JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY

Vol. 33, No. 4, October 1972. Printed in U.S.A

Swimming training and maximal oxygen uptake

INGVAR HOLMI?R AND PER-OLOF ~~ST~RLINII

Department of Physiology, Gvmnastik-
u och Idrottshgskolan, Stockholm, Sweden

HOLM~R, INGVAR, AND PER-OLOF ASTRAND. Swimming training tied together and supported by a small floating belt. The
and maximal oxygen uptake. J. Appl. Physiol. 33(4): 510-513. 1972. leg kick was studied with the arms placed on a cork plate
-In two female identical twins, oxygen uptake, heart rate, and of common type used in swimming training.
blood lactic acid concentration were determined during exercise.
The running was performed on a motor-driven treadmill.
Both were physically active but one also participated in hard swim-
ming training. The study involved swimming in a newly con-
The inclination was fixed to 3 degrees uphill. Arm work
structed swimming flume, running on a treadmill, and cycling on a and combined arm and leg work were performed on a bi-
Krogh bicycle ergometer, with both submaximal and maximal cycle ergometer constructed to allow sitting arm work and
work loads. Furthermore the two girls performed separate arm sitting simultaneous arm and leg work. For bicycling with
and separate leg work in swimming, arm work, and combined legs only a Krogh bicycle ergometer was used.
arm and leg work on a bicycle ergometer. The highest maximal In all types of exercise including swimming, oxygen up-
oxygen uptake was measured during running uphill (3”) and was take, heart rate, and blood lactic acid concentration were
almost identical in the two girls or 3.61 and 3.56 l/min, respec- measured. Oxygen uptake was determined with the Doug-
tively. In the other exercises the girl trained in swimming reached
las bag technique. The volume of the expired air was
higher oxygen uptake than her twin sister. The most pronounced
measured in a spirometer and the gas was analyzed by the
difference was found during arm swimming where the swim train-
ing girl had 49% higher oxygen uptake than her twin sister and
Haldane technique. Heart rate was recorded with a con-
could perform a much higher swimming speed (1.3 compared ventional electrocardiogram (ECG) apparatus (Elema
with 0.9 m/s). Mingograf 14 or Siemens Cardiomat). In swimming the
ECG signal was telemetered to a special FM receiver (Medi-
exercise; identical twins nik) and then recorded in the ECG apparatus. Blood lactic
acid concentrations were analyzed on blood drawn from
the fingertip according to the Barker-Summerson method,
modified by StrGm (12).
IT HAS BEEN SUGGESTED that maximal oxygen uptake (maxi- Body density and body weight in water were determined
mal aerobic power) should be defined as the highest oxygen by underwater weighing with a technique described by von
uptake the individual can attain during physical work Dijbeln (6).
breathing air at sea level (work time 2-6 min, depending Maximal isometric leg strength during knee extension
on the work load; see ref. 4, p. 286). In general the highest was measured by the strain-gauge technique. The subject
value is reached during uphill running (8). Thus, for many was sitting on a bench with hip on level with the foot and
subjects the oxygen uptake measured during maximal the angle in the knee joint fixed to 90 degrees.
bicycling is somewhat lower than during running, and it is A more detailed discussion of the method is presented
still lower during swimming (3). However, the competitive elsewhere (4, 9).
swimmer when swimming comes closer to his real maximum
than the less successful one. To what extent is this difference PROCEDURE
a consequence of natural endowment or the effect of train-
ing? Here we will report some observations on highest In swimming, running, and cycling the two subjects per-
oxygen uptake in swimming, running, and bicycling, re- formed both submaximal and maximal work loads. Sepa-
spectively, measured on identical twins, one training swim- rate arm work and leg work in swimming as well as separate
ming hard, the other one without special swimming training. arm work and combined arm and leg work on bicycle
ergometer was performed only with maximal intensities.
METHODS Submaximal work loads. The work time was at least 6 min
to secure steady-state conditions. Oxygen uptake was deter-
The swimming was performed in a newly constructed mined during the last 2 min of work and the expired air
swimming flume in which the water can be circulated in a was collected in at least two successive bags. Heart rate
2.5-m-wide and 1 J-m-deep vertical loop by two horizontal, was recorded every minute. Blood samples for lactic acid
variable-pitch, axial-flow pumps. These are located in the were taken within 3 min after the end of the work.
part of the loop below a test basin, which is 4.0 m long. The Maximal work loads. Duration of the maximal efforts was
speed can be varied and reproduced with great accuracy. minimum 2.5 min and the collection of the expired air
In this channel the subjects can swim with various speeds started early enough to allow at least three successive col-
on the spot (2). lections. All maximal work outputs were preceded by sub-
The arm work in swimming was performed with the legs maximal work demanding 50-70s of maximal oxygen

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/jappl by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (192.236.036.029) on September 4, 2018.

