Air:

The Breath of Life

 Earth’s Atmosphere: Division
and Composition
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four regions:
1. Troposphere: This layer is nearest Earth and contains
nearly all living things. The temperature decreases as
altitude increases in the troposphere.
2. Stratosphere: This layer lies above the troposphere and
contains the protective ozone layer. In this layer,
temperature increases with increasing altitude.
3. Mesosphere: This layer lies above the stratosphere.
4. Thermosphere: This layer lies above the mesosphere.
Earth’s Atmosphere: Division
and Composition
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
electron (e-)

p+
n0 proton
nucleus neutron

In a neutral atom:
number of protons (+) = number of electrons (-)
Atomic number: The number of protons in a
nucleus.
Mass number: The sum of protons and
neutrons in a nucleus.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes have the same atomic number but
have different mass numbers (same number
of protons, but different number of neutrons).
 Metals, non-metals and ions
Ion: When a metal atom loses an electron(s) or a
nonmetal atom gains an electron(s), it becomes
charged:
positive in charge → Cation (metal ion);
negative in charge → Anion (nonmetal ion)

Electrostatic attraction between the cations

and anions produces ionic bonds
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Nitrogen comprises about 78% of all gases in
the atmosphere. All animals and most plants
cannot use the nitrogen available in the
atmosphere as N2 molecules. Organisms must
first “fix” or use “fixed” nitrogen. Fixed means
that the nitrogen atoms are combined with
another element.
 Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Lightning can fix nitrogen as follows:
N2 + O2 + energy (lightning) → 2 NO
2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
Nitrogen dioxide can then react with water, forming
nitric acid.
3 NO2 + H2O → 2 HNO3 + NO
The nitric acid in rainfall contributes to available
“fixed” nitrogen in the oceans and soil. Unfortunately,
it also acidifies lakes and streams.
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Nitrogen can also be fixed industrially using the
Haber-Bosch process:
N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
This process has allowed us to increase the
productivity of soil for food production.

Certain plants (legumes) contain bacteria in their

roots that are able to fix nitrogen.
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
The Nitrogen Cycle
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Oxygen
Cycle
Oxygen
makes up
21% of
Earth’s
atmosphere.
Oxygen is
cycled as
shown here.
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
In the stratosphere, oxygen molecules react to
form ozone, which is capable of absorbing
harmful ultraviolet radiation.

3 O2(g) + UV radiation → 2 O3(g)

 Air Pollution
A pollutant is any substance in the
wrong place at the wrong time.

With increased urbanization and

globalization, air pollution has become
a global concern.

Ex: As China industrializes its

economy, its people are experiencing
tremendous air pollution.
 Industrial Smog
The term smog is a
contraction of smoke
and fog.

Air that has been

polluted by industrial
activity is called
industrial smog.
 Chemistry of Industrial Smog
Oxides of Carbon
When coal (mostly carbon) is burned, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and soot are
produced:

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

2 C(s) + O2(g) → 2 CO(g)

Unburned carbon is soot.

 Chemistry of Industrial Smog
Oxides of Sulfur
Coal containing sulfur produces sulfur dioxide:
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
The sulfur dioxide is further oxidized to sulfur
trioxide:
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g)
Sulfur trioxide can then react with water, forming
sulfuric acid.
SO3(g)+ H2O (l) → H2SO4(l)
Chemistry of Industrial Smog
Particulate matter (PM) is the solid and liquid
particles that are larger than individual
molecules. Much of particulate matter consists of
unburned minerals found in coal. Some PM
remains in the combustion chamber as bottom
ash, but much flies out the stack as fly ash.
 Heath and Environmental
Effects of Industrial Smog
Health
Sulfuric acid and smaller particulates act
synergistically to harm health. The alveoli of the
lungs lose resiliency and this lung damage can
lead to pulmonary emphysema characterized by
shortness of breath.

Environmental
Acidic precipitation and smaller particulates can
damage plants, including farm crops.
 What to Do About Industrial
Smog
Electrostatic
precipitators induce
electrostatic charges on
particulates. The charged
particulates are then
attracted to the oppositely
charged plate and
deposited.
 What to Do About Industrial
Smog
Bag filtration works like a giant vacuum
cleaner. Flue gases are passed through a series
of filters in a bag house, which removes
particulates.

A cyclone separator works by cycling stack

gases in a spiral motion. Heavier particulates hit
the outer walls of the separator and deposit out
of the gas stream.
© 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, 13/21
Inc.
 What to Do About Industrial
Smog
Wet scrubbers remove particulates by passing
the stack gases through water.

Sulfur dioxide can be reduced by either

removing sulfur from coal before combustion or
by adding limestone (CaCO3) to the coal.
CaCO3 + heat → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s)
 Automobile Emissions
Gasoline is a mixture of many hydrocarbons with
carbon numbering from about 5 to 12.

Octane (C8H18) is a reasonable representative for

gasoline. Octane undergoes complete combustion
as follows:
2 C8H18(l) + O2 → 18 H2O(g) + 16 CO2(g)

Most internal combustion engines do not burn fuel

to complete combustion.
 Automobile Emissions
Carbon Monoxide
When not enough oxygen is
available for complete combustion,
carbon monoxide (CO) is produced.
Many metric tons of CO are
released into the atmosphere from
automotive exhaust each year.

