C1T Answers

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Chemistry Paper 1
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Atomic Structure and the

Periodic Table s
Answers to Questions
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Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

Element, Compounds and Mixtures
Question Answers
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1a Approximately 100 elements have been discovered.
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1b All of the atoms in an element are the same. This is the de nition of an element that you need
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to learn. However, as you'll see later, this is not strictly true, due to the presence of isotopes.
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1c
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Left hand diagram: This could show an element. All of the atoms are the same. A good
example of an element like this could be any metal for example sodium.
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Middle diagram: This cannot show an element. As you can see, each molecule has a larger
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atom bonded to two smaller atoms. Because it has di erent elements bonded together, this is
a compound.
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Right hand diagram: This could show an element. In this case, each molecule has two atoms
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bonded together. However, from the diagram, we can see that both of these atoms are the
same. This could be an element such as oxygen (O2) or chlorine (Cl2).
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1d As the question states, methane is a compound. We can see that from the formula CH4. This
tells us that methane contains one atom of carbon chemically bonded to four atoms of
hydrogen. The periodic table only shows individual elements, not compounds.
1e Cobalt has the symbol Co not CO. Remember that a capital letter means a new element. In
the case of CO, the capital letter C means carbon and the capital letter O means oxygen. So
CO is the compound carbon monoxide. No elements have two capital letters in their symbol.
2a The words " xed proportion" mean that the ratio of elements in any particular compound
cannot ever change. In the case of ethane (C2H6), we always have six hydrogen atoms for
every two carbon atoms. If this ratio changed, then that would be a di erent compound (for
example methane CH4 or propane C3H8).
2b The formula MgS tells us that the compound magnesium sul de contains one atom of
magnesium chemically combined with one atom of sulfur. If the formula of magnesium
sul de was MgS2, this would mean that one atom of magnesium was chemically bonded to
two atoms of sulfur, which is incorrect.
2c The properties of compounds are totally di erent from the properties of the elements used to
make them.
2d The elements in a compound are chemically combined. That means that we cannot separate
them using a physical separation technique such as ltration, distillation or chromatography.
To separate the elements in a compound, we need to use a chemical reaction for example
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reduction, or electrolysis. We'll see both of these in later topics.

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2e Remember that any elements chemically combined is a molecule. However, to also be a

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compound, the elements must be di erent. So from the four examples, AlCl3 and C2H6 are
both molecules and compounds.
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2f Physical separation techniques include ltration, crystallisation, simple distillation, fractional

distillation and chromatography.
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Interpreting a Chemical Formula
1a KCl: number of potassium atoms = 1, number of chlorine atoms = 1

Na2O: number of sodium atoms = 2, number of oxygen atoms = 1
CaSO4: number of calcium atoms = 1, number of sulfur atoms = 1, number of oxygen atoms =
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1b LiNO3: lithium (1 atom), nitrogen (1 atom), oxygen (3 atoms)
FeCO3: iron (1 atom), carbon (1 atom), oxygen (3 atoms)
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NH4NO3: nitrogen (2 atoms), hydrogen (4 atoms), oxygen (3 atoms)
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1c Ca(OH)2: calcium (1 atom), oxygen (2 atoms), hydrogen (2 atoms)
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(NH4)2SO4: nitrogen (2 atoms), hydrogen 8 atoms, sulfur (1 atom), oxygen (4 atoms)

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Filtration and Crystallisation
1 Both ltration and crystallisation are examples of physical separation techniques. We use
these to separate the di erent parts of a mixture. To separate the elements in a compound,
we need to use a chemical reaction such as reduction/electrolysis.
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2a The state symbol (s) tells us that calcium carbonate is a solid.
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2b The word "insoluble" means "does not dissolve". So "calcium carbonate is insoluble in
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water" tells us that calcium carbonate does not dissolve in water.
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2d The ltrate is what passes through the lter paper so in this case the ltrate is water.
3a MgCl2 (aq) means magnesium chloride dissolved in water. The state symbol (g) means "gas", (s)
means "solid" and (l) means "liquid"
3b Filtration can only be used to separate an insoluble substance from a liquid. Magnesium
chloride is soluble in water so ltration cannot be used.
3c On the left hand side the formula is MgCl2 (aq) to show that the magnesium chloride is
dissolved in water. On the right hand side, the water has evaporated, leaving crystals of solid
magnesium chloride. This means that the formula on the right hand side is MgCl2 (s).
3d The formula MgCl2 does not change during crystallisation. This means that no new products
have been formed. Therefore crystallisation must be a physical separation technique.
3e Many chemicals can be changed by heating. So although we could speed up crystallisation
using heat, we run the risk of changing the chemical to something that we do not want.
Instead, we can very gently heat the solution until crystals just start to form (the crystallisation
point) and then remove the heat and allow the water to evaporate naturally. This will give us
the crystals that we want. Remember that crystallisation is a good way of separating a
dissolved solid from a liquid when we want to keep the solid.
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Simple distillation
1a
water out
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thermometer cold water
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condenser
liquid and
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dissolved solid
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1b In the rst diagram, the heat is causing the liquid to evaporate (turn to a vapour). The vapour
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is rising up towards the thermometer. At this stage the temperature on the thermometer will be
increasing.
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In the central diagram, a large amount of vapour is now passing over the thermometer. The
temperature on the thermometer will be constant (and that temperature will tell us the boiling
point of the liquid). The vapours are now making their way into the condenser. The cold water
circulating around the condenser keeps it cool. So as the vapours pass into the condenser, the
temperature is below the boiling point of the liquid, causing the vapours to condense (turn
back from a gas to a liquid).
In the bottom diagram, all of the liquid has evaporated and been collected in the beaker. In the
ask, we are left with crystals of the solid.
Remember that simple distillation is a good way to separate a liquid from a dissolved solid
when we want to keep the liquid.
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Fractional distillation
1a For fractional distillation to work, the boiling points of the liquids must be di erent. If the
boiling points are the same, then we cannot separate the liquids by fractional distillation.
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1b
water out
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thermometer cold water
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fractionating condenser
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column
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mixture
of liquids
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2a When the reading on the thermometer is initially constant, it will read 68oC. Pure chemical B
will be collected from the condenser.
As the temperature rises, all three chemicals will start to evaporate and the reading on the
thermometer will increase. However, the chemical with the lowest boiling point will evaporate
the most. When the temperature reaches the boiling point of the chemical with the lowest
boiling point (in this case 68oC), this chemical will boil. Vapours of the chemical now make their
way up the fractionating column. At this point, the reading on the thermometer will be 68oC.
2b When the temperature begins to increase, this tells us that the chemical with the lowest boiling
point has virtually all boiled. Now a mixture of vapours will be making their way through the
fractionating column and any liquid collected from the condenser will be a mixture.
2c Chemicals which have similar boiling points are di cult to separate by fractional distillation.
Because they boil at similar temperatures, the vapours passing through the system will be a
mixture. So in this case, chemicals A and C will be hard to separate.
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Paper Chromatography
1a Physical separation techniques do not involve any chemical reactions and no new substances
are made. Paper chromatography, simple distillation, fractional distillation, ltration and
crystallisation are all physical separation techniques.
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1b The stationary phase is the part that does not move, in this case the paper. The mobile phase
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is the part that moves, in this case the solvent.
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Some chemicals are strongly attracted to the stationary phase. These chemicals only move a
short distance in the solvent before stopping. Other chemicals are less attracted to the
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stationary phase. These chemicals travel further up before stopping.
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2a This is a very standard question with paper chromatography. Pencil is insoluble and will not
move up with the mobile phase (solvent). However, pen ink is soluble and so this would be
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carried in the mobile phase. This is why we cannot use pen as the starting line in paper
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chromatography.
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2b The student is correct in the rst statement. Pen A does contain 2 colours as it has separated
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into two spots. Pen B contains only one colour as it has not separated and has formed only
one spot on the paper. The student is incorrect in the second statement. Pen A and B do not
have any colour in common. If they did, then the spots would both travel the same distance.
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We can see that the spot for pen B is mid way between the spots for pen A and does not line
up.
2c A pure substance will only ever form a single spot no matter which solvent is used. However,
in this experiment, the student has only used one solvent so she cannot be certain that pen B
only contains a single pure colour. To con rm this, she could repeat the experiment using a
range of di erent solvents. If pen B produces a single spot in a range of di erent solvents,
then the ink is likely to be a pure substance.
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Alpha-scattering experiment
1a Before the plum-pudding model, scientists believed that atoms were tiny spheres which could
not be divided. In other words, atoms had no internal structure.
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1b Scientists realised that if atoms contain electrons, then atoms must have an internal structure.
They could not be tiny spheres which could not be divided.
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2 The plum-pudding model stated that atoms contain negative particles (electrons) embedded in
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a ball of positive charge.
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In the top diagram, we have positive particles embedded in a ball of negative charge. This is
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the opposite of the plum-pudding model.

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The central diagram does show negative particles embedded in a ball of positive charge. So
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this does show the plum-pudding model.

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The bottom diagram shows a negative particle but this is moving around a dense region of
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positive charge. This diagram shows the nuclear model of atomic structure, not the plum-
pudding model.
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3a Scientists took a piece of very thin gold leaf (or foil). They bombarded this with alpha particles
(which have a positive charge). They placed detectors around the gold leaf to determine where
the alpha particles went.
3b Most of the alpha particles passed straight through without changing their direction. This told
the scientists that atoms consist mainly of empty space.
Sometimes an alpha particle was de ected (changed its direction). This told the scientists that
the atom must contain a region of intense positive charge (which we now call the nucleus)
which repelled the alpha particle.
Sometimes an alpha particle bounced straight back towards the source. This told the
scientists that the centre of the atom (the nucleus) contained virtually all of the mass of the
atom.
3c From the alpha-scattering experiment, scientists developed the nuclear model of atomic
structure.
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The Nuclear Model
1a In the nuclear model, most of an atom is simply empty space. In the centre, we have a
positive nucleus that contains most of the mass of the atom. Around the edge we nd
negative electrons.
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1b Before Niels Bohr, scientists thought that the electrons simply existed around the edge of the
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atom. However, Niels Bohr suggested that electrons orbit the nucleus at speci c distances
rather than just in a general location.
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At the time, scientists accepted Niels Bohr's proposal of energy levels because his
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calculations agreed with observations that scientists were making about the location of the
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electrons.
1d Scientists knew from the alpha-scattering experiment that the nucleus of atoms is positive.
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However, they then found that the total positive charge in the nucleus could be divided into a
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whole number of smaller, positive particles which they called the proton. Each proton has the
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same amount of positive charge. So for example, the nucleus of hydrogen has one proton. The
nucleus of helium has twice the amount of positive charge as the hydrogen nucleus because
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the helium nucleus contains two protons.
1e Around twenty years after scientists accepted the nuclear model of atomic structure, the
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scientist James Chadwick discovered that the nucleus also contains neutrons. Scientists had
already discovered isotopes (which we'll see in a later topic). The neutron helped scientists to
explain isotopes.
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energy level (shell)
proton
nucleus
neutron
electron
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The Nuclear Model
3a Lithium atoms have three protons in the nucleus and each proton has a positive charge (3
positive charges in total). There are three electrons in the lithium atom and each electron has a
negative charge (3 negative charges in total). The three negative electrons cancel out the three
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positive protons, leaving no overall charge.
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3b Neutrons have no charge, so the number of neutrons has no e ect on the total charge of an
atom.
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The typical radius of an atom is 1 x 10-10 m.
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4b The radius of the nucleus is less than 1/10,000 the radius of an atom.
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4c The relative charge is the charge on one particle compared to the charge on another particle.
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For example, if two particles have the same positive charge, we would say that they both have
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a relative charge of +1. If a particle had the same size negative charge, it would be -1.
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+1 1
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0 1
-1 very small
Be careful with the idea of relative charge and relative mass. Students often get these
confused. Relative charge has + or - (apart from the neutron). Relative mass never has these.
Students often write +1 for the relative mass of the proton because they do not read the
question carefully and did not realise that it asked for relative mass not relative charge.
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Atomic Number and Mass Number
1a The smaller number is the atomic number (in the case of uorine this is 9).
The larger number is the mass number (in the case of uorine this is 19).
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1b The atomic number tells us the number of protons in the nucleus of that element.
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1c If you look at the symbol, you can see that there is no overall charge (there is no positive or
negative sign on the upper right hand side of the symbol). This tells us that the total positive
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charge due to the protons must be cancelled out by the total negative charge due to the
electrons. That means that the number of electrons must be the same as the number of
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protons.
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1d Remember that the mass number tells us the total number of particles in the nucleus (both
protons and neutrons). The atomic number tells us the number of protons in the nucleus. So to
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calculate the number of neutrons, we need to subtract the atomic number (the protons) from
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the mass number (the total of the protons added to the neutrons).
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2 Al = 13 protons, 14 neutrons, 13 electrons

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Zn = 30 protons, 35 neutrons, 30 electrons

P = 15 protons, 16 neutrons, 15 electrons
Sr = 38 protons, 50 neutrons, 38 electrons
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Ag = 47 protons, 61 neutrons, 47 electrons

Sc = 21 protons, 24 neutrons, 21 electrons
3a These are three isotopes of oxygen. I will call them oxygen-16, oxygen-17 and oxygen-18.
Oxygen-16 has 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons

3b Isotopes are atoms of the same element with di erent numbers of neutrons. It is very important
that you learn this de nition.
3c The atomic number tells us the number of protons. That number is xed for every atom of that
element. For example, every single atom of oxygen has 8 protons so the atomic number of
oxygen is 8 and that never changes. However, the mass number is the total of the protons and
neutrons added together. Because the number of neutrons can vary (depending on the
isotope), the mass number can also vary.
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Atomic Number and Mass Number
4a An ion is an atom with an overall charge. This happens when atoms gain or lose electrons.
4b Sulfur. From the atomic number, we can see that sulfur has 16 protons. From the mass number,
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we can see that sulfur has 16 neutrons. For an uncharged atom, the number of electrons is the
same as the number of protons so if this atom was uncharged, it would have 16 electrons.
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However, this is an ion of sulfur with a 2- charge. Remember that electrons are negative. So for
the sulfur ion to have a 2- charge, it must have gained two electrons. This means that the total
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number of electrons for this sulfur ion is 18.
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Calcium. From the atomic number, we can see that calcium has 20 protons. From the mass
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number, we can see that calcium has 20 neutrons. If this was an uncharged atom, then the
number of electrons would be the same as the number of protons (in other words 20).
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However, this ion of calcium has a 2+ charge. This means that it must have lost two electrons
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so the total number of electrons for this calcium ion is 18.