Copyright © 1972 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
SWIMMING TRAINING AND MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE 511

uptake and the duration was 3-5 min. Immediately there- OXYGEN UPTAKE, liters/min
4.0
after the maximal work started. Heart rate was recorded
every minute and then continuously at least for the last
minute. Blood samples for determination of lactic acid 3.0
were taken twice, the first one 1-2 min after, and the second
sample 4-6 min after the end of the work.
2,o

SUBJECTS
1.0
This study includes two female subjects who are identical
twins. At the time of this investigation (1970) they were
both students at the college of physical education, Stock-
holm, Sweden. One of them, subject L1, had participated in
hard swim training since the age of 14 years. She belongs
to the elite of swimmers in Sweden. Her twin sister, sub-
ject SI, also took part in swimming training and competi-
tions, but stopped at the age of 17 years (1967). With the FIG. 1. Oxygen uptake during various types of exercise with maxi-
exception of swimming, their habitual physical activity mal intensities for 3-5 min. Open symbols refer to subj SI, closed sym-
bols to subj LI. ’
level is much the same. Both of the girls were well familiar-
ized with the test methods. Some data on the two subjects
I ’ I 1 I I I I I I 1
are given in Tables 1 and 2.
OXYGEN UPTAKE FIG. 2
4.0 Iiters/min
t
RESULTS

Individual values are given in Tables 1 and 2 and Figs.

l-4. Oxygen uptake during running and cycling at sub-
maximal levels indicates the same mechanical efficiency
for the sisters (Fig. 2). In swimming, the oxygen cost at
submaximal speed was different in the two subjects. At a
given speed subject LI swam front crawl at a much lower J
4-Y ’ I 1 I 1 1
SPEED,
1
km/hr
1 I
I

oxygen cost than subject SI. The situation was the opposite 6 8 10 12
for breaststroke, while there was no difference for back
crawl. Subject LI could attain a higher speed than her sister
OXYGEN UPTAKE FIG. 3
for all three strokes (Fig. 3). 4.0 Iiters/min
Maximal oxygen uptake during running was almost
identical in the two girls, 3.61 and 3.56 l/min, respectively. .*.w. 0
.’
3.0 ’
In all swim strokes studied subject LI had a higher maximal
oxygen uptake : in front crawl 3.36 compared with 2.71 BREAST STROKE
l/min for subiect SI (Table 2). Compared with the measure- BACK CRAWL
2.0 ’
FRONT CRAWL
ments for subject SI maximal oxygen uptake for subject LI i
was in front crawl 24 %, in back crawl 27 %, and in breast- k”
Gl 1 I 1 I
stroke 29 % higher (Table 2). 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
During cycling subject LI attained a higher maximal oxy- FIG. 2. Oxygen uptake during running on a treadmill (3” uphill)
gen uptake than her sister, or 3.44 compared with 3.13 with various speeds.
FIG. 3. Oxygen uptake during swimming in the swimming flume
l/ min. with different speeds and different strokes.
Maximal oxygen uptake during swimming with arm
stroke as in front crawl was for subject $1 1.84 and for subject
LI 2.74 l/min (49 % higher), and during leg kick front crawl 2.72 and 3.37 1/ min (24 % higher), respectively. Maximal
work with arms on the bicycle ergometer gave an oxygen
uptake of 1.96 for subiect SI and 2.16 l/min (10 % higher)
TABLE 1. Some anthropometric data, physiological
for subject L.J’, while maximal combined arm and leg work on
measurements, and best swimming results
the bicycle ergometers required 3.06 and 3.39 l/min (11 %
Best Time in Front higher), respectively, for subjects $1 and LI (Table 2 and
Crawl, min: set Fig. 1).
Body
Age, Ht, Wt, VC, 1“g$ ’ Density,
Subj yr cm kg liters Maximal blood lactic acid concentrations were in all
kg/dm3
50 m, 100 m,
1967 1970 maximal experiments higher than 11 mM. The differences
---- _~____~_____ at maximal levels were small and no tendency was ob-
LI 19 180 73 5.40 4.36 1.049 0:32.0 1:02.3 served. At submaximal levels, however, subject S. attained
SI 19 181 69 5.34 3.93 1.055 0:32.2 1:25
higher values than subject LI at the same level of oxygen up-
vc = vital capacity; FE&. o forced expiratory volume in 1 take in running and cycling. In swimming this difference
sec. was still more pronounced and subject LI had in all three

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/jappl by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (192.236.036.029) on September 4, 2018.