Carbon monoxide is a toxic,

colorless, odorless, and tasteless
gas.
 Automobile Emissions
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide bonds with
the hemoglobin in blood.
Many hundreds of people
each year die from carbon
monoxide poisoning.
 Automobile Emissions
Nitrogen Oxides
When nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen
at the high temperatures within an automotive
engine, nitrogen oxides are produced.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)
Nitrogen monoxide can then oxidize to nitrogen
dioxide.
2 NO(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO2(g)
 Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides: Together, nitrogen monoxide
and nitrogen dioxide are known as NOx. These
oxides react with water in the atmosphere to
form nitrous and nitric acids. They lead to smog
formation and are components of acid rain.
Breathing high concentrations of NOx can lead to
serious lung complications.
 Automobile Emissions
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are major
contributors to smog formation. They are
produced by the evaporation of gasoline,
unburned fuel in exhaust, paints, and consumer
products. Most VOCs are hydrocarbons. Some
are released from natural sources.

Alkenes can react with oxygen or ozone to form

aldehydes.
 Automobile Emissions
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN = CH3CO3NO2) can
be produced by the reaction of certain
hydrocarbons with oxygen and nitrogen dioxide.
PAN, ozone, and aldehydes are responsible for
many of the harmful effects of smog.
 Photochemical Smog
The components of smog react with sunlight to
form an amber haze known as photochemical
smog.
 Photochemical Smog
Development of Air Pollutants on a Typical Sunny Summer
Day

Reducing the quantities of the pollutants entering the

atmosphere is the answer to how to reduce photochemical
smog.

Improved design of gasoline storage and dispensing

systems reduces the emissions of hydrocarbon VOCs.
Catalytic converters reduce hydrocarbon and carbon
monoxide emissions from automobiles.
Acids and bases
Acid:
A molecular substance that ionizes
in aqueous solution to form
hydrogen ions (H+).
Acids:
• Taste sour.
• Turn litmus red.
• React with active metals to
release hydrogen gas.
• React with bases to form water
and a salt.
Base:
A substance that produces hydroxide
ions (OH-) in aqueous solution.
Bases:
• Taste bitter.
• Turn litmus blue.
• Feel slippery.
• React with acids to form water and
a salt.
 SALTS
When an acid reacts with a base, the properties
of each are neutralized, and the products are
water and salt.

Acid + Base → Water + Salt

Neutralization…?
 The pH Scale

pH is a means of expressing the acidity or

basicity of a solution.
The pH Scale
 Acid Rain

Acid rain is defined as

precipitation having a pH of
less than 5.6. Sulfur oxides and
nitrogen oxides can react with
water forming sulfuric and nitric
acids. These are the major
contributors to acid rain.
13/40
 Indoor Air Pollution
CO and NOx are released by gas kitchen
stoves, cigarette smoke, and free-standing
unvented kerosene heaters.

Mold will grow wherever there is moisture. Mold

spores can exacerbate asthma, bronchitis, and
other lung diseases.

Ozone is released from copy machines,

electronic air cleaners, and other devices.
Ozone is a respiratory tract irritant.
© 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall,
Inc.
 Indoor Air Pollution
Cigarettes and Secondhand Smoke
Cigarette smoke has been shown to contain at
least 40 different carcinogens. The EPA
considers secondhand smoke to be a Class A
carcinogen. Regular exposure to smoke and
secondhand smoke has been shown to increase
the risk of heart disease, lung cancer,
miscarriage, and sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS).

© 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall,

Inc.
 Indoor Air Pollution
Radon is a radioactive noble gas. It is colorless,
odorless, and tasteless. Radon is released
naturally from rock and soil. Radon decays by
alpha emission.

Polonium-218 is a daughter isotope of radon. It

deposits in lung tissue and continues to emit
radiation.
 Ozone: The Double-Edged
Sword
Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen (O2).

Ozone in the troposphere is a hazardous, toxic

substance. It contributes to smog and indoor air
pollution.

Ozone in the stratosphere shields life on Earth

from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
 Ozone: The Double-Edged
Sword
In the mesosphere, short wavelength ultraviolet radiation
splits oxygen molecules into oxygen atoms. Some of these
reactive oxygen atoms diffuse to the stratosphere where they
react with oxygen molecules to form ozone.
 Ozone: The Double-Edged
Sword
The ozone in the stratosphere can absorb longer wavelength
ultraviolet radiation as follows:
O3(g) + UV radiation → O2(g) + O(g)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been shown to contribute to

the destruction. At one time, CFCs were the propellants used in
aerosol cans, foaming agents, and refrigerants.
 Ozone: The Double-Edged
Sword
The Ozone Hole Over Antarctica
 Carbon Dioxide and Climate
Change
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is known as a greenhouse
gas. CO2 and some other gases will allow solar
energy to penetrate the atmosphere, but trap
heat in (much like a greenhouse).

Human activity has contributed tremendous

amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere in recent
decades. There is much evidence to show that
global warming is indeed occurring.
Carbon Dioxide and the
Greenhouse Effect
Mitigation of Global Warming
Reducing the output of greenhouse gases has
no easy fix. Combinations of emerging
technologies, such as solar, nuclear, and wind,
along with carbon sequestration, are potential
answers.
 Paying the Price
Air pollution costs us
tens of billions of
dollars each year.
There is no cheap
and easy fix.