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4c The sulfur atom gained two electrons to form the sulfur ion.
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The calcium atom lost two electrons to form the calcium ion.
To help you, remember that if an ion has a negative charge, it must have gained an electron
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and if it has a positive charge, it must have lost an electron. The number of electrons gained or
lost will be the same as the size of the charge. So if an ion has a 2- charge, it must have gained
two electrons.
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Relative Atomic Mass
1 The relative atomic mass is an average of the masses of each isotope, taking into account the
abundance of each isotope.
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2 The word "abundance" just means how common an isotope is (as a percentage of the total).
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3 For Boron, relative atomic mass = (10 x 20) + (11 x 80) = 10.8
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For Copper, relative atomic mass = (63 x 69) + (65 x 31) = 63.6
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100
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For Iridium, relative atomic mass = (191 x 37) + (193 x 63) = 192.3
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Electron Energy Levels
1a First energy level = 2 electrons maximum
Second energy level = 8 electrons maximum
Third energy level = 8 electrons maximum
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Fourth energy level = 18 electrons maximum
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I should point out that electron energy levels is a complicated topic so for GCSE it is simpli ed
to make it easier. If you do A level Chemistry then you will see the more advanced version.
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The number of electrons in the outer energy level is the same as the group number. So
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because Beryllium has two electrons in its outer energy level, it must be in group 2.
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Remember that this rule does not apply for elements in group 0. These all have a full outer
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energy level.
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1c Carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The number of electrons is the same as the number of
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protons (because this is an uncharged atom) so the number of electrons is 6. There are 2
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electrons in the rst energy level and 4 electrons in the second energy level. The shorthand
version of the energy levels is [ 2, 4 ]. Because carbon has four electrons in its outer energy
level, it is in group 4.
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Aluminium has 13 protons and 14 neutrons. Because this is an uncharged atom, the number of
electrons is the same as the number of protons, so the number of electrons is 13. There are 2
electrons in the rst energy level, 8 electrons in the second energy level and 3 electrons in the
third energy level. The shorthand version of the energy levels is [ 2, 8, 3 ]. Because aluminium
has three electrons in its outer energy level, it is in group 3.
2 For the uorine ion, the number of protons is 9 and the number of neutrons is 10. If this was
uncharged, then the number of electrons would be the same as the number of protons (ie 9).
However, this is a -1 ion so it must have gained one electron. This means that the number of
electrons is 10 for this ion. There are 2 electrons in the rst energy level and 8 electrons in the
second energy level. The shorthand version of the energy levels is [ 2, 8 ].
For the boron ion, the number of protons is 5 and the number of neutrons is 6. If this was
uncharged, then the number of electrons would be the same as the number of protons (ie 5).
However, this is a 3+ ion so it must have lost three electrons. This means that the number of
electrons is 2 for this ion. There are 2 electrons in the rst energy level. The shorthand version
of the energy levels is [ 2 ].
3 For phosphorus, there are 15 electrons. The mistake in the diagram is that there are 3 electrons
in the rst energy level. The second energy level is correct with 8 electrons but the third energy
level has 4 electrons when it should have 5.
For the correct version, there should be 2 electrons in the rst energy level, 8 electrons in the
second and ve electrons in the third. The shorthand version should be [ 2, 8, 5 ].
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For oxygen, the mistake is that there are 8 electrons. This is incorrect because this is an ion not
an uncharged atom. The symbol shows us that oxygen has 8 protons in the nucleus. An
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uncharged atom of oxygen would also have 8 electrons. However, this is a 2- ion which tells us
that it must have gained 2 electrons. So this ion of oxygen actually has 10 electrons.
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For the correct version, there should be 2 electrons in the rst energy level and 8 electrons in
the second energy level. The shorthand version should be [ 2, 8 ].
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Development of the Periodic Table
1a The columns in the periodic table are called "groups".
1b The periodic table is "periodic" because we nd elements with similar properties at regular
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intervals. For example, group 1 elements consist of highly reactive metals such as lithium and
sodium. Group 7 elements consist of highly reactive non-metals such as uorine and
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chlorine.
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Elements in the same group of the periodic table react in a similar way (in other words they
have similar chemical properties).
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1d Dobereiner noticed that elements with similar properties often came in threes. For example
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lithium, sodium and potassium all react rapidly with water. Chlorine, bromine and iodine are all
coloured elements which are reactive non-metals. He called these "triads". This tells us that
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scientists were realising that elements can be put into groups with similar properties.
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I should point out that Dobereiner is not directly mentioned in the speci cation. However, the
examiners often ask questions on related areas (usually providing you with some information)
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so I would not be surprised to see Dobereiner in a question.

2a Newlands noticed that if you order the elements simply by atomic weight, then every eighth
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element reacts in a similar way. He called these "octaves".

2b If you look at the table that I've given you in the question, you can see lithium -> sodium -> to
potassium. Counting lithium as 1, sodium is element 8. Counting sodium as 1, potassium is
element 8. These three elements all react in a similar way. We can do the same with beryllium
(Be), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) and also with uorine (F) and chlorine (Cl).
2c The problem with Newland's octaves is that the octaves only work for a relatively limited
number of elements.
3a Iodine (atomic mass 127) has been switched with Tellurium (atomic mass 128). That's because
iodine clearly reacts in a similar way to uorine (F), chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br) so iodine
belongs in the same group.
Mendeleev had a very good understanding of how each element reacted. That meant he could
spot when an element was in the wrong group so he simply switched the element on his table.
Later, when scientists developed the modern periodic table (based on atomic number),
Mendeleev was found to be correct.
3b Sometimes Mendeleev found that several elements in a row were all in the wrong groups and
the way to x it was to insert a gap, pushing all of the remaining elements along by one.
Mendeleev realised that the gap was due to a "missing" element that had not been discovered
yet.
3c Mendeleev's predicted properties were extremely close to the actual properties of Germanium.
From the table we can see that for all four of the properties, Mendeleev made an accurate
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prediction. This helped other scientists to accept that Mendeleev's periodic table was
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scienti cally valid.

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Development of the Periodic Table
3d In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged by increasing atomic number (ie
number of protons) not atomic weight. When Mendeleev produced his table, atomic structure
was not understood.
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In the modern periodic table, we have the group 0 noble gases. These had not been fully
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identi ed when Mendeleev rst put together his periodic table. Most elements are discovered
because of how they react with other elements. The noble gases are unreactive so they took a
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long time to be discovered.
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3e In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged by the atomic number (number of
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protons). However, during Mendeleev's time, protons had not been discovered so Mendeleev
ordered the elements by atomic weight. The problem is that most elements have isotopes
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(atoms of the same element with a di erent number of neutrons). This means that the atomic
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weight does not always go up in the same order as atomic number. This meant that certain
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elements (for example iodine) were initially placed in the wrong group. Mendeleev solved that
by switching the elements around. With the modern periodic table, where elements are
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arranged by atomic number, every element falls perfectly into the correct group with no need
for any switches.
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Group 0
1a Scientists call group 0 "the noble gases".
1b When Mendeleev developed his original periodic table, none of the noble gases had been
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discovered so they did not feature in Mendeleev's table.
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Strictly speaking, helium had been discovered. From looking at light from the sun, scientists
knew that the sun contained an element which they had not found on earth. However, it was
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many years later before helium and the other noble gases were properly analysed. When they
were, they were tted into the periodic table as group 0.
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1c Atoms are stable when they have a full outer energy level.
1d Helium has 2 electron in the rst energy level.

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Neon has 2 electrons in the rst energy level and then 8 in the outer energy level.
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Argon has 2 electrons in the rst energy level, 8 in the second and 8 in the outer energy level.
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1e Noble gases do not react with other elements as they already have a full outer energy level.
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2a All of the noble gases have boiling points below 20oC so they are all gases at room
temperature.
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2b Remember that a line of best t does not have to go through all of the points. It should go as
near as possible to as many as possible.
2c As the relative atomic mass increases, the boiling point increases.
2d Krypton has a relative atomic mass of 84. Move along the relative atomic mass axis to 84 and
move down to the line. The boiling point of Krypton is -153oC.
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Metals
1a Metals are found on the left hand side of the line and non metals are found on the right hand
side of the line. The periodic table will not have a line on in your exam but just remember that
the rightmost quarter of the periodic table are non-metals.
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1b We nd the most reactive metals on the far left of the periodic table. Group 1 metals are
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extremely reactive and group 2 metals are generally very reactive.
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The transition metals are found in the centre of the periodic table.
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1d Transition metals are much less reactive than the metals in group 1 or group 2.
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1e When metals react, they always lose electrons. I would suggest that you learn this as it will
help you in ionic bonding.
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1f By losing the outer electrons, metals achieve a full outer energy level.
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2a In an uncharged atom, the number of (negative) electrons is equal to the number of (positive)
protons. Metals lose electrons to get a full outer energy level. Now they have fewer electrons
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than protons so they form a positive ion.

2b For each of these answers, remember that the number of protons never changes.
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The beryllium atom will lose the 2 electrons from its outer energy level. So the beryllium ion will
have 2 electrons in the rst energy level and no other electrons.
The sodium atom will lose the 1 electron in its outer energy level. So the sodium ion will have 2
electrons in the rst energy level, and then 8 electrons in the second energy level and no other
electrons.
The boron atom will lose the 3 electrons from its outer energy level. So the boron ion will have
2 electrons in the rst energy level and no other electrons.
2c Be 2+
Na +
B 3+
2d The Be 2+ ion has the same electronic structure as the noble gas helium.
The Na + ion has the same electronic structure as the noble gas neon.
The B 3+ ion has the same electronic structure as the noble gas helium.
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Group 1 Metals
1a The group 1 elements are called the alkali metals.
1b Sodium has 11 electrons (2 in the rst energy level, 8 in the second and 1 in the outer energy
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level). The shorthand version is [ 2, 8, 1 ]
Potassium has 19 electrons (2 in the rst energy level, 8 in the second, 8 in the third and 1 in
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the outer energy level). The shorthand version is [ 2, 8, 8, 1]
1c
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The elements in group 1 have all got one electron in their outer energy level.
Group 1 elements are soft and can be cut with a knife.
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Group 1 elements are shiny but become dull as they react with oxygen.
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2a lithium + oxygen -> lithium oxide

sodium + oxygen -> sodium oxide
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potassium + oxygen -> potassium oxide

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2b As we move down group 1, the elements get more reactive.

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2c
1+ 1+
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2-
2d Initially, the oxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 electrons, so the charges cancel out. The oxygen
atom gains 2 electrons. Remember that electrons are negative, so if an atom has gained 2
electrons then the ion must have an overall charge of 2-.
2e When lithium reacts with oxygen, each lithium atom loses its one outer electron. However, in
order to achieve a full outer energy level, one oxygen atom requires two electrons. So two
lithium atoms react with one oxygen atom.
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2f sodium oxide = Na2O
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potassium oxide = K2O

2g 4 Li + O2 ->2 Li2O
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2h 4 Na + O2 ->2 Na2O
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Group 1 Metals
3a
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3b The ions produced both have full outer energy levels (like noble gases).
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3c 2 Li + Cl2 -> 2 LiCl

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4a E ervescence: The equation shows that the reaction produces hydrogen gas. This is the case
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when every group 1 metal reacts with water.

Universal indicator turned purple: lithium hydroxide is an alkali, which turns universal indicator
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purple. All group 1 metals react with water, producing an alkali (eg sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide etc).
4b Sodium reacts more rapidly than lithium (and produces the alkali sodium hydroxide).
Potassium reacts more rapidly than sodium (and produces the alkali potassium hydroxide).
5 When group 1 elements react, they all lose one electron from their outer energy level. Moving
down group 1, the outer electron is less attracted to the nucleus and easier to lose. This is
because there is a greater distance between the positive nucleus and the negative electron.
Also, the outer electron is shielded from the nucleus by the internal energy levels. Because of
this, the elements get more reactive moving down group 1.
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Group 7 Part 1
1a Scientists call group 7 the "halogens".
1b Fluorine has nine electrons in total (two electrons in the rst energy level and seven in the outer
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energy level).
Chlorine has seventeen electrons in total (two electrons in the rst energy level, eight in the
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second and seven in the outer energy level).
1c
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All of the elements in group 7 react in a similar way as they all have seven electrons in their
outer energy level.
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2b Group 7 elements require one more electron to complete their outer energy level. Two atoms
join and share a pair of electrons (one from each atom). This forms a covalent bond (which we
will see in a later section). Now both atoms have a full outer energy level.
2c
covalent bond
3a As the relative molecular mass increases, both the melting point and boiling point also
increase.
3b The boiling points of both uorine and chlorine are lower than room temperature (20oC) so at
room temperature, they are both gases.
3c Iodine is a solid at room temperature. Both its melting and boiling points are above room
temperature (20oC).
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Group 7 Part 2
1a
hydrogen chloride
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2b The correct formula for magnesium uoride is MgF2. That is because each magnesium atom
has to lose two electrons to have a full outer energy level. Each uorine atom takes one
electron so we need two uorine atoms for each magnesium atom.
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Group 7 Part 3
1 When group 7 elements react, they all gain one electron into their outer energy level. Moving
down group 7 it becomes harder to gain an electron. This is because the outer energy level is
further from the nucleus. Internal energy levels also shield the outer energy level from the
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nucleus. For both of these reasons, the electrons in the outer energy level are less attracted to
the nucleus. This makes it harder for the outer energy level to gain an electron as we move
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down group 7.
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In the rst reaction, chlorine is above iodine in group 7. This means that chlorine is more
reactive than iodine and will displace it.
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lithium iodide + chlorine -> lithium chloride + iodine

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In the second reaction, bromine is below chlorine. This means that bromine is less reactive
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than chlorine so no displacement will take place.

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sodium chloride + bromine -> sodium chloride + bromine

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23
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Transition Elements
1a Transition elements are found in the centre of the periodic table. The transition elements have
no group number.
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1b The transition elements are all metals.
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1c • Transition metals are hard (apart from mercury which is a liquid)
• Transition metals have high melting points
•
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Transition metals have a high density
Transition metals react slowly with oxygen, chlorine and water
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• Transition metals can form a whole range of di erent charged ions
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1d Transition elements tend to form compounds which are coloured.

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1e Transition elements are frequently used as catalysts, to speed up chemical reactions.

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Chemistry Paper 1
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Triple
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Structure and Bonding

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The Three States of Matter
1 Solid:
Cannot be compressed (no spaces between the particles)
Cannot ow and take shape of container (particles cannot move)
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Liquid
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Cannot be compressed (very few spaces between particles)
Can ow and take shape of container (the particles can move)
Gas
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Can be compressed (there are large spaces between the particles)
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Can ow and take shape of container (the particles can move)

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freezing condensing
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2b The diagram shows that the particles in a liquid are moving (we can see that from the size of
the arrows). This means that the particles in a liquid have more kinetic energy than the particles
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in a solid.
2c When we melt a solid, we need to put energy in to break the bonds between the particles. The
particles in a solid cannot move because of the bonds between the particles. When we break
these bonds (ie melt to a liquid), the particles can now move.
2d Sulfur dioxide is a gas at room temperature. That's because it both melts and boils at
temperatures below room temperature.
(Water is a liquid at room temperature. That's because the melting point is below room
temperature but the boiling point is above room temperature. Aluminium oxide is a solid at
room temperature. That's because both the melting point and the boiling point are above room
temperature).
2e Water has a lower melting point than aluminium oxide because the forces between water
molecules in the solid (ice) are weaker than the forces found in solid aluminium oxide. You'll be
seeing this in more detail later in this topic.
2f Sulfur dioxide has the weakest forces between the particles. We can tell that because sulfur
dioxide has the lowest melting point and boiling point of the three compounds.
2g The simple particle model has three limitations (ie things that are not correct):
1. It assumes that there are no forces between the molecules but we know that there are.
2. It assumes that all of the particles are spheres but we know that they are not.
3. It assumes that all of the spheres are inelastic solids (ie cannot be stretched or
compressed). Again we know that this is not the case.
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Ionic Bonding 1
1 Elements react to achieve a full outer energy level.
2 Elements in group 0 (noble gases) do not react because they already have a full outer energy
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level.
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3a When lithium reacts with uorine, one electron passes from the outer energy level of the lithium
atom to the outer energy level of the uorine atom.
3b es
Before they react, the lithium atom has 3 protons and 3 electrons and the uorine atom has 9
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protons and 9 electrons. The negative electrons cancel out the positive protons, making the
atoms uncharged.
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3c When it reacts, the lithium atom loses one electron from its outer energy level. Now it has two
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electrons (ie two negative charges) but it still has three protons (three positive charges). The
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two electrons can cancel out the charges on two of the protons. Therefore the lithium ion has
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one overall positive charge.