Copyright © 1972 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
512 I. HOLMI?R &\T\;‘D P.-o. ASTRAND

TABLE 2. Individual values in two subjects on maximal age subject SI stopped competitive swimming because of
oxygen uptake and maximal heart rate during exercise “less progress” than expected.
Both girls now have a very high maximal oxygen uptake
Max oxygen uptake, l/min Max Heart Rate, during running, 3.61 l/min for subject LI and 3.56 l/min
beats/min
for subject SI. This level of maximal aerobic power, com-
Exercise
parable with the one observed in girls successful in com-
Subj LI Subj SI L14s19
d fff
Subj LI Subj SI
petitive sport events calling for endurance, is probably a
-- combined effect of natural endowment, previous training,
Running 3.61 3.56 1 182 184 particularly during adolescence (7), and the girls’ present
Cycling 3.44 3.13 10 191 187
physical training (5-l 0 hr/week of running, gymnastics,
Breaststroke 3.63 2.82 29 180 183
Back stroke 3.53 2.77 27 182 188 various ball games), which is more or less compulsory in
Front crawl 3.36 2.71 24 182 176 their studies in physical education.
Arm work (swimming) 2.74 1.84 49 161 165 In addition, for the last 6 years subject L1 has also taken
Leg kick (swimming) 3.37 2.72 24 170 177 part in hard swim training for about 10 hr/week. This train-
Arm work (cycling) 2.16 1.96 10 161 167
Combined arm and leg 3.39 3.06 11 177 178
ing does apparently not modify the oxygen uptake during
cycling running, but gives a specific adaptation to swimming. Thus
.
subject LI when swimming could utilize about 100 % of her
l-7
hnee extension
.
: maximal isometric strength, LI 157 kp and maximal aerobic power measured during running. When
SI 155 kp.
swimming subject SI could, however, reach only 83 % of her
maximum during running. In other words the maximal
aerobic power of subject LI in front crawl swimming was
24 % higher than her sisters. Swimming is to a high degree
an arm work, especially in front crawl (5, 10, 11 j, and takes
place in horizontal position. This causes an altered circula-
tory adjustment compared with most other types of work
including running. For these reasons it was of interest to
study arm stroke and leg kick separately, primarily in
swimming but also on a bicycle ergometer. In isolated arm
swimming (arm stroke front crawl) subject L1 reached 49 %
higher oxygen uptake than subject SI, and the maximal
speed which could be maintained for about 2.5 min was
1.3 m/s for subject L1 and 0.9 m/s for subject SI. In isolated
leg kick (front crawl) the difference was 24 % in maximal
OXYGEN UPTAKE oxygen uptake. The maximal speed was 0.9 m/s for subject
Iiters/min
I
I 1 I I LI and 0.8 m/s for subject SI.
C) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Comparing oxygen uptake in maximal arm work on the
FIG. 4. Peak blood lactate conce ntrations after swimming with
bicycle ergometer gave a difference of 10 % ; thus, subject SI’s
different speeds and different strokes.
poorer performance was most evident only in swimming.
In maximal leg cycling subject LI was also superior to her
strokes lower values than subject SI at a given oxygen up- sister, reaching 10 % higher value for maximal oxygen up-
take (Fig. 4).
take. In combined arm and leg work on the bicycle ergom-
The heart rate response to the different types of maximal
eter the difference in maximal aerobic power was 11 %. This
exercise was almost the same in the two girls. Highest maxi- analysis illustrates that the most pronounced difference be-
mal heart rate recorded was for subject LI 19 1 (cycling) and
tween the girls’ performances was during arm work in
for subject SI 188 beats/min (back crawl). Arm work lead swimming.
to a lower maximal heart rate or 16 1 for subject LI and 165 It is interesting to note that maximal effort in leg kick
beats/min for subject SI (Table 2).
provided a speed of 0.9 m/s (subj LI) with an oxygen up-
At a given submaximal level of oxygen uptake subject LI take of 3.37 l/ min. The maximal speed during isolated arm
had a slightly lower heart rate in running and front crawl
swimming was higher or 1.3 m/s but the oxygen uptake
swimming, while such a tendency was not evident in cycling.
only 2.74 l/min (Fig. 1). The anerobic contribution was
The pulmonary ventilation when related to submaximal not measured; therefore the efficiency cannot be evaluated.
and maximal oxygen uptake was not consistently different
However., the data suggest a much higher efficiency for arm
in the two girls.
swimming. (Peak blood lactate concentration was 13.2 mM
after leg kick and 9.9 mM after arm swimrnin~.)
DISCUSSION
In maximal front crawl the oxygen uptake for subject LI
The two girls are identical twins and therefore genetically was not higher than during swimming with leg kick; how-
of the same body build and structure. Maximal oxygen up- ever, the speed was 1.4 m/s or approximately the same as
take and physical performance are then the product of in maximal isolated arm swimming. It is interesting to
natural endowment on one side and of environmental speculate whether it would not be most efficient for the
factors and training on the other. Both of them trained swimmer to mobilize all the effort in the arm strokes and
systematically from the age of 13 years, but at 17 years of not try to engage the legs in the propulsion. Thereby less

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/jappl by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (192.236.036.029) on September 4, 2018.

