1994.
45. Sager, J., "Quality and Standards - The Evaluation of Translations," The
Translator’s Handbook, 1989.
46. Samuelsson, G, A Practical Guide for Translators, Multilingual Matters Ltd.,
Clevedon, 1993.
47. Seleskovitch, D., Interpreting for International Conferences, Washington, D
C: Pen & Booth, 1978a.
 117

48. Seleskovitch, D., "Language and Cognition" in D. Gerber and H. Sinai

(eds.), Language Interpretation and Communication, New York: Plenum,
1978b.
49. Shuttleworth, M. & Cowie, M., Dictionary of translation studies, Manchester:
St. Jerome, 1997.
50. Nguyen Van Tuan, Translation 1-2, Hue University, 2006.
51. Toury, G., "The Nature and Role of Norms in Translation," In Venuti, L. The
Translation Studies Reader, London: Routledge, 1978.
52. Toury, Gideon, "Translated Literature: System, Norm, Performance: Toward a
TT-Oriented Approach to Literary Translation", Poetics Today, 2, 4
(Summer/Autumn, 1981): 9-27 Translation Quality Assessment: An
Argumentation-Centred Approach, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press,
2005.
53. Venuti, L., The Translation Studies Reader, Routledge-London and New
York, 2001.
54. Wilss, W., The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, Shanghai
foreign language education press, 2001.