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3d When it reacts, the uorine atom gains one electron into its outer energy level. Now it has ten
electrons (ie ten negative charges) but it still has nine protons (nine positive charges). The nine
protons can cancel out the charges on nine of the electrons. Therefore the uorine ion has one
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overall negative charge.
4a
4b In this reaction, one electron moves from the outer energy level of the sodium atom to the
outer energy level of the chlorine atom. When the reaction has completed, we have a sodium
ion (with a one positive charge) and a chloride ion (with a one negative charge).
5
6 When a group 1 and a group 7 element react, ionic bonding takes place. The group 1
elements loses one electron to form an ion with a charge of +1. The group 7 element gains
one electron to form an ion with a charge of -1. Both ions have a full outer energy level just like
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noble gases.
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Ionic Bonding 2
1a When group 2 elements react they lose 2 electrons.
1b When group 2 elements react they form ions with a 2+ charge.
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2b The magnesium ion has a 2+ charge because it has 12 protons (so 12 positive charges in the
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nucleus) but because it lost 2 electrons to the oxygen atom, it now has 10 electrons (10
negative charges). So it has an overall charge of 2+.
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2c The oxide ion has a 2- charge because it has 8 protons (so 8 positive charges in the nucleus)
but because it gained 2 electrons from the magnesium atom, it now has 10 electrons (10
negative charges). So it has an overall charge of 2-.
2d Both the magnesium ion and the oxide ion now have the same electronic structure as the
noble gas neon (2 electrons in the rst energy level and 8 electrons in the outer energy level).
3a
3b Each calcium atom will lose 2 electrons from the outer energy level. However, each chlorine
atom can only gain 1 electron (as they already have 7 electrons in their outer energy level). So
one calcium atom gives 1 electron each to two chlorine atoms. Therefore the formula of
calcium chloride is CaCl2.
3c The calcium ion and chloride ion have the same electronic structure as the noble gas argon (2
electrons in the rst energy level, 8 in the second and 8 in the outer energy level).
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Ionic Bonding 2
4a
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4b Sodium oxide has the formula Na2O. That's because each sodium atom can lose 1 electron
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from its outer energy level but an oxygen atom requires 2 electrons to complete its outer
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energy level. So two sodium atoms react with one oxygen atom.
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4c The sodium ion and oxide ion have the same electronic structure as the noble gas neon. Both
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have 2 electrons in the rst energy level and 8 in the outer energy level.
5a Element = sulfur. The ion shown has 18 electrons. However, the 2- charge tells us that the ion
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must have gained 2 electrons so the original atom must have had 16 electrons. Sulfur atoms
have 16 electrons.
5b Element = potassium. The ion shown has 18 electrons. However, the 1+ charge tells us that the
ion must have lost 1 electron so the original atom must have had 19 electrons. Potassium
atoms have 19 electrons.
5c Element = uorine. The ion shown has 10 electrons. However, the 1- charge tells us that the ion
must have gained 1 electron so the original atom must have had 9 electrons. Fluorine atoms
have 9 electrons.
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Properties of Ionic Compounds
1a + b
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chloride ion chloride ion
es potassium ion
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potassium ion
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electrostatic forces
of attraction
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1c A regular arrangement of positive and negative ions in 3 dimensions is called a giant crystal
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lattice.
1d
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Properties of Ionic Compounds
2a When we heat an ionic solid, the ions vibrate. As the strength of the vibration increases, there
comes a point where the ions are moving with so much energy that the electrostatic forces
between the ions weaken or break. Now the ions are free to move and the ionic compound has
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melted.
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2b Ionic solids have very high melting points because the electrostatic forces between ions are
extremely strong and take a very large amount of energy to weaken or break.
2c es
Sodium chloride consists of two ions Na+ and Cl-. These are held together by electrostatic
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forces of attraction which require a lot of energy to weaken or break. Magnesium oxide
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consists of the ions Mg2+ and O2-. Because these ions are both double charged, the
electrostatic forces of attraction between them are stronger than the forces in NaCl. This
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means that it takes more energy to weaken or break the electrostatic forces of attraction in
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MgO compared to NaCl, which is why MgO has a much higher melting point that NaCl.
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3a Solid ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity as they have no mobile charge carriers. In
ionic solids, the ions cannot move because they are held in place by the strong electrostatic
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forces of attraction. So because the ions cannot move, an electric current cannot be carried.
3b Melting an ionic compound or dissolving it in water breaks the electrostatic forces of attraction
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between the ions. Now the ions are free to move and can carry an electric current.
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Covalent Bonding 1
1a When a metal reacts with a non-metal, covalent bonding takes place.

This is false.
The correct version is "When a metal reacts with a non-metal, ionic bonding takes place" or
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"When a non-metal reacts with a non-metal, covalent bonding takes place".
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1b In covalent bonding, a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
This is true.
1c es
During covalent bonding, the atoms become a noble gas.
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This is false.
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The correct version is "During covalent bonding, the atoms get a full outer energy level, like a
noble gas".
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covalent bond
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2b The outer energy levels of the two atoms overlap (in this case, hydrogen only has one energy
level). A pair of electrons are shared between the two atoms so that both now have a full outer
energy level. (It is essential that you learn that a covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons).
2c
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Covalent Bonding 1
3 Only the outer energy levels are involved in covalent bonding so we only show these on
diagrams. Internal energy levels are already full so we don't need to show these.
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4a + b
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5a + b
5c
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Covalent Bonding 2
1a
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1b An oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer energy level. That means that 2 more electrons are
required for oxygen to have a full outer energy level. Each hydrogen atom has 1 electron, so
one oxygen atom has to form covalent bonds with two atoms of hydrogen.
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Covalent Bonding 2
2a
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2b A nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in its outer energy level. That means that 3 more electrons are
required for nitrogen to have a full outer energy level. Each hydrogen atom has 1 electron, so
one nitrogen atom has to form covalent bonds with three atoms of hydrogen.
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Covalent Bonding 2
3a
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3b A carbon atom has 4 electrons in its outer energy level. That means that 4 more electrons are
required for carbon to have a full outer energy level. Each hydrogen atom has 1 electron, so
one carbon atom has to form covalent bonds with four atoms of hydrogen.
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Covalent Bonding 3
1a+b
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1c Oxygen atoms have 6 electrons in their outer energy level which means that 2 more electrons
are required for a full outer energy level. In the case of the double covalent bond, each oxygen
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atom puts 2 electrons into the bond. So both atoms now have 8 electrons in their outer energy
levels (in other words a full outer energy level).
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2a+b
2c Nitrogen atoms have 5 electrons in their outer energy level which means that 3 more electrons
are required for a full outer energy level. In the case of the triple covalent bond, each nitrogen
atom puts 3 electrons into the bond. So both atoms now have 8 electrons in their outer energy
levels (in other words a full outer energy level).
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Properties of Small Covalent Molecules
1a Small covalent molecules are usually gases or liquids at room temperature.

1b
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1c The process shown in the diagram is boiling. We are converting a liquid into a gas by putting
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energy in.
1d In order to melt or boil a substance, we have to weaken or break the intermolecular forces. In
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small covalent molecules, the intermolecular forces are extremely weak and take very little
energy to weaken or break. This means that small covalent molecules have low melting and
boiling points.
It is very important that you do not confuse intermolecular forces with covalent bonds.
Covalent bonds require a very large amount of energy to break and are not broken when a
substance melts or boils.
1e As the size of the covalent molecule increases, the melting and boiling points increase. This is
because the strength of the intermolecular forces increases.
2 Small covalent molecules cannot conduct electricity because they have no overall electric
charges.
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Diamond and Silicon Dioxide
1 Giant covalent molecules have high melting and boiling points.

Giant covalent molecules are always solids at room temperature (this is linked to the rst
point).
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Giant covalent molecules have millions of strong covalent bonds.
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2a Diamond is made from the element carbon.
Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds to four other carbon atoms.
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That means that a single diamond molecule is a giant molecule containing many millions of
carbon atoms joined by covalent bonds.
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2b When we melt diamond, we need to break the covalent bonds between the carbon atoms.
Covalent bonds are extremely strong and take a great deal of energy to break. So to provide
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this energy, we need to heat diamond to a very high temperature.

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2c Diamond cannot conduct electricity. That's because every electron in the outer energy level of
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the carbon atoms are involved in a covalent bond. There are no free electrons to move and
carry an electric current.
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3a Silicon dioxide contains oxygen and silicon.

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3b A = silicon. We can tell that because silicon is in group 4 of the periodic table, just like carbon.
And just like carbon, silicon forms 4 covalent bonds. However, this can be hard to show on a
small diagram.
B = oxygen. We can tell that because oxygen is in group 6 of the periodic table. That means
that it requires 2 electrons to have a full outer energy level, so it forms 2 covalent bonds.
3c The structure of silicon dioxide is similar to diamond because they are both giant covalent
molecules containing many millions of atoms joined by covalent bonds. Also, in silicon dioxide,
each silicon atom forms four covalent bonds (just like the carbon atoms in diamond).
However, the structure of silicon dioxide is di erent to diamond as each silicon atom is not
bonded to other silicon atoms. Instead, they are bonded to oxygen atoms, which then bond to
silicon atoms.
3d Just like with diamond, when we melt silicon dioxide we have to break a very large number of
covalent bonds and this requires a great deal of energy. That means that silicon dioxide has a
very high melting point.
3e In silicon dioxide, every electron in the outer energy levels of both the silicon and oxygen
atoms are in covalent bonds. This means, again just like diamond, that silicon dioxide has no
free electrons to move and carry an electric current. s
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Graphite
1a Both graphite and diamond are giant covalent molecules containing only carbon atoms.
However, in graphite each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms whereas
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in diamond each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms. Also, in graphite,
the carbon atoms form layers (which are not covalently bonded together). In diamond there are
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no layers.
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1c In graphite the carbon atoms are arranged in rings of six atoms (hexagonal rings).
2a Graphite has a high melting point because graphite has millions of covalent bonds which take
a lot of energy to break.
2b There are weak intermolecular forces between the atoms. This is incorrect because the carbon
atoms in graphite are joined by covalent bonds which are extremely strong.
There are no covalent bonds between the layers. This is true but does not explain why graphite
has a high melting point.
3 Graphite consists of layers which are not strongly bonded to each other (there are forces but
they're not strong). When we apply a force to graphite (for example rubbing it), the layers can
slide o each other. This is why graphite feels slippery to touch (and also explains why we can
use graphite to draw with for example in pencil and charcoal).
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Graphite
4a+b
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5a A delocalised electron is not attached to any atom and can move.

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If you look at the diagram above, every carbon atom in graphite has one electron which is not
in a covalent bond (as each carbon atom only forms 3 covalent bonds). The electrons which
are not in covalent bonds are delocalised.
5b Delocalised electrons can move through the whole graphite molecule. Because electrons are
charged, these moving delocalised electrons can carry an electric current. This makes graphite
a very good conductor of electricity.
The moving delocalised electrons can also carry thermal energy, which makes graphite an
excellent conductor of heat.
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Graphene and Fullerenes
1a Graphene is a single layer of graphite. It is a layer of carbon atoms arranged into hexagonal
rings. Delocalised electrons can move across the layer.
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1b Just like in graphite, the delocalised electrons in graphene can move and carry an electrical
current. This makes graphene an excellent conductor of electricity.
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1c As a material, graphene is extremely strong.
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Fullerenes are molecules of carbon atoms with hollow shapes. Usually the carbon atoms in
fullerenes are arranged in hexagonal rings for example in carbon nanotubes. However,
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Buckminsterfullerene also has rings containing ve carbon atoms. Other fullerenes can have
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rings of seven carbon atoms. Buckminsterfullerene is useful as a lubricant, as catalysts and

for delivering pharmaceuticals.
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3a High tensile strength means that carbon nanotubes can be stretched with a lot of force without
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snapping or breaking.
3b Carbon nanotubes can be used to reinforce other materials to make them light but strong (eg
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in expensive tennis rackets).

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Bonding in Polymers
1 Polymer molecules are long chains formed by joining together thousands of monomers.
The monomers joined together to make a polymer are called alkenes.
The polymer poly(ethene) is made from the monomer ethene.
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2b In the monomer (which is an alkene), the carbon atoms are joined by a double covalent bond.
However, in the polymer, the carbon atoms are joined by single covalent bonds.
3 A repeating unit has the following three features:
• The bond between the carbon atoms must a single covalent bond not a double covalent
bond.
• There must be a bond extending out from each carbon atom to show that this is only a tiny
part of the polymer.
• There must be a lower case "n" to the right to show that the polymer consists of many of
these repeating units joined together.
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Bonding in Polymers
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5 Polymers are very long chains. These chains are held to other chains by a lot of intermolecular
forces. These intermolecular forces are relatively strong and require a lot of energy to weaken
or break. This means that polymers have high melting points and are usually solids at room
temperature.
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Metals and Alloys
1 Metals consists of a giant structure. Atoms are arranged in layers. Metals contain delocalised
electrons which can move.
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2a Delocalised electrons are not attached to any individual atom and can move from one place to
another.
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2c If you look at the beryllium atoms on the left hand side, you can see that each atom has four
protons (which are positive) and four electrons (which are negative). So these atoms have no
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overall charge. However, looking at the right hand side, we can see that each beryllium atom
loses two electrons from their outer energy level (these electrons are delocalised). So now,
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each beryllium atom still has four positive protons but now only has two negative electrons. So
each atom now has an overall charge of +2 and is an ion.
3 Electrostatic attraction is the attraction between two oppositely charged objects. So in this
case, this is the attraction between the negative delocalised electrons and the positive metal
ions.
4 The electrostatic attraction between the delocalised electrons and ions in metals is called the
"metallic bond". This is strong and requires a lot of energy to weaken or break. This means that
metals have high melting and boiling points.
5 Delocalised electrons can move. Because they are charged, this means that they can carry an
electrical current. So metals are good conductors of electricity.
Moving delocalised electrons can also transfer thermal (heat) energy, which makes metals
good conductors of heat.
6a In pure metals, all of the atoms are the same (therefore the same size). These atoms form
layers. If we bend or shape metals (eg by hammering) then the layers of atoms slide over each
other.
6b An alloy is a mixture of a metal with another metal.
6c Alloys are harder than pure metals. That's because alloys contain atoms which are di erent
sizes. These di erent-sized atoms distort the layers so they cannot slide.
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Nanoparticles
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2 Smallest
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4 nm (ie 4 x 10-9 m)
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4.2 x 10-9 m (ie 4.2 nm)

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5 x 10-6 m (ie 5 µm)

6 µm (ie 6 x 10-6 m)
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0.5 mm
Largest
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3a PM10 Size range = 10 µm to 2.5 µm Contain many thousands of atoms

(coarse particles are known as "dust")
PM 2.5 Size range = 2.5 µm to 0.1 µm Contain several thousand atoms
Nanoparticles Size range = 0.1 µm to 1 nm Contain a few hundred atoms
3b The PM number tells us the maximum size of the particle in µm. The maximum size of
nanoparticles is 0.1 µm so the PM number for nanoparticles is PM 0.1
4a Particle A: surface area = (10 x 10) x 6 = 600 µm2. Volume = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 µm3. Surface
area to volume ratio = 600 : 1000 = 0.6 : 1
Particle B: surface area = (1 x 1) x 6 = 6 µm2. Volume = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1 µm3. Surface area to

volume ratio 6 : 1
4b As we decrease the size of the particle by 10x, we increase the surface area : volume ratio by
10x.
5a Three uses of nanoparticles are: electronics, suncreams, cosmetics. Also catalysts, medicines
and deodorants.
5b Nanoparticles are extremely small. If we use them directly on the skin (eg in cosmetics or
deodorants), then there is a risk that they could pass through the skin into the body and then
enter our cells. No-one knows the potential e ects of this in the long term.
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Limitations of Bonding Diagrams
1a Advantage of dot-cross diagrams: Because we use dots to represent the electrons from one
atom and crosses to represent the electrons from another atom, it is very clear where the
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electrons are coming from.
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Disadvantage of dot-cross diagrams: They do not tell us about the shape of the molecule.
1b
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One disadvantage of a 2D stick diagram is that because the covalent bond is shown by a stick,
we cannot tell which electron in the bond came from which atom.
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Stick diagrams also do not give us any information about electrons that are not in bonds.
e nc
2D stick diagrams do not give us accurate information about the shape of the molecule.
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2 The advantage of a 3D stick diagram over a 2D stick diagram is that a 3D stick diagram shows
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us the shape of the molecule.

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3a Ball and stick diagram

Advantage: allows us to clearly see the ions in 3 dimensions.
Disadvantage: the ions are shown as widely spaced but in reality, the ions are closely packed
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together in a crystal lattice. Also, a ball and stick diagram gives us no idea of the relative sizes
of the ions.
Space lling diagram

Advantage: Gives us a more realistic idea of how closely packed the ions are in the crystal
lattice. Also a space lling diagram gives us an idea of the relative sizes of the ions.
Disadvantage: Because the ions are shown packed together, it can be di cult to see the 3D
packing with a space lling diagram.
3b The disadvantage of both the ball and stick and space lling diagrams is that they only show a
tiny part of the giant crystal lattice. Infact, a crystal lattice is a giant structure.
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Chemistry Paper 1
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Triple
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Quantitative Chemistry
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Conservation of Mass
1a The reactants are the chemicals that are put into a reaction. In this case, the reactants are
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
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1b The products are produced in a chemical reaction, so in this case the products are sodium
chloride and water.
so
1c The total mass of reactants is 73 + 80 = 153 g.
1d es
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical
reaction. In other words, the total mass of products must be the same as the total mass of
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reactants. In this case, the total mass of reactants was 153 g so the total mass of products
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must also be 153 g.