Copyright © 1972 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 SWIMMING TRAINING AND MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE 513

blood and ox ygen are dlstrl buted to the legs and more rnay cause by training she has evolved a close adaptation of both
be available for the arrns and shoulde rs which evidentlv central and peripheral functions to this specific type of
are more efficient to provide forward movement. work, with the. details so far unrevealed. Subject SI once
Technically, subject S1 is still good at swimming at a given participated in hard swimming training, but she stopped
submaximal speed. For a given speed her oxygen uptake in this 3 years before the study,, and the specific effect of this
front crawl is somewhat higher than that of subject L1, but training on oxygen transport is now apparently lost.
less than noticed in most subjects studied so far (elite swim- It should be emphasized that subject LI, despite additional
mers excepted). It may seem unusual that subject SI even hard swimming trai ning, did not attain a higher maximal
is more eflicient than her sister when swimming breast- oxygen uptake than her sister when tested during running.
stroke, but it should be considered that subject LI trains only If we keep in mind that the most effective contribution to
for front crawl. On the other hand subject L1 can reach a the propulsion in swimming is provided by the arm stroke,
higher swimming speed in breaststroke than her sister. it is feasible that swimming trains very different muscle
Subject Sl’s maximal oxygen uptake was low during cycling groups compared with those trained bY running. It can
compared with running. Earlier investigations has pointed then be questioned whe ther training bv r unning is of any
out that many subjects attain a lower oxygen uptake in value for the swimmer’s ability to swim fast.
maximal cycling compared with running uphill (8), but no We express our gratitude to Stenberg-Flygt AB, Stockholm, for
explanation can be given why subject SI differs in this re- providing the swimming flume to our institute. This work was also
spect from her twin sister. supported by the Swedish Association against Heart and Lung Dis-
In conclusion, subject L1 can utilize a high percent of her eases, and the Research Council of the Swedish Sports Federation.
“maximal oxygen uptake” during swimming, probably be- Received for publication 9 July 197 1.

REFERENCES
1. AS.TRAND, I. Aerobic work capacity in men and women with 7. EKBLOM, B. Effect of physical training in adolescent boys. J.
special reference to age. Acta Physiol. Stand. SupPl. 169 : 1 l-l 7, Ap@. Physiol. 27 : 350-355, 1969.
10960. 8. HERMANSEN, L., AND B. SALTIN. Oxygen uptake during maximal
2. ASTRAND, P.-O., ,%ND S. ENGLESSON. A swimming flume. J. Appl.
treadmill and bicycle exercise. J. A@ Physiol. 26 : 3 l-37, 1969.
chysiol. 33 : 502-509, 1972.
9. HOLM~R, I. Oxygen uptake during swimming. J. A#. Physiol.
3. ASTRAND, P.-O., L. ENGSTR~M, B. 0. ERIKSSON, P. KARLBERG, I.
33: 514, 1972.
NYLANDER, B. SALTIN, AND C. THOR~N. Girl swimmers. Acta
faediat. Suppl. 147 : 43-63, 1963.
10. MAGEL, J. R. Propelling force measured during tethered swim-
ming in the four competitive swimming styles. Res. Quart. 41: 68-
4. ASTRAND, P.-O., -AND K. RODAHL. Textbook of Work Physiology.
New York: McGraw, 1970, p. 286. 74, 1970.
5. COUNCILMAN, J. The Science of Swimming. Englewood Cliffs : Pren- 11. MOSTERD, W. L., AND J. JONGBLOED. Analysis of the stroke of
tice-Hall 1968, p. Z-30. highly trained swimmers. Arbeitsphysiologie 20 : 288-293, 1964.
6. D~BELN, W. VON. Human standard and maximal metabolic rate 12. STROM, G. The influence of anoxia on lactate utilization in man
in relation to fatfree body mass. Acta Physiol. Stand. Suppl. 126 : after prolonged muscular work. Acta Physiol. Stand. 17 : 440-451,
7-21_ 1956. 1949.

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/jappl by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (192.236.036.029) on September 4, 2018.

Copyright © 1972 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.