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1e We know that we must have made a total of 153 g of product. The question tells us that 117 g
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of this is the sodium chloride, so the mass of water must be 153-117 = 36 g.

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1f Because the total mass of products was the same as the total mass of reactants, this reaction
obeyed the law of conservation of mass.
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2a The total mass of product in this reaction was 110 + 2 = 112 g.

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2b The total mass of reactants used must have been the same as the total mass of products. So
the total mass of reactants was 112 g.
2c We know that the total mass of reactants was 112 g. The question tells us that 98 g of this was
the sulfuric acid. So the mass of lithium must have been 112 - 98 = 14 g.
3a The total mass of products must be the same as the mass of reactants. We know that 200 g of
calcium carbonate was used in this reaction and that 112 g of calcium oxide was produced.
This means that 88 g of carbon dioxide must also have been produced.
3b Carbon dioxide is a gas. It is possible that some of this escaped into the atmosphere.
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Charges on Ions
1a An ion is an atom which has an overall charge.
1b Metal atoms always form ions with a positive charge.
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Non-metal atoms usually form ions with a negative charge.
so
1c K+ (potassium is in group 1 and group 1 metals always form ions with a 1+ charge).
Sr2+ (strontium is in group 2 and group 2 metals always form ions with a 2+ charge).
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B3+ (boron is in group 3 and group 3 metals always form ions with a 3+ charge).
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2a Transition metals can have a range of di erent positive charges so we cannot look at any
transition metal and easily work out the charge it will have in a compound.
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2b Vanadium (III) means that the vanadium ion has a charge of 3+ in the compound. ( You will
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often see small numbers in brackets after transition metals. Because transition metals can have
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a range of charges, it's usual for the formula of the compound to show the charge on the
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transition metal ion ).

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3 Se2-. Selenium is in group 6, like oxygen and sulfur. Group 6 non-metals form 2- ions.
I-. Iodine is in group 7, like uorine and chlorine. Group 7 elements form 1- ions.
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Formula of Ionic Compounds
1 calcium chloride has the formula CaCl2. The calcium ion has a charge of 2+. Each chloride ion
has a charge of 1-. Because there are two chloride ions, the total negative charge is 2-. This
cancels out the charge on the calcium ion, leaving an overall charge of zero.
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2 magnesium iodide = MgI2. The magnesium ion has a charge of 2+ and the iodide ion has a
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charge of 1-. We need two iodide ions to cancel out one magnesium ion.
lithium oxide = Li2O. The lithium ion has a charge of 1+ and the oxide ion has a charge of 2-.
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We need two lithium ions to cancel out one oxide ion.
calcium carbonate = CaCO3. The calcium ion has a charge of 2+ and the carbonate ion has a
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charge of 2-. This means that one carbonate ion can cancel out one calcium ion.
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aluminium chloride = AlCl3. The aluminium ion has a charge of 3+ and the chloride ion has a
charge of 1-. We need three chloride ions to cancel out the aluminium ion.
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ammonium nitrate = NH4NO3. The ammonium ion has a charge of 1+ and the nitrate ion has a
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charge of 1-. One nitrate ion can cancel out one ammonium ion.
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sodium phosphate = Na3PO4. Each sodium ion has a charge of 1+ and each phosphate ion
has a charge of 3-. We need three sodium ions to cancel out one phosphate ion.
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3 magnesium oxide = MgO

lithium chloride = LiCl
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aluminium oxide = Al2O3

4 calcium nitrate = Ca(NO3)2
Each calcium ion has a charge of 2+ and each nitrate ion has a charge of 1-. We need two
nitrate ions to cancel out the charge on one calcium ion.
ammonium carbonate = (NH4)2CO3

Each ammonium ion has a charge of 1+ and each carbonate ion has a charge of 2-. We need
two ammonium ions to cancel out the charge on one carbonate ion.
iron (II) phosphate = Fe3(PO4)2

Each iron (II) ion has a charge of 2+. Each phosphate ion has a charge of 3-. We need thee iron
(II) ions to cancel out the charge on two phosphate ions.
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Balancing Chemical Equations
1 Magnesium sulfate has 1 atom of magnesium, 1 atom of sulfur and 4 atoms of oxygen.
2 Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl -> MgCl2 + 2H2O
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2N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3
so
CuSO4 + 2NaOH -> Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
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CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
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Relative Formula Mass
1 The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses (Ar) of
the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.
ns
2 MgCl2 = ( 24 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 2 ) = 95
K2SO4 = ( 39 x 2 ) + ( 32 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 4 ) = 174
so
Ca(OH)2 = ( 40 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) = 74
Al(NO3)3 = ( 27 x 1 ) + ( 14 x 3 ) + ( 16 x 9 ) = 213
3 es
Li2SO4. The correct Mr for lithium sulfate is ( 7 x 2 ) + ( 32 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 4 ) = 110.
el
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In this case, the value of 103 is incorrect. It is possible that they calculated the Mr of LiSO4
which is not the correct formula.
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Ca(NO3)2. The correct Mr for calcium nitrate is ( 40 x 1 ) + ( 14 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 6 ) = 164.

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In this case, the value of 204 is incorrect. It is possible that they calculated the Mr of Ca2(NO3)2
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which is not the correct formula.
2ZnCO3. The correct Mr for zinc carbonate is ( 65 x 1 ) + ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 125.

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In this case, the person has used the large number 2 in front of the formula. This is a very
common mistake. Remember that relative formula mass tells us the mass of one molecule of a
compound. It does not include large numbers.
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Percentage by Mass
Please note that this topic is not in earlier versions of the workbook but was added after an update to
the speci cation. To download the worksheet, please visit freesciencelessons.co.uk/faq
ns
1a There is one atom of zinc in zinc oxide. This has a relative atomic mass of 65.
so
(65 / 81) x 100 = 80.25% to 4 signi cant gures.
1b
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There is one atom of potassium in potassium nitrate. This has a relative atomic mass of 39.
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1c There are two atoms of uorine in magnesium uoride. These have a combined relative atomic
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mass of 38.
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1d There are four atoms of oxygen in sulfuric acid. These have a combined relative atomic mass of
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64.
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2a There are two atoms of iron in iron oxide. These have a combined relative atomic mass of 112.
(112 / 160) x 100 = 70% (to the nearest whole number).

2b We know that the student's answer must be incorrect. This is because you cannot have a
percentage by mass of an element in a compound greater than 100%.
By de nition, a compound contains di erent elements chemically combined. This means that
the percentage by mass of any individual element in a compound must be LESS than 100%.
The error that the student made was to invert their calculation. Rather than dividing 112 by 160,
they must have divided 160 by 112. Inverting the calculation is a common mistake when
calculating a percentage.
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Calculating Moles of an Element
1a 64 g of sulfur = 62 / 32 = 2 moles.
1b 40.5 g of aluminium = 40.5 / 27 = 1.5 moles.
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1c 96 g of magnesium = 96 / 24 = 4 moles.
so
2a 0.2 g of lithium = 0.2 / 7 = 0.0286 moles to 3 signi cant gures.
2b es
6.3 g of potassium = 6.3 / 39 = 0.162 moles to 3 signi cant gures.
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3a 4600 g of sodium = 4600 / 23 = 2 x 102 moles to 1 signi cant gure.
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3b 4995 g of beryllium = 4995 / 9 = 5.6 x 102 moles to 2 signi cant gures.

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3c 0.276 g of boron = 0.275 / 11 = 2.5 x 10-2 moles to 2 signi cant gures.

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Calculating Moles of a Compound
1a Mr of sodium oxide = ( 23 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 62
1b Number of moles = mass / Mr
ns
Number of moles = 930 / 62 = 15 moles
so
2a Mr of lithium uoride = ( 7 x 1 ) + ( 19 x 1 ) = 26
2b es
Number of moles = mass / Mr
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Number of moles = 2540 / 26 = 97.7 to 3 signi cant gures

3a Mr of zinc iodide = ( 65 x 1 ) + ( 127 x 2 ) = 319
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Number of moles = 1457 / 319 = 4.57 to 3 signi cant gures

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Calculating the Mass of a Number of Moles
1a 1 mole of calcium = 40 g (we know this because the Ar of calcium is 40).

3 moles of calcium = 40 x 3 = 120 g
ns
1b 1 mole of zinc = 65 g (we know this because the Ar of zinc is 65).
5 moles of zinc = 65 x 5 = 325 g.
so
2a 1 mole of iron = 56 g
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0.374 moles of iron = 56 x 0.374 = 20.9 g (to 3 signi cant gures)
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2b 1 mole of silicon = 28 g
0.0173 moles of silicon = 28 x 0.0173 = 0.484 g (to 3 signi cant gures)
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2c 1 mole of potassium = 39 g
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9.33 moles of potassium = 39 x 9.33 = 364 g (to 3 signi cant gures)

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3a 1 mole of aluminium = 27 g
3.851 moles of aluminium = 27 x 3.851 = 1.04 x 102 g (to 3 signi cant gures)
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3b 1 mole of carbon = 12 g
12.63 moles of carbon = 12 x 12.63 = 1.52 x 102 g (to 3 signi cant gures)
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3c 1 mole of boron = 11 g
2.5 x 10-3 moles of boron = 11 x 2.5 x 10-3 = 2.75 x 10-2 g (to 3 signi cant gures)
4a Mr of magnesium sul de = ( 24 x 1 ) + ( 32 x 1 ) = 56
4b 1 mole of magnesium sul de = 56 g

1.5 moles = 56 x 1.5 = 84 g
5a Mr of lithium oxide = ( 7 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 30
5b 1 mole of lithium oxide = 30 g

3 moles = 3 x 30 = 90 g
6a Mr of sodium sulfate = ( 23 x 2 ) + ( 32 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 4 ) = 142
6b 1 mole of sodium sulfate = 142 g

7.3 moles of sodium sulfate = 7.3 x 142 = 1037 g (to 4 signi cant gures)
7a Mr of ammonium nitrate = ( 14 x 2 ) + ( 1 x 4 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 80
7b 1 mole of ammonium nitrate = 80 g

700 moles of ammonium nitrate = 700 x 80 = 5.6 x 104 g s
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Using Moles to Balance Equations
1 First calculate the number of moles of each chemical as follows:
Mr iron (III) chloride ( FeCl3 ) = ( 56 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 3 ) = 162.5
ns
Number of moles of iron (III) chloride = 650 / 162.5 = 4 moles
so
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Mr ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH ) = ( 14 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 5 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 35
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Number of moles of ammonium hydroxide = 420 / 35 = 12 moles
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Mr iron (III) hydroxide ( Fe(OH)3 ) = ( 56 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) + ( 1 x 3 ) = 107

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Number of moles of iron (III) hydroxide = 428 / 107 = 4 moles

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Mr ammonium chloride ( NH4Cl ) = ( 14 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 4 ) + ( 35.5 x 1 ) = 53.5

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Number of moles of ammonium chloride = 642 / 53.5 = 12 moles

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Now calculate the ratio by dividing all the number of moles by the smallest number of moles (in
this case the smallest is 4).
FeCl3 = 4 / 4 = 1
NH4OH = 12 / 4 = 3
Fe(OH)3 = 4 / 4 = 1
NH4Cl = 12 / 4 = 3
These are the balancing numbers but remember that we do not write the number 1.
FeCl3 + 3 NH4OH -> Fe(OH)3 + 3 NH4Cl
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Mr aluminium carbide ( Al4C3 ) = ( 27 x 4 ) + ( 12 x 3 ) = 144
ns
Number of moles of aluminium carbide = 720 / 144 = 5 moles
so
Mr water ( H2O ) = ( 1 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 18
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Number of moles of water = 1080 / 18 = 60 moles
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Mr aluminium hydroxide ( Al(OH)3 ) = ( 27 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) + ( 1 x 3 ) = 78

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Number of moles of aluminium hydroxide = 1560 / 78 = 20 moles

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Mr methane ( CH4 ) = ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 4 ) = 16
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Number of moles of methane = 240 / 16 = 15 moles

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Al4C3 = 5 / 5 = 1
H2O = 60 / 5 = 12
Al(OH)3 = 20 / 5 = 4
CH4 = 15 / 5 = 3
Al4C3 + 12 H2O -> 4 Al(OH)3 + 3 CH4
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Mr potassium superoxide ( KO2 ) = ( 39 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 2 ) = 71
ns
Number of moles of potassium superoxide = 1420 / 71 = 20 moles
so
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Mr carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) = ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 2 ) = 44
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Number of moles of carbon dioxide = 440 / 44 = 10 moles
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Mr potassium carbonate ( K2CO3 ) = ( 39 x 2 ) + ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 138

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Number of moles of potassium carbonate = 1380 / 138 = 10 moles

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Mr oxygen ( O2 ) = ( 16 x 2 ) = 32
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Number of moles of oxygen = 480 / 32 = 15 moles

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KO2 = 20 / 10 = 2
CO2 = 10 / 10 = 1
K2CO3 = 10 / 10 = 1
O2 = 15 / 10 = 1.5
Generally, we do not write 0.5 when balancing chemical equations (although we can for certain
equations). So to make these all whole numbers, we need to multiply everything by 2 like this:
4 KO2 + 2 CO2 -> 2 K2CO3 + 3 O2
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Mr cyclohexane ( C6H12 ) = ( 12 x 6 ) + ( 1 x 12 ) = 84
ns
Number of moles of cyclohexane = 756 / 84 = 9 moles
so
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Mr oxygen ( O2 ) = ( 16 x 2 ) = 32
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Number of moles of oxygen = 2592 / 32 = 81 moles
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Mr carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) = ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 2 ) = 44

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Number of moles of carbon dioxide = 2376 / 44 = 54 moles

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Mr water ( H2O ) = ( 1 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 18
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Number of moles of water = 972 / 18 = 54 moles

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C6H12 = 9 / 9 = 1
O2 = 81 / 9 = 9
CO2 = 54 / 9 = 6
H2O = 54 / 9 = 6
C6H12 + 9 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O
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Avogadro's Constant 1
1a One mole of K contains one mole of atoms (because K is a single atom).
1b One mole of Cl2 contains two moles of atoms (because each Cl2 molecule contains two atoms
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of Cl).
so
1c One mole of MgO contains two moles of atoms (because each MgO molecule contains one
atom of magnesium and one atom of oxygen).
1d es
One mole of Na2O contains three moles of atoms (because each Na2O molecule contains two
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atoms of sodium and one atom of oxygen).
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1e One mole of H2O2 contains four moles of atoms (because each molecule of H2O2 contains two
atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen).
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1f One mole of Be(OH)2 contains ve moles of atoms (because each molecule of Be(OH)2
contains one atom of beryllium, two atoms of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen.
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2a One mole of LiCl contains two moles of atoms (because each molecule of LiCl contains one
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atom of lithium and one atom of chlorine).

2b Three moles of BeF2 contains nine moles of atoms (because each molecule of BeF2 contains
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one atom of beryllium and two atoms of uorine).

2c Four moles of CaCO3 contains twenty moles of atoms (because each molecule of CaCO3
contains one atom of calcium, one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen).
2d Seven moles of Mg(NO3)2 contains sixty three moles of atoms (because each molecule of
Mg(NO3)2 contains one atom of magnesium, two atoms of nitrogen and six atoms of oxygen).
3a When four moles of aluminium atoms react, this produces four moles of aluminium ions
(because each aluminium atom produces one aluminium ion).
3b + 3c When four moles of aluminium atoms react, 12 moles of electrons are lost. When an aluminium
atom forms an aluminium ion, it loses three electrons so when four moles of aluminium atoms
react, they lose 12 moles of electrons.
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Avogadro's Constant 2
1 Avogadro's constant is 6.02 x 1023
2a Mr of ZnCl2 = ( 65 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 2 ) = 136
ns
so
Number of moles = 136 / 136 = 1 mole
2c es
One molecule of ZnCl2 contains three atoms (one atom of zinc and two atoms of chlorine).
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One mole of ZnCl2 contains three moles of atoms (as each molecule contains three atoms).
2d Avogadro's constant tells us the number in one mole (of anything)
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In 136 g of ZnCl2, we have three moles of atoms (from 2c).

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Therefore in 136g of ZnCl2, we have 3 x Avogadro's constant of atoms.

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3 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.806 x 1024 atoms

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3a Number of moles = mass / Ar
Number of moles of manganese ions = 220 / 55 = 4 moles

3b Number of manganese ions = number of moles x Avogadro's constant
Number of manganese ions = 4 x 6.02 x 1023 = 2.408 x 1024

3c When each manganese ion forms, four electrons are released.
We know from 3b that we have 2.408 x 1024 ions of manganese.
Therefore, 4 x 2.408 x 1024 = 9.632 x 1024 electrons.
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Reacting Masses 1
1a Number of moles = mass / Ar
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1b The large numbers in front of the calcium and calcium iodide are both 1 (but we don't write "1").
so
This tells us that one mole of calcium makes one mole of calcium iodide. We have two moles of
calcium so we can make two moles of calcium iodide.
1c es
Mr of calcium iodide ( CaI2 ) = ( 40 x 1 ) + ( 127 x 2 ) = 294
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1d Mass = number of moles x Mr
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Mass = 2 x 294 = 588 g

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2a Number of moles = mass / Mr

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2b The large numbers in front of the barium oxide and the barium hydroxide are both 1. This tells
us that one mole of barium oxide makes one mole of barium hydroxide. We have four moles of
©
barium oxide so we can make four moles of barium hydroxide.

2c Mr Ba(OH)2 = ( 137 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 2 ) + ( 1 x 2 ) = 171
Mass = 4 x 171
Mass = 684 g
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3b The large number 1 in front of the magnesium carbonate and carbon dioxide tell us that one
ns
mole of carbon dioxide is produced from one mole of magnesium carbonate.
so
We have made four moles of carbon dioxide so we must have started with four moles of
magnesium carbonate.
3c es
Mr MgCO3 = ( 24 x 1 ) + ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 84
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Mass = 4 x 84 = 336 g
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4b The large number 1 in front of the sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid tell us that one mole of
sulfuric acid is produced from one mole of sulfur trioxide.
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We have 5 moles of sulfuric acid, so we must have started with ve moles of sulfur trioxide.
4c Mr SO3 = ( 32 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 80
Mass = 5 x 80 = 400 g
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Reacting Masses 2
ns
1b There is a large number one (not shown) in front of the potassium oxide and a large two in front
so
of the potassium hydroxide. This tells us that one mole of potassium oxide makes two moles of
potassium hydroxide. We are starting with two moles of potassium oxide, so we can make four
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moles of potassium hydroxide.
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1c Mr KOH = ( 39 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 1 ) = 56
nc

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Mass = 4 x 56 = 224 g
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2b There is a large two in front of the nitric acid and a large one (not shown) in front of the beryllium
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nitrate. This tells us that two moles of nitric acid make one mole of beryllium nitrate. We are
starting with four moles of nitric acid, so we can make two moles of beryllium nitrate.
2c Mr Be(NO3)2 = ( 9 x 1 ) + ( 14 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 6 ) = 133
Mass = 2 x 133 = 266 g

3a To balance the equation, we need a large 2 in front of the hydrochloric acid.

3c There is a large two in front of the hydrochloric acid and a large one (not shown) in front of the
zinc chloride. This tells us that two moles of hydrochloric acid make one mole of zinc chloride.
We are making two moles of zinc chloride, so we need four moles of hydrochloric acid.
3d Mr HCl = ( 1 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 1 ) = 36.5
3e Mass = number of moles x Mr
Mass = 4 x 36.5 = 146 g
4a To balance the equation, we need a large 2 in front of the ammonia.
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4c There is a large 2 in front of the ammonia and a large 1 in front of the nitrogen. This tells us that
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one mole of nitrogen makes two moles of ammonia.

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We need to make eight moles of ammonia so we will need four moles of nitrogen.
ce

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Mass = 28 x 4 = 112 g
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66
Limiting Reactant
1 The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up. The amount of limiting reactant
determines the maximum amount of products that we can make.
ns
2a In the case of this reaction, the limiting reactant is bromine. The reaction will stop when the
bromine is used up. The excess reactant is calcium. At the end of the reaction, 0.2 moles of
so
calcium will be unreacted.
2b
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In the case of this reaction, the limiting reactant is strontium oxide. The reaction will stop when
the strontium oxide is used up. The excess reactant is sulfuric acid. At the end of the reaction,
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0.4 moles of sulfuric acid will be unreacted.
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2c In the case of this reaction, the limiting reactant is copper chloride. The reaction will stop when
the copper chloride is used up. The excess reactant is zinc. At the end of the reaction, 0.05
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moles of zinc will be unreacted.

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2d In the case of this reaction, the limiting reactant is water. The reaction will stop when the water
is used up. The excess reactant is carbon dioxide. At the end of the reaction, 0.2 moles of
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carbon dioxide will be unreacted.

3a The limiting reactant is lead iodide (it has the fewer number of moles).
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3b We have 1.2 moles of lead iodide. The large number 1 (not shown) in front of all the chemicals
tells us that one mole of lead iodide makes one mole of magnesium iodide.
Because we have 1.2 moles of lead iodide and this is the limiting reactant, we can make 1.2
moles of magnesium iodide.
3c Mr MgI2 = ( 24 x 1 ) + ( 127 x 2 ) = 278
Mass = 1.2 x 278 = 333.6 g

4a In this reaction, hydrogen is the limiting reactant (it has the fewer number of moles).
4b We have 2.5 moles of hydrogen.

There is a large number 1 (not shown) in front of the hydrogen and the chlorine. This tells us
that one mole of hydrogen reacts with one mole of chlorine.
Because we have 2.5 moles of hydrogen, we will need 2.5 moles of chlorine for this reaction.
4c Mr Cl2 = ( 35.5 x 2 ) = 71

Mass = 2.5 x 71 = 177.5 g
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Concentration of Solutions
1 A solute is a chemical dissolved in a solvent. In Chemistry, water is often used as a solvent.

The concentration tells us the mass of a solute in a given volume of solution.
ns
2a concentration = mass (g) / volume (dm3)
so
concentration = 200 / 0.5 = 400 g / dm3
2b
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In this question, the volume is given in cm3. So rst we need to convert this to dm3 by dividing
by 1000.
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200 / 1000 = 0.2 dm3

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concentration = mass (g) / volume (dm3)

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concentration = 0.5 / 0.2 = 2.5 g / dm3

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3a volume = mass / concentration

volume = 150 / 75 = 2 dm3
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3b volume = mass / concentration

volume = 64 / 256 = 0.25 dm3
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4a mass = concentration x volume

mass = 100 x 2 = 200 g
4b In this question, the volume is given in cm3. So rst we need to convert this to dm3 by dividing
by 1000.
400 / 1000 = 0.4 dm3
mass = concentration x volume

mass = 100 x 0.4 = 40 g
5 If we increase the mass of solute, then the concentration increases.
If we increase the volume, then the concentration decreases.
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Calculating Percentage Yield
1a Mr CaCO3 = ( 40 x 1 ) + ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 100
1b number of moles = mass / Mr
ns
number of moles = 400 / 100 = 4 moles
so
1c The large 1 (not shown) in front of the calcium carbonate and the calcium oxide tell us that one
mole of calcium carbonate produces one mole of calcium oxide.
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We have four moles of calcium carbonate, so four moles of calcium oxide could be produced.
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1d Mr CaO = ( 40 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 56
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1e mass = number of moles x Mr

mass = 4 x 56 = 224 g
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1f % yield = ( mass of product actually made / maximum theoretical mass of product ) x 100
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% yield = ( 168 / 224 ) x 100 = 75%

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1g There are three possible answers for this question given in the speci cation.
• The reaction may be reversible so may not go to completion ( however, we can tell from the
arrow that the reaction in this question is not reversible ).
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• We may lose some of the product when we separate it from the reaction mixture.
• Some of the reactants may react di erently to expected.
2a number of moles = mass / Ar
2b The large number 1 (not shown) in front of all the chemicals tells us that one mole of copper is
produced from one mole of magnesium. We have two moles of magnesium, so we can make
two moles of copper.
2c mass = number of moles x Ar
mass = 2 x 63.5
mass = 127 g
2d % yield = ( mass of product actually made / maximum theoretical mass of product ) x 100
% yield = 85 / 127 = 67%
2e The percentage yield for any reaction cannot be greater than 100% because this would mean
that we had made atoms. The law of conservation of mass tells us that atoms cannot be lost or
made during a chemical reaction.
2f The student has switched their calculation like this
% yield = 127 / 85 = 149%

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Calculating Percentage Yield 2
1a Mr Li2O = ( 7 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 30
ns
number of moles = 135 / 30 = 4.5 moles
so
1c There is a large 1 (not shown) in front of the lithium oxide and a large 2 in front of the lithium
hydroxide. This tells us that one mole of lithium oxide produces two moles of lithium hydroxide.
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We have 4.5 moles of lithium oxide, so we could make 9 moles of lithium hydroxide.
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1d Mr LiOH = ( 7 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 1 ) = 24
nc
1e mass = number of moles x Mr

e
mass = 9 x 24 = 216 g
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1f % yield = ( mass of product actually made / maximum theoretical mass of product ) x 100
% yield = 54 / 216 = 25%
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1g The maximum mass that we could make (100% yield) is 216 g (answer to question 1e).
If the percentage yield is 35%, then we could make 35% of 216 g.
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35% of 216 g = 75.6 g

2a Mr K2CO3 = ( 39 x 2 ) + ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 138

2c The equation tells us that we have a large 1 (not shown) in front of the potassium carbonate and
a large 2 in front of the potassium chloride. This means that one mole of potassium carbonate
can produce two moles of potassium chloride.
We have four moles of potassium carbonate, which means that we can produce eight moles of
potassium chloride.
2d Mr KCl = ( 39 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 1 ) = 74.5
2e We know that we can make eight moles of potassium chloride (from question 2c).
mass = number of moles x Mr

mass = 8 x 74.5 = 596 g
2f 100% yield is 596 g (from question 2e)
60% of 596 = 357.6 g
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Atom Economy
1 Looking at reaction A, we can see that some of the atoms of reactant (the calcium carbonate)
end up in a waste product (the carbon dioxide). This means that not all of the starting atoms
end up in the desired product (the calcium oxide).
ns
Looking at reaction B, we can see that all of the atoms of the reactants end up in the desired
so
product (the calcium oxide). None of the atoms of the reactants end up in waste products.
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This means that reaction B is more e cient (in terms of atoms) than reaction A.
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2a The atom economy (which is also called atom utilisation) is a measure of the amount of starting
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materials that end up in useful products.

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2b Economic advantage: Reactants cost money to buy so if some of the atoms of our reactants
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end up in waste products, then we have wasted money. If we can nd a reaction with a greater
atom economy, we could save money as less atoms will end up in waste products. I should
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point out that atom economy is only one of the factors that in uence the cost of a reaction (eg
energy usage).
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Environmental advantage: Many reactants are produced with a negative impact on the
©
environment (for example mining can damage habitats, some reactants are produced using a
lot of energy which could lead to climate change). If we can nd a reaction with a greater atom
economy then less of the atoms of reactants end up in waste products. This means that we can
produce the same amount of product using less reactant.
3 In reaction B, there are no waste products (because there is only one product). This means that
all the product is the "desired product" and the atom economy must be 100%.
If any reaction has a waste product, then the atom economy must be less than 100%.
4a Atom economy = relative formula mass of desired product (from equation) x 100
relative formula mass of all reactants (from equation)
Atom economy = Mr LiCl x 100

Mr LiOH + Mr HCl
Mr LiCl = ( 7 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 1 ) = 42.5

Mr LiOH = ( 7 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 1 ) = 24
Mr HCl = ( 1 x 1 ) + ( 35.5 x 1 ) = 36.5
Atom economy = 42.5 x 100 = 70% ( 2 signi cant gures)

24 + 36.5
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71
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Atom Economy
4b Atom economy = relative formula mass of desired product (from equation) x 100
ns
Atom economy = Ar Zn x 100
Mr ZnO + (Ar Li x 2)
so
In this case, we have multiplied the Ar of lithium by 2. This is because there is a large 2 in front
es
of the lithium. Remember that in atom economy, large numbers count.
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Ar Zn = 65
nc
Mr ZnO = ( 65 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) = 81
Ar Li = 7
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Atom economy = 65 x 100 = 68% ( 2 signi cant gures)

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81 + (7x2)
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4c Atom economy = relative formula mass of desired product (from equation) x 100
©
Atom economy = (Ar Fe x 2) x 100

Mr Fe2O3 + (Mr CO x 3)
Again, you'll notice that we've multiplied the Ar of Fe by 2 and the Mr of CO by 3. These are the
large numbers from the chemical equation.
Ar Fe = 56
Mr Fe2O3 = ( 56 x 2 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 160
Mr CO = ( 12 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1) = 28
Atom economy = ( 56 x 2 ) x 100 = 46% ( 2 signi cant gures)

160 + ( 28 x 3 )
5 We cannot have an atom economy greater than 100% because that would mean that we had
made atoms. The law of conservation of mass tells us that atoms cannot be lost or made during
a chemical reaction.
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Using Concentration of Solutions 1
1a number of moles = concentration ( mol / dm3 ) x volume ( dm3 )
number of moles = 2 x 0.5 = 1 mole
ns
1b In this question, the volume has been given as 200 cm3. Remember that all volumes must be in
so
dm3. So rst, we need to convert 200 cm3 to dm3 by dividing by 1000.
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200 cm3 / 1000 = 0.2 dm3
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number of moles = concentration (mol / dm3) x volume (dm3)
nc
number of moles = 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 moles

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2a This is a two-part question. First we need to nd the number of moles of lithium bromide in our
solution.
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number of moles = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5 moles

©
2b Now we can calculate the mass of our solute
mass = 0.5 x 87 = 43.5 g

3a Again, we need to start by calculating the number of moles in our solution.
number of moles = 2.5 x 3 = 7.5 moles

3b Now we can calculate the mass of our solute
mass = 7.5 x 106 = 795 g
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1a number of moles = concentration (mol / dm3) x volume (dm3)
number of moles = 0.1 x 0.05 = 0.005 moles
ns
1b We have a large 1 (not shown) in front of both the calcium hydroxide and the copper (II)
so
chloride. This tells us that one mole of calcium hydroxide reacts with one mole of copper (II)
chloride.
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We have 0.005 moles of calcium hydroxide so 0.005 moles of copper (II) chloride will react with
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this.
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1c We have 0.005 moles of copper chloride (from question 1b) dissolved in a volume of 0.075dm3.
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concentration (mol / dm3) = number of moles / volume (dm3)

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concentration (mol / dm3) = 0.005 / 0.075 = 0.067 mol / dm3

fre

©

2b We have a large 1 (not shown) in front of both the silver nitrate and the sodium iodide. This tells
us that one mole of silver nitrate reacts with one mole of sodium iodide.
We have 0.003 moles of silver nitrate so 0.003 moles of sodium iodide will react with this.
2c We have 0.003 moles of sodium iodide (from question 2b) dissolved in a volume of 15 cm3.
Remember that all volumes must be in dm3 so rst we need to convert 15 cm3 to dm3 by
dividing by 1000.
15 / 1000 = 0.015 dm3
concentration (mol / dm3) = number of moles / volume (dm3)
concentration (mol / dm3) = 0.003 / 0.015 = 0.2 mol / dm3
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ns
3b We have a large 1 (not shown) in front of the sodium carbonate and a large 2 in front of the
so
hydrochloric acid. This means that one mole of sodium carbonate reacts with two moles of
hydrochloric acid.
es
From 3a we have 0.008 moles of sodium carbonate. This means that 0.016 moles of
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hydrochloric acid react with this.
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3c concentration ( mol/dm3 ) = number of moles / volume ( dm3 )

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concentration ( mol/dm3 ) = 0.016 / 0.01 = 1.6 mol / dm3

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4a number of moles = concentration ( mol / dm3 ) x volume ( dm3 )

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4b We have a large 1 ( not shown ) in front of the lead nitrate and a large 2 in front of the potassium
©
bromide. This tells us that one mole of lead nitrate reacts with two moles of potassium bromide.
From 4a we have 0.0045 moles of potassium bromide. This means that 0.00225 moles of lead
nitrate react with this.
4c concentration ( mol/dm3 ) = number of moles / volume ( dm3 )
concentration ( mol/dm3 ) = 0.00225 / 0.02 = 0.113 mol / dm3 to 3 signi cant gures.
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Using Gas Volumes
1 Room temperature is 20oC

Room pressure is 1 atmosphere
ns
2a volume = number of moles x 24
so
volume = 2 x 24 = 48 dm3
2b
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volume = number of moles x 24
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volume = 0.5 x 24 = 12 dm3
nc
2c volume = number of moles x 24

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volume = 10 x 24 = 240 dm3

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3a First we need to calculate the number of moles

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number of moles = mass / Ar

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volume = 6 x 24 = 144 dm3

volume = 2 x 24 = 48 dm3
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76
Using Gas Volumes 2
1a number of moles = mass / Ar
ns
1b From the chemical equation, there is a large 1 (not shown) in front of both the magnesium and
so
the hydrogen. This tells us that one mole of magnesium will produce one mole of hydrogen.
es
We know that we have two moles of magnesium (from 1a). This means that we will produce two
moles of hydrogen.
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1c
nc

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volume = 2 x 24 = 48 dm3
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2a number of moles = mass / Mr

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2b From the chemical equation, there is a large 2 in front of the hydrogen peroxide and a large 1 in
front of the oxygen (not shown). This tells us that two moles of hydrogen peroxide produce one
©
mole of oxygen.
We know that we have six moles of hydrogen peroxide (from 2a). This means that we will
produce three moles of oxygen.
volume = 3 x 24 = 72 dm3

3b From the chemical equation, there is a large 1 (not shown) in front of both the carbon dioxide
and the sodium hydroxide. This tells us that one mole of carbon dioxide reacts with one mole of
sodium hydroxide.
We know that we have four moles of sodium hydroxide (from 3a). This means that four moles of
carbon dioxide will react with this.
volume = 4 x 24 = 96 dm3
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4b From the chemical equation, there is a large 1 (not shown) in front of the oxygen and a large 2 in
ss
front of the potassium oxide. This means that one mole of oxygen produces two moles of
potassium oxide.
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We know that we have four moles of potassium oxide (from 4a). This means that we need two
moles of oxygen gas.
en

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volume = 2 x 24 = 48 dm3
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77
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Chemistry Paper 1
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Triple
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Chemical Changes
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Reactions of Metals with Oxygen
1 lithium + oxygen -> lithium oxide
ns
calcium + oxygen -> calcium oxide
so
sodium + oxygen -> sodium oxide
2
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Gaining oxygen is one de nition of oxidation. In the three reactions above, the metals have
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gained oxygen. So oxidation has taken place.
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3 One de nition of reduction is the loss of oxygen. In this reaction, the zinc is losing oxygen
(going from zinc oxide to zinc). So the zinc is being reduced.
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4 aluminium + lead oxide -> aluminium oxide + lead

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oxidised = aluminium (it has gained oxygen)

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reduced = lead (it has lost oxygen)

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tin oxide + magnesium -> magnesium oxide + tin
oxidised = magnesium (it has gained oxygen)

reduced = tin (it has lost oxygen)
zinc + iron oxide -> iron + zinc oxide
oxidised = zinc (it has gained oxygen)

reduced = iron (it has lost oxygen)
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The Reactivity Series
1a lithium + water -> lithium hydroxide + hydrogen
sodium + water -> sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
ns
potassium + water -> potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
so
1b The elements in question 1a are all in group 1 (alkali metals). Group 1 metals get more reactive
es
moving down the group. This means that of the three alkali metals shown, lithium is the least reactive
and potassium is the most reactive. Sodium is more reactive than lithium but less reactive than
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potassium.
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2 We have already seen that potassium, sodium

e
and lithium react rapidly with water, so these

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three metals are at the top of the reactivity series

shown.
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The next element is calcium since this reacts

quite rapidly with water at room temperature.
©
Magnesium is the next element. Magnesium does

not react with water at room temperature but it
reacts rapidly with dilute acid. This tells us that
magnesium is quite reactive.
The next element is zinc. Zinc does not react with

water at room temperature but it does react quite
rapidly with dilute acid (not as rapidly as
magnesium). This means that zinc is fairly
reactive.
Iron is the next element. This will not react with

water at room temperature but it will react slowly
with dilute acid.
The nal element is copper. Copper will not react

with either water at room temperature or with
dilute acid. Copper is quite an unreactive metal.
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Extraction of Metals
1a A very small number of metals (eg gold) can be found as nuggets in the Earth's crust. Because they
have not reacted with other elements (eg oxygen), this tells us that these metals are highly unreactive.
ns
1b When metals react, they lose electrons from their outer energy level. Very reactive metals (for example
alkali metals) lose their outer electrons very easily. For very unreactive metals (such as gold), it is very
so
di cult for them to lose their outer electrons.
2 es
A more reactive element will push out (displace) a less reactive element from its compound.
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3a The reactivity series shows us that carbon is more reactive than iron. This means that carbon can
displace iron from its compounds.
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3b Hydrogen could not be used to displace iron because hydrogen is less reactive than iron (it is lower in
e
the reactivity series). This means that hydrogen cannot displace iron from its compounds.
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3c Process Y shows oxidation. We can see that the carbon is gaining oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
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Process X shows reduction. The iron is losing oxygen, going from iron oxide to iron.
4a Sodium is above zinc in the reactivity series. This tells us that sodium is more reactive than zinc.
©
Because of this, sodium can displace zinc from its compounds so reaction a is possible.
In this reaction, the sodium is gaining oxygen so it is being oxidised. The zinc is losing oxygen so it is
being reduced.
4b Iron is below magnesium in the reactivity series. This tells us that iron is less reactive than
magnesium. Because of this, iron cannot displace magnesium from its compounds so reaction b is
not possible.
4c Lithium is above copper in the reactivity series. This tells us that lithium is more reactive than copper.
Because of this, lithium can displace copper from its compounds so reaction c is possible.
In this reaction, the lithium is gaining oxygen so it is being oxidised. The copper is losing oxygen so it
is being reduced.
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81
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Oxidation and Reduction in terms of Electrons
1 Oxidation is Loss (of electrons)

Reduction is Gain (of electrons)
ns
You need to learn both the de nition of oxidation and reduction in terms of gain / loss of oxygen and
electrons.
so
2 F + 1e -> F
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This is reduction as the uorine atom has gained an electron to form the uoride ion.
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Al -> Al 3+ + 3e
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This is oxidation as the aluminium atom has lost three electrons to form the aluminium ion.
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3 In half equation questions, the number of electrons transferred will be the same as the nal charge on
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the ion.
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Se + 2e -> Se2 Reduction (electrons are gained)

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Mn -> Mn 4+ + 4e Oxidation (electrons are lost)
Br + 1e -> Br Reduction (an electron is gained)
Cr -> Cr 2+ + 2e Oxidation (electrons are lost)

4a In this reaction, the sodium atom Na is forming the sodium ion Na+. This means that the sodium atom
is losing one electron and is therefore being oxidised.
Na -> Na+ + 1e
We can also write this half equation like this instead: (remember that both half equations show
exactly the same thing).
Na - 1e -> Na+
The lithium ion Li+ is forming the lithium atom Li. This means that the lithium ion is gaining one
electron and is therefore being reduced.
Li+ + 1e -> Li
4b In this reaction, the magnesium atom Mg is forming the magnesium ion Mg2+. This means that the
magnesium atom is losing two electrons and is therefore being oxidised.
Mg -> Mg2+ + 2e
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We can also write this half equation like this instead: (remember that both half equations show
exactly the same thing).
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Mg - 2e -> Mg2+
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The copper ion Cu2+ is forming the copper atom Cu. This means that the copper ion is gaining two
electrons and is therefore being reduced.
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Cu2+ + 2e -> Cu
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Acids and Alkalis
1a All acids contain the element hydrogen (in the form of the hydrogen ion H+).
1b The letters (aq) tell us that a chemical is dissolved in water (aqueous solution). All acid molecules
ns
must be dissolved in water in order to be acidic.
so
2a HCl (aq) -> H+(aq) + Cl (aq)
2
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H2SO4 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO4 (aq)
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HNO3 -> H+(aq) + NO3 (aq)
nc
2b When every acid molecule splits in aqueous solution, they produce the hydrogen ion H+ and a
negative ion (eg Cl in the case of hydrochloric acid).
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3a When alkalis split in aqueous solution, they produce the hydroxide ion OH and a positive ion (eg Na+
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in the case of sodium hydroxide).

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3b H+(aq) + OH(aq) -> H2O
3c Acids = 0-6
©
Neutral = 7
Alkalis = 8-14
3d To determine the pH of a solution, a scientist could use universal indicator or a pH probe.
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Acids Reacting with Metals
1a The salt produced in the reaction is magnesium chloride.
1b The magnesium has displaced hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid. The hydrogen is released as
ns
hydrogen gas.
so
Magnesium can displace hydrogen as magnesium is more reactive than hydrogen (magnesium is
higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen).
2
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magnesium + sulfuric acid -> magnesium sulfate + hydrogen
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zinc + hydrochloric acid -> zinc chloride + hydrogen

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zinc + sulfuric acid -> zinc sulfate + hydrogen

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iron + hydrochloric acid -> iron chloride + hydrogen

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iron + sulfuric acid -> iron sulfate + hydrogen

3a Magnesium is the most reactive of the three metals (it is higher in the reactivity series), so magnesium
©
reacts the most rapidly with dilute acid. Zinc is higher in the reactivity series than iron, so zinc reacts
faster than iron.
3b Copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series. This means that copper is less reactive than
hydrogen, so copper cannot displace hydrogen from acids. This means that copper will not react with
dilute acid.
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Acids Reacting with Metals 2
1a HCl (aq) -> H+(aq) + Cl (aq)

2
H2SO4 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO4 (aq)
ns
1b In aqueous solution, all acids split to release the hydrogen ion H+.
so
2a Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2e
2b
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The magnesium atom has lost two electrons to form the magnesium ion. Because the magnesium
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atom has lost electrons, it has been oxidised.
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2c Looking at the energy levels for the magnesium atom, we can see that there are two electrons in the
outer energy level. The magnesium atom can lose these two electrons to form the magnesium ion,
e
which will have a full outer energy level (like the noble gas neon).
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2d Looking at the half equation, we can see that each hydrogen ion (H+) is gaining one electron.
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Therefore this shows that the hydrogen ions are being reduced to form hydrogen atoms.
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Remember that hydrogen atoms pair to form the hydrogen molecule (H2). Because of this, we always
double the half equation.
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85
Three Reactions of Acids
1a Bases can neutralise acids, producing a salt and water.
1b All three chemicals are bases because they can all neutralise acids, producing a salt and water.
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An alkali is a base that is soluble in water. Because sodium hydroxide is soluble in water, it is both a
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base and an alkali. However, copper oxide and iron (III) oxide are not soluble in water. That means
that these are bases but not alkalis.
2a copper oxide
es+ hydrochloric acid -> copper chloride + water
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CuO + 2 HCl -> CuCl2 + H2O
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sodium hydroxide + nitric acid -> sodium nitrate + water

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NaOH + HNO3 -> NaNO3 + H2O

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2b When any base or alkali reacts with an acid, we always make a salt and water.
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3a potassium carbonate + sulfuric acid -> potassium sulfate + carbon dioxide + water
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K2CO3 + H2SO4 -> K2SO4 + CO2 + H2O

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3b When any metal carbonate reacts with an acid, we always make a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
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86
Required Practical: Making Soluble Salts
1a The four possible reactants that can provide a metal ion (such as copper) are
• Copper metal.
• A base such as copper oxide
ns
• An alkali such as copper hydroxide
• Copper carbonate
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1b Copper metal cannot be used to produce copper sulfate using dilute sulfuric acid. This is because
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copper is lower than hydrogen on the reactivity series (copper is less reactive than hydrogen). This
means that copper cannot displace hydrogen from acids.
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1c Copper chloride is produced using hydrochloric acid.
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Copper nitrate is produced using nitric acid.

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2a The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up. The amount of limiting reactant
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determines the amount of products that we can make.

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2b At the end of the reaction, the products should only be salt and water and should be neutral (as this
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is a neutralisation reaction). However, if there is acid left at the end of the reaction, then the salt and
water will be contaminated with the acid and the solution will not be neutral.
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2c If there was unreacted acid left over, then the pH would be between 0-6.
3a Boiling acid is dangerous. When we add our copper oxide, a reaction will take place and if we use
boiling acid, then the reaction could be extremely rapid. This could cause boiling acid to spill over the
side of the beaker. We do need to use warm acid though in order to make the reaction fast enough.
3b The solution turns blue because we have made the salt copper sulfate. Copper sulfate is a blue
compound (remember that transition metal compounds are often coloured).
3c We know that the reaction has stopped because there will be unreacted copper oxide remaining in
the beaker. Copper oxide is a black powder and when the reaction has stopped, we can see the
copper oxide sitting on the bottom of the beaker.
3d The reaction stops at this stage because all of the acid has reacted (it is the limiting reactant).
3e
unreacted copper oxide
ltrate (copper sulfate solution)
3f Allowing crystals to form is called crystallisation.
3g In order to dry the copper sulfate crystals, we pat them between paper towels. We cannot heat
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copper sulfate crystals to dry them as this can cause the crystals to change their structure.
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87
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Strong and Weak Acids
1 Looking at the equation for hydrochloric acid, the arrow tells us that every molecule of
hydrochloric acid completely ionises (splits) in aqueous solution. This means that hydrochloric acid is
a strong acid.
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However, if we look at the equation for carbonic acid, the arrow shows us that this is a
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reversible reaction. This means that not all of the carbonic acid molecules ionise in aqueous solution.
This means that carbonic acid is a weak acid.
2
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Ethanoic acid = weak
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Hydrochloric acid = strong
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Citric acid = weak

Nitric acid = strong
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Carbonic acid = weak

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Sulfuric acid = strong

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3a The pH scale gives information about the concentration of hydrogen ions H+ produced by an acid.
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3b As the pH scale decreases by one unit, the concentration of hydrogen ions H+ increases by 10
times. Scientists call a 10x change one order of magnitude. Strong acids have a lower pH than
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weak acids for a given concentration.

3c Strong acids fully ionise in aqueous solution whereas weak acids only partially ionise. This means for
a given concentration of acid, strong acids produce a higher concentration of H+ than weak acids.
The pH scale gives us an idea of the concentration of H+, with a lower pH meaning a higher H+
concentration. So strong acids have a lower pH than weak acids.
4 1 -> 2 pH 1 has a 10x greater H+ concentration than pH 2 (ie one order of magnitude greater).
2 -> 6 pH 2 has a 10 000x greater H+ concentration than pH 6 (ie four orders of magnitude
greater).
5 If we add more water to an acid, the pH will increase. When we add more water, we dilute the acid, in
other words the concentration of H+ decreases. A higher pH value means a lower concentration of
H+.
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88
Required Practical: Titration
1a If you carry out a titration in a beaker, there is a risk that some of the acid or alkali could splash out.
This would a ect the results of the titration. However, if we use a conical ask, there is a much lower
chance of splashing.
ns
1b A pipette is used when we want to measure a single volume of liquid accurately.
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2 When we carry out a titration, we need to nd the exact point where the solution is neutral (the end
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point). This is very di cult to do with universal indicator as it has a whole range of colours. Indicators
such as methyl orange have a much smaller range of colour changes so it is much easier to see the
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neutral point.
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3 Placing a white tile under the conical ask makes it easier to see the indicator change colour when
the solution is neutral.
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4a A burette is used when we want to measure a range of volumes accurately.

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4b Methyl orange is yellow in alkaline solutions and orange when neutral.

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4c When we start to see a colour change, we are very close to the neutral (end) point. At this stage, we
need to add our acid in drops. That way, when the colour change happens, we can quickly stop
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adding the acid. Now we know that we have added exactly the correct amount of acid to neutralise
the alkali.
4d Swirling mixes the acid with the alkali. This ensures that the acid and alkali react fully and that the
indicator changes colour to show this.
5a The top of the liquid has a curved shape. This is called the meniscus.
5b The volume is 17.7 cm3.
5c We take a mean of the concordant readings (ignoring any readings that are not concordant). We then
use these readings to carry out the titration calculation.
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Titration calculations 1
1a The reaction between an acid and an alkali is called a neutralisation reaction.
1b To calculate the volume in dm3, we need to divide the volume in cm3 by 1000.
ns
The volume of hydrochloric acid is 15 cm3.
so
15 / 1000 = 0.015 dm3.
1c
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Number of moles = concentration ( mol / dm3 ) x volume ( dm3 )
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The question tells us that the concentration of the hydrochloric acid is 0.5 mol / dm3
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Number of moles = 0.5 x 0.015 = 0.0075 moles

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1d From the equation we have a large number one (not shown) in front of the hydrochloric acid and a
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large number one (not shown) in front of the lithium hydroxide. This tells us that one mole of
hydrochloric acid reacts with one mole of lithium hydroxide.
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We have 0.0075 moles of hydrochloric acid in the reaction (from 1c). This means that 0.0075 moles of
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lithium hydroxide reacted with this.

1e The question tells us that the volume of lithium hydroxide is 25 cm3. We need to convert this to dm3
by dividing by 1000.
Volume of lithium hydroxide = 25 / 1000 = 0.025 dm3.
Concentration ( mol / dm3 ) = number of moles / volume ( dm3 )
Concentration ( mol / dm3 ) = 0.0075 / 0.025 = 0.3 mol / dm3

1f The lithium hydroxide solution has a concentration of 0.3 mol / dm3. This tells us that 1 dm3 of this
solution contains 0.3 moles of lithium hydroxide.
The relative formula mass of lithium hydroxide is 24. This means that 1 mole of lithium hydroxide has
a mass of 24 g.
Concentration ( g / dm3 ) = concentration ( mol / dm3 ) x Mr
Concentration ( g / dm3 ) = 0.3 mol / dm3 x 24
Concentration ( g / dm3 ) = 7.2 g / dm3

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90
2a To calculate the volume in dm3, we need to divide the volume in cm3 by 1000.
The volume of potassium hydroxide is 25 cm3.
ns
25 / 1000 = 0.025 dm3.
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2b Number of moles = concentration ( mol / dm3 ) x volume ( dm3 )
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The question tells us that the concentration of the potassium hydroxide is 0.8 mol / dm3
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Number of moles = 0.8 x 0.025 = 0.02 moles

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2c From the equation we have a large number one (not shown) in front of the nitric acid and a large
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number one (not shown) in front of the potassium hydroxide. This tells us that one mole of nitric acid
reacts with one mole of potassium hydroxide.
es
We have 0.02 moles of potassium hydroxide in the reaction (from 2b). This means that 0.02 moles of
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nitric acid reacted with this.

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2d The question tells us that the volume of nitric acid is 18.5 cm3. We need to convert this to dm3 by
dividing by 1000.
Volume of nitric acid = 18.5 / 1000 = 0.0185 dm3.
Concentration ( mol /dm3 ) = 0.02 / 0.0185 = 1.08 mol / dm3 ( to 3 signi cant gures )
2e Mr HNO3 = ( 1 x 1 ) + ( 14 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 3 ) = 63
2f The nitric acid has a concentration of 1.08 mol / dm3. This tells us that 1 dm3 of this solution contains
1.08 moles of nitric acid.
The relative formula mass of nitric acid is 63 ( from 2e ). This means that 1 mole of nitric acid has a
mass of 63 g.
Concentration ( g/dm3 ) = 68.0 g / dm3 ( to 3 signi cant gures )

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91
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1a To balance the equation, we need to insert a large 2 in front of the hydrochloric acid.
ns
The volume of hydrochloric acid is 18 cm3.
so
18 / 1000 = 0.018 dm3.
1c
es
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The question tells us that the concentration of the hydrochloric acid is 1 mol / dm3
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Number of moles = 1 x 0.018 = 0.018 moles

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1d From the equation we have a large two in front of the hydrochloric acid and a large number one (not
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shown) in front of the barium hydroxide. This tells us that two moles of hydrochloric acid react with
one mole of barium hydroxide.
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We have 0.018 moles of hydrochloric acid in the reaction ( from 1c ). This means that 0.009 moles of
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barium hydroxide reacted with this.

2e The question tells us that the volume of barium hydroxide is 12 cm3. We need to convert this to dm3
Volume of barium hydroxide = 12 / 1000 = 0.012 dm3.

2f Mr Ba(OH)2 = ( 137 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 2 ) + ( 1 x 2 ) = 171
2g The barium hydroxide has a concentration of 0.75 mol / dm3. This tells us that 1 dm3 of this solution
contains 0.75 moles of barium hydroxide.
The relative formula mass of barium hydroxide is 171 ( from 2f ). This means that 1 mole of barium
hydroxide has a mass of 171 g.
Concentration ( g / dm3 ) = 128.25 g / dm3

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92
2a To balance the equation, we need to insert a large 2 in front of the sodium hydroxide.
ns
The volume of sulfuric acid is 14 cm3.
so
14 / 1000 = 0.014 dm3.
2c
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The question tells us that the concentration of the sulfuric acid is 2 mol / dm3
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Number of moles = 2 x 0.014 = 0.028 moles

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2d From the equation we have a large number one ( not shown ) in front of the sulfuric acid and a large
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two in front of the sodium hydroxide. This tells us that one mole of sulfuric acid reacts with two moles
of sodium hydroxide.
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We have 0.028 moles of sulfuric acid in the reaction ( from 1c ). This means that 0.056 moles of
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sodium hydroxide reacted with this.

2e The question tells us that the volume of sodium hydroxide is 16 cm3. We need to convert this to dm3
Volume of sodium hydroxide = 16 / 1000 = 0.016 dm3.

2f Mr NaOH = ( 23 x 1 ) + ( 16 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 1 ) = 40
2g The sodium hydroxide has a concentration of 3.5 mol / dm3. This tells us that 1 dm3 of this solution
contains 3.5 moles of sodium hydroxide.
The relative formula mass of sodium hydroxide is 40 ( from 2f ). This means that 1 mole of sodium
hydroxide has a mass of 40 g.
Concentration ( g / dm3 ) = 140 g / dm3

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93
Introducing Electrolysis
1a
electrostatic
forces of
ns
attraction
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1b In order to conduct electricity, there must be mobile charge carriers ( in other words charged particles
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that can move ). In the case of ionic compounds, the charged particles are ions ( many students write
electrons which is incorrect ).
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In solid ionic compounds, the ions are locked in place by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
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This means that the ions cannot move. However, when we melt an ionic compound or dissolve it in
water, the electrostatic forces of attraction are broken. Now the ions can move which means that they
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can conduct electricity.

1c A liquid or solution that can conduct electricity is called an electrolyte.
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2a Electrodes must be able to conduct electricity. Both graphite and metals make good electrodes. This
is because they have delocalised electrons which means that they conduct electricity.
2b
cathode anode
2c The cathode is connected to the negative terminal of a power pack. This means that the cathode is
covered with electrons and has a negative charge. The anode is connected to the positive terminal
which means that it has a lack of electrons (as they are taken in by the power pack). This is why the
anode has a positive charge.
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94
Introducing Electrolysis
3a The Pb2+ ions are attracted to the cathode because the cathode is negative and Pb2+ is positive.
Opposite charges are attracted to each other. In the case of the Br-, the anode is positive and Br- is
negative. Again, opposite charges are attracted.
ns
3b
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3c The reaction at the cathode is an example of a reduction. This is because the Pb2+ ion is gaining
electrons ( remember that reduction is gain of electrons ).
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The reaction at the anode is an example of an oxidation. This is because the Br- ions are losing
electrons ( oxidation is loss of electrons ).
3d In both cases, the two bromide ions (Br-) are losing electrons so both of these equations show the
same reaction.
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95
Electrolysis of Aluminium Oxide
1a All of the metals shown with a * are more reactive than carbon ( because they are higher in the
reactivity series than carbon ). This means that carbon cannot be used to extract these metals as it
cannot displace them from their compounds.
ns
1b Aluminium is a very low density metal ( in other words, it has a low mass for its volume ). This is
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important for aircraft bodies which must be light.
1c es
Aluminium oxide has an extremely high melting point (around 2000oC). This is due to the very strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions. Cryolite lowers the melting point. This reduces
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the amount of energy needed for melting and saves money.
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2a Graphite is an excellent conductor of electricity ( as it has delocalised electrons ).

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Graphite also has a very high melting point which means that it can be used for electrolysis at very
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high temperatures without melting.

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2b Molten aluminium oxide is a good conductor of electricity because the electrostatic forces of
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attraction between the ions have been broken. This means that the ions can move and carry a
charge.
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3a The cathode is negatively charged. This means that the positively charged Al3+ ions are attracted to
the cathode ( as opposite charges are attracted to each other ).
The anode is positively charged. This means that the negatively charged O2- ions are attracted to the
anode ( again as opposite charges attract ).
3b Al3+ + 3e- -> Al
2O2- - 4e- -> O2
3c The reaction at the anode is an oxidation. We can see that the oxide ions are losing electrons
( oxidation is loss of electrons ).
3d Electrolysis of aluminium oxide takes place at very high temperatures. The oxygen produced at the
anode reacts with the graphite ( which is the element carbon ) to make carbon dioxide. This is why
the anode must be replaced regularly.
3e It is expensive to extract metals using electrolysis of molten compounds. Firstly, it takes a great deal
of energy to maintain the very high temperatures needed to keep the compound molten. Secondly, a
great deal of energy is required to produce the electrical current.
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96
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 1
ns
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2a The cathode is the negative electrode.
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Positive ions will be attracted to the cathode as opposite charges attract. This means that copper
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ions Cu2+ and hydrogen ions H+ are attracted to the cathode.
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2b The less reactive element is produced at the cathode. Looking at the reactivity series, we can see
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that copper is below hydrogen. This means that copper is less reactive than hydrogen so copper is
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produced at the cathode and not hydrogen.

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2c Cu2+ + 2e- -> Cu

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2d 4OH- -> O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
4OH- - 4e- -> O2 + 2H2O

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2e Platinum is a very unreactive metal. This means that it will not react with any of the products of
electrolysis. Scientists say that platinum is an inert ( unreactive ) electrode.
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97
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 2
1a Remember that positive ions are attracted to the cathode ( which is negative ). The ions H+ and Na+
will be attracted to the cathode.
ns
Negative ions are attracted to the anode ( which is positive ). The ions Cl- and OH- will be attracted to
the anode.
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1b Remember that the less reactive element is produced at the cathode. We can see that hydrogen is
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further down the reactivity series than sodium. This means that hydrogen is less reactive than sodium
so the hydrogen is produced at the cathode.
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1c
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2H+ + 2e- -> H2
1d During electrolysis, two hydrogen ions are reduced at the cathode to form two hydrogen atoms.
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These then pair to form the covalent molecule H2. So we always show two hydrogen ions rather than
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one.
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1e The key idea that you need to remember is that if a compound contains a halide ion (eg uoride,
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chloride, bromide, iodide) then the halogen is produced at the anode. If there is no halide ion present,
then oxygen is produced at the anode instead.
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In this case, we have sodium chloride so chlorine is produced at the anode rather than oxygen.
1f 2Cl- -> Cl2 + 2e-
2Cl- - 2e- -> Cl2
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98
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Required Practical: Electrolysis
1a Inert means unreactive. Inert electrodes will not react with any of the products of electrolysis. This is
important when we are making reactive products ( for example halogens such as chlorine ).
ns
1b Copper chloride solution contains four ions: the copper ion Cu2+ and the chloride ion Cl- ( from the
copper chloride ) and the hydrogen ion H+ and the hydroxide ion OH- ( both from the water ).
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Positive ions are attracted to the negative cathode. The positive ions in this case are Cu2+ and H+.
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The less reactive element will be produced at the cathode. From the reactivity series, we can see that
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copper is less reactive than hydrogen. This means that copper will be produced at the cathode.
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1c If the compound contains a halide ion, then the halogen is produced at the anode. If there is no
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halide ion, then oxygen gas is produced at the anode instead.

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Copper chloride contains the halide ion Cl-. Therefore chlorine is produced at the anode, rather than
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oxygen.
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1d The test for chlorine is that it bleaches damp litmus paper.
2a Sodium chloride solution contains the sodium ion ( Na+ ) and the chloride ion ( Cl- ) both from the
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sodium chloride. It also contains the hydrogen ion ( H+ ) and the hydroxide ion ( OH- ) both from the
water.
The less reactive element is produced at the cathode. Looking at the reactivity series, we can see
that hydrogen is less reactive than sodium. Therefore hydrogen will be produced at the cathode.
2b As we saw in question 1c, if the compound contains a halide ion then the halogen is produced at the
anode. Sodium chloride contains the chloride ion which is a halide. Therefore chlorine gas is
produced at the anode. We test for chlorine gas using damp litmus paper. Chlorine gas bleaches
damp litmus paper.
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99
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Chemistry Paper 1
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Triple
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Energy Changes
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Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
1a In exothermic reactions, energy is released from the reaction and transferred to the surroundings.
This means that in exothermic reactions, the surroundings get hotter as they have gained energy.
ns
1b
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1c The reaction on the left would be better for a self-heating can of co ee. Looking at the energy pro le,
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we can see that this reaction releases a lot of energy. We would need a large amount of energy to
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make the co ee hot.

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The reaction on the right would be better for a hand-warmer. The energy pro le shows us that this
reaction releases a smaller amount of energy than the reaction on the left. We would not want a very
large amount of energy for a hand-warmer as this could burn the user's hand.
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1d In this reaction, the products have more energy than the reactants started with so the reaction must
have taken energy in from the surroundings. That means that this is an endothermic reaction.
1e
1f Oxidation = exothermic
Thermal decomposition = endothermic
Combustion = exothermic
Neutralisation = exothermic
It's worth learning these examples as they are often asked in exams.
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101
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Bond Energy Calculations 1 and 2
1 First calculate the energy required to break the bonds ( on the left hand side of the arrow ).
I-I = 151 kJ
ns
Cl-Cl = 242 kJ
so
Total energy required to break bonds = 151 + 242 = +393 kJ ( because we need to put energy in to
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break bonds, we make this value positive ).
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Now calculate the energy released by making bonds ( on the right hand side of the arrow ).
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I-Cl = 208 kJ
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Because we have two of these molecules, we have two of these bonds. This means that we need to
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multiply the bond energy by two.

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Total energy released by making bonds = 208 x 2 = -416 kJ ( because energy is released by making
bonds, we make this value negative ).
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Now we calculate the overall energy change

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Energy change = +393 - 416 = -23 kJ.

2 First calculate the energy required to break the bonds ( on the left hand side of the arrow ).
The methane molecule ( CH4 ) has four C-H bonds. These have a bond energy of 413 kJ. Because we
have four of these bonds, we need to multiply this by four. 4 x 413 gives us a total bond energy of
1652 kJ for the methane molecule.
The bromine molecule ( Br2 ) has one Br-Br bond. This has a bond energy of 193 KJ.
Total energy required to break bonds = 1652 + 193 = +1845 kJ ( this value is positive as we put
energy in to break bonds ).
The molecule CH3Br has three C-H bonds, each with a bond energy of 413 kJ. It also has one C-Br
bond with a bond energy of 276 kJ. Adding these together gives us a total bond energy of ( 3 x 413 )
+ ( 1 x 276 ) = 1515 kJ.
The HBr molecule has one H-Br bond with a bond energy of 366 kJ.
Total energy released by making bonds = 1515 + 366 = -1881 kJ ( because energy is released by
making bonds, we make this value negative ).
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Overall energy change = +1845 - 1881 = -36 kJ

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102
Bond Energy Calculations 1 and 2
3 First calculate the energy required to break the bonds ( on the left hand side of the arrow )
The nitrogen molecule N2 has one triple bond with a bond energy of 941 kJ.
ns
The hydrogen molecule H2 has one H-H bond, with a bond energy of 436 kJ. However, we have three
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hydrogen molecules, so we need to multiply this by 3.
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3 x 436 = 1308 kJ.
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Total energy required to break bonds = 941 + 1308 = +2249 kJ ( because we put energy in to break
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bonds, this value is positive ).

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The ammonia molecule NH3 has three N-H single bonds. However, we have two molecules of
ammonia. This means that we have a total of six N-H bonds. One N-H bond has a bond energy of
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391 kJ. To calculate the total energy released, we need to multiply this by 6.
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6 x 391 = -2346 kJ ( because energy is released by making bonds, we make this value negative ).
Overall energy change = +2249 - 2346 = -97 kJ

4 First calculate the energy required to break the bonds ( on the left hand side of the arrow )
The propane molecule ( C3H8 ) has 2 x C-C bonds and 8 x C-H bonds. Total bond energy = ( 2 x 348 )
+ ( 8 x 413 ) = 4000 kJ.
Each oxygen molecule ( O2 ) has 1 x O=O bond. However, because we have 5 x O2 molecules, we
have 5 x O=O bonds. Total bond energy = 5 x 495 = 2475 kJ.
Total energy required to break bonds = 4000 + 2475 = +6475 kJ ( because we put energy in to break
bonds, this value is positive ).
Each carbon dioxide molecule ( CO2 ) has 2 x C=O bonds. However, because we have 3 x CO2
molecules, we have 6 x C=O bonds. Total bond energy = 6 x 799 = 4794 kJ.
Each water molecule ( H2O ) has 2 x O-H bonds. However, because we have 4 x H2O molecules, we
have 8 x O-H bonds. Total bond energy = 8 x 463 = 3704 kJ.
Total energy released by making bonds = 4794 + 3704 = -8498 kJ ( because energy is released by
making bonds, we make this negative ).
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Overall energy change = 6475 - 8498 = -2023 kJ.

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103
Required Practical: Temperature Changes
1a The reaction between an acid and an alkali is called neutralisation.
1b The temperature will increase. Exothermic reactions release energy to their surroundings. In this case,
ns
the surroundings of the reaction is the solution ( ie the water molecules ). As energy is released from
the reaction into the surroundings, the temperature of the surroundings increases.
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1c The independent variable is the one factor that is changed in an experiment. In this case, we are
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changing the volume of the sodium hydroxide solution so this is the independent variable.
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1d The dependent variable is the maximum temperature reached by the solution.
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1e The control variables are the volume of the hydrochloric acid and the concentrations of both the
hydrochloric acid and the sodium hydroxide solution. Other control variables will also be kept the
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same ( for example the polystyrene cup ). However, these are less important as they are less likely to
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a ect the outcome of the experiment.

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1f Measuring cylinder A can only measure to the nearest 5cm3. However, measuring cylinder B can
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measure to the nearest 1cm3. So measuring cylinder B is better for this practical.
2 A beaker is not designed to measure volumes accurately. Scientists say that a beaker is not
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volumetric. However, a measuring cylinder is designed to measure volumes accurately.

3 People reading a thermometer incorrectly can lead to random errors. Random errors are caused by
errors in using a piece of equipment. A di erent kind of error is called a systematic error. With a
systematic error, a piece of equipment always gives the same error. For example, if a thermometer
always gave a reading which is 5oC less than the actual reading, then this is a systematic error.
4a Stirring the reaction mixes the chemicals. This ensures that all of the acid and alkali react so that we
get an accurate temperature reading.
4b In this reaction, we are measuring a temperature change. We want to reduce heat losses as much as
possible. We do not want heat to pass through the walls of the container as this would produce an
inaccurate reading. Polystyrene is an insulator so this reduces any heat losses through the walls.
Using a glass beaker would give an inaccurate reading as heat energy can pass through glass more
easily than through polystyrene. Using a lid reduces heat loss to the atmosphere.
5a
s
on
ss
5b As the volume of sodium hydroxide solution increases, the mean temperature increase also
le
increases. However, if we add more than 30cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution, the temperature
ce
increases by a smaller amount each time.

5c Initially the sodium hydroxide is the limiting reactant. As we add more sodium hydroxide, we have
en
more neutralisation reactions taking place. This reaction is exothermic so the temperature increase is
greater. However, after we have added 30cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution, all of the hydrochloric
ci
acid has reacted. At this stage, as we add an increasing volume of sodium hydroxide solution, the
es
energy released by the reaction is spread through a greater volume of liquid, so the temperature rise
decreases.
fre
©
104
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5d
ns
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6a Repeat 2 for 20 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution shows a temperature increase of 7oC. This is less
fre
than the temperature increase seen with 15 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution, suggesting that the
result for 20 cm3 is anomalous.
©
6b Because the temperature increase for this result seems less than it should be, it is possible that the
student may have added less sodium hydroxide solution than they thought ( for example by
misreading the measuring cylinder ).
6c When we spot an anomalous result, we should repeat that measurement. In this case, the anomalous
result has been used to calculate the mean. However, we normally do not include anomalous results
in the mean.
7a Student A range = 8-10oC Student B range = 7-12oC
7b The results of both students A and B give a mean value of 9oC. However, the results of student B
show a greater range than student A. This means that student B has a greater level of uncertainty
( this suggests that student B may have had a greater amount of error in their experiment ).
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105
Cells and Batteries
1a
ns
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1b The diagram shows a cell. A battery is several cells connected in series. A hydrogen fuel cell is a
e
special kind of cell that we'll see in the next section.

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1c
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1d This is an example of an oxidation reaction. The magnesium has lost two electrons.
©
1e
1f After some time, the magnesium will have completely reacted. At this point, no more electricity will be
generated. It is also possible that the chemicals in the electrolyte could run out, in which case
electricity would also stop owing.
2a The potential di erence and current are greater if there is a bigger di erence in reactivity between the
two metals. In cell A, the two metals are magnesium and lead. Lead is less reactive than magnesium.
However, in cell B the two metals are magnesium and silver. The di erence in reactivity between
magnesium and silver is much greater than the di erence in reactivity between magnesium and lead
so the potential di erence and current will be greater in cell B than cell A.
2b The electrolyte can a ect the potential di erence and current in a cell. So in order to compare cell A
and cell B, we must make sure that the electrolyte is the same.
s
2c The potential di erence of cells in series is the sum of each individual potential di erence. So in the
on
example shown, the total potential di erence will be 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V.
ss
2d Cells connected in series are called a battery.

le
ce
2e In a battery, the potential di erence falls to zero when the chemicals have all reacted. In a
en
rechargeable battery, the chemical reactions can be reversed when we supply an external electrical
current.
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In a normal alkaline battery, the chemical reactions cannot be reversed so these batteries are not
rechargeable.
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©
106
ff
ff
ff
ff
fl
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
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Fuel Cells
1a 2H2 -> 4H+ + 4e-
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- -> 2H2O
ns
1b+
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1d The half equation on the left hand side shows the oxidation of hydrogen
©
2H2 -> 4H+ + 4e-
Two hydrogen molecules ( 2H2 ) lose a total of four electrons ( one electron per hydrogen atom ).
Because they are losing electrons, this is oxidation.
2 First calculate the energy required to break the bonds ( on the left hand side of the equation ).
The hydrogen molecule H2 has 1 x H-H bond with a bond energy of 436 kJ. We have two H2
molecules so the total energy for these bonds is 2 x 436 = 872 kJ.
The oxygen molecule O2 has 1 x O=O bond with a bond energy of 495 kJ.
Total energy required to break bonds = 872 + 495 = +1367 kJ ( this value is positive as we have to put
energy in to break bonds ).
Now calculate the energy released by making bonds ( on the right hand side of the equation ).
The water molecule H2O contains 2 x O-H bonds, each with a bond energy of 463 kJ. We are
producing two molecules of water so we are making 4 x O-H bonds.
Total energy released by making bonds = 4 x 463 = -1852 kJ ( this value is negative as energy is
released when we make bonds ).
Overall energy change = +1367 - 1852 = -485 kJ.

s
on
3a Hydrogen fuel cells will produce electricity for as long as you provide hydrogen ... Rechargeable
batteries run out and need to be recharged.
ss
Hydrogen fuel cells do not get less e cient the longer they run ... Rechargeable batteries can
le
store less electricity the more charging cycles they go through and eventually need replacing
ce
Hydrogen gas is explosive and di cult to store safely ... No dangerous fuels are required with
en
rechargeable batteries.
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Hydrogen fuel cells produce a relatively low potential di erence or voltage so several are
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needed together ... Rechargeable batteries can produce a much greater potential di erence than
hydrogen fuel cells
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3b The only waste product of a hydrogen fuel cell is water. This water can be used for drinking ( for
example in a space craft such as the International Space Station ).
©
107
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Chemistry Paper 1
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Triple
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Specimen Paper
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Question Answers Mark Extra information Workbook
page
1.1 2 HCl 1 For this question, you need to remember Quantitative
ns
that the formula for hydrochloric acid is Chemistry
HCl. Page 78
so
Balancing the equation is relatively
straightforward.
1.2
es
Fe2+ ( accept 2+ on its own ) 1 To work this out, you need to look at the Quantitative
el
formula of iron chloride, which is given in Chemistry
nc
the question. FeCl2 means that we have Page 77

one iron ion and two chloride ions. Each
e
chloride ion has a charge of -1, so the

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total charge on the two chloride ions is -2.

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Ionic compounds have no overall charge,

so the iron ion must have a charge of +2.
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1.3 Please note that long answer 6 This is a straightforward recall question Energy
questions such as this are based on required practical 4. Changes
©
often marked on a "best t" When answering these questions, it's Page 139
basis rather than a tick list of important to always state the apparatus
correct answers. that you plan to use as this picks up more
marks.
However, marking on a "best
t" basis is a skill that requires Instead of saying "measuring cylinder",
a lot of practise and guidance. you could also say pipette. Both of these
So rather than this, this mark pieces of apparatus are volumetric (in
scheme uses a tick list other words, they can be used to measure
approach. volumes accurately). However, "beaker"
would not get the mark as beakers are not
• Use a balance to measure volumetric.
di erent masses of iron
• Use a measuring cylinder to Make sure that you never use the word
measure a xed volume of "amount" when you mean "mass" or
hydrochloric acid "volume". In Science, the word "amount"
• Place the acid in a is only ever used in the idea of "amount in
polystyrene cup moles".
• Use a thermometer to
measure the start Instead of saying "polystyrene cup", you
temperature of the acid could plan to use a plastic or insulated
• Add the iron to the acid cup. However a beaker is not acceptable
• Stir as heat can easily pass through the glass
• Measure the nal walls.
temperature
s
•
on
Repeat with di erent masses The question states that your method
of iron should produce valid results. In this case,
ss
• Repeat whole experiment the use of a polystyrene beaker with a lid,

once more the use of repeats and identifying
le
• Identify any anomalous anomalous results makes the results more

results and repeat valid.
ce
• Award mark for reference to

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lid on cup
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Total
=8
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21
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page
2.1 1 electron in outer energy level 1 Remember that the group number in the Atomic
ns
(shell) periodic table is the same as the number Structure
of electrons in the outer energy level. This and the
so
does not apply to group 0 (noble gases) Periodic
Table
as they have a full outer energy level.
es Page 34
el
2.2 Lithium-6 has one fewer 2 Remember that isotopes di er in the Atomic
neutrons than the isotope in number of neutrons. We can work out the Structure
nc
question 2.1. number of neutrons by subtracting the and the

atomic number (in this case 3) from the Periodic
e
Table
mass number. It is important to be
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Page 24
speci c. If you said "Lithium-6 has fewer
es
neutrons" then you would only receive

one mark. You could also get the marks
fre
by discussing lithium-7 (in gure 1). This

has one more neutron than lithium-6
©
2.3 Elements in group 1 are more 1 All of the elements in group 1 are highly Chemical
reactive than carbon reactive. Carbon is not very reactive, so it Changes
cannot displace any group 1 metal. Notice Page 110
So they cannot be displaced 1 that in this question you have not been
by carbon given a reactivity series. That's because
you are meant to recall that group 1
metals are highly reactive.
2.4 Strong (electrostatic) forces of 1 This is a very common exam question and Structure
attraction between the ions is based on the fact that ionic compounds and Bonding
1 have high melting and boiling points. It is Page 52
Require a lot of energy to break possible that the word "electrostatic" is
not required to get the mark but it's worth
putting in. Remember that "electrostatic"
means "between charges", in this case
opposite charges.
However, do not say "intermolecular

forces". That term applies to molecules
rather than ions.
2.5 Accept any one from: Limitations of di erent diagrams / models Structure
is new to the 9-1 speci cation. and Bonding
Ions are more closely packed 1 Page 72
than is shown in ball and stick
s
diagram
on
1
Ball and stick diagram only
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show tiny part of giant ionic

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lattice 1
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Ball and stick diagram does

not give any idea of the relative
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sizes of the ions

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Total
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=8
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22
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page
2.6 The outer electron of sodium is 1 For the rst marking point, you could also Atomic
ns
further from the nucleus ( than say that sodium is a larger atom than Structure
in a lithium atom ). lithium or you could say that sodium has and the
Periodic
so
1 more energy levels than in lithium.
Table
The outer electron is less
Page 37
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strongly attracted to the
nucleus in sodium than in
For the second marking point, you could
also say that the outer electron in lithium
el
lithium. 1 experiences less shielding from internal
nc
electrons than in sodium.

Sodium atoms lose an electron
e
more easily than lithium atoms.

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23
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page
3.1 As the number of carbon 1 This is a low-demand question. This
ns
atoms increases, the boiling Remember to be speci c. If you simply question
point increases said "as the number of carbon atoms involves
so
changes, the boiling point increases" then working
you would not get the mark. out a
es solution
el
You could also get the mark by writing and is not
"As the number of carbon atoms covered in
nc
decreases, the boiling point decreases". the book.

e
3.2 Accept any value between 1 78oC or 118oC would not be acceptable This
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79oC and 117oC but any value between them would be question
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ne. involves
working
fre
out a
solution
and is not
©
covered in
the book.
3.3 Covalent 1 Molecules containing only non-metals Structure
have covalent bonding. Chemicals and Bonding
containing both a metal and a non-metal Page 53
have ionic bonding. Metallic bonding is
found only in metals or alloys.
Be careful to tick only one box. If you tick

more than one box, then you will not get
the mark. If you change your mind and
the boxes start to look messy, then simply
write "The correct answer is covalent".
3.4 Fractional distillation 1 We can tell from the apparatus that this is Atomic
fractional distillation rather than simple Structure
distillation. The apparatus contains a and the
column lled with glass beads. This is Periodic
Table
found only in fractional distillation.
Page 17
3.5 Condensation 1 This part of the apparatus is called the Atomic

condenser. We nd this in both fractional Structure
Vapours turning from gas to 1 distillation and in simple distillation. and the
liquid Periodic
s
Table
on
Page 16 +
17
ss
3.6 Boiling points of methanol and 1 In many questions, you are given Atomic
le
ethanol are close together information to use, in this case a table. It's Structure
very common to nd a later part of the and the
ce
So they are more likely to 1 question which is based on this. So Periodic

Table
en
evaporate together always remember to look back to the

Page 17
question to see if any information is given.
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You could also write "The boiling point of

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butanol is not close to methanol or

ethanol...
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so butanol is more likely to evaporate on

©
Total its own"

=8
24
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page
4.1 Carbon dioxide (accept CO2) 1 You are expected to be able to name the Chemical
ns
products from di erent reactions of acids Changes
Water (accept H2O) 1 so it's important to learn them. In this Page 117
so
case, you are simply required to write the
names.
4.2
es
Convert 200 cm3 to 0.2 dm3 1 The main mistake that students make Quantitative
el
with this type of question is forgetting to Chemistry
nc
Calculate number of moles of 1 convert volumes to dm3 ( to do this, Page 101

sulfuric acid ( 0.2 x 0.1 = 0.02 divide cm3 by 1000 ).
e
moles )
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1 Remember that concentration ( mol/dm3 )

es
Calculates Mr of sulfuric acid = number of moles / volume ( dm3 ). To

as 98 ( do not give mark for nd the number of moles, we rearrange
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98g ) 1 the equation.
Multiplies number of moles by Number of moles = concentration x

©
Mr of sulfuric acid ( 0.02 x 98 = volume ( dm3 )

1.96g )
When calculating the Mr of sulfuric acid,
remember that Mr has no units.
4.3 Please note that long answer 6 This is a straightforward recall question Chemical
questions such as this are based on required practical 1. Changes
often marked on a "best t" In this question, the volume of acid is not Page 118
basis rather than a tick list of important as we are adding excess
correct answers. copper carbonate. We keep adding
copper carbonate until there is no more
However, marking on a "best e ervescence ( zzing). At this point, we
t" basis is a skill that requires know that all of the sulfuric acid has
a lot of practise and guidance. completely reacted and that the copper
So rather than this, this mark carbonate is in excess.
scheme uses a tick list When making copper sulfate crystals, we
approach. cannot simply heat the solution until all
the water has evaporated. Copper sulfate
• Place sulfuric acid into crystals are a ected by heat.
beaker
• Warm sulfuric acid ( reject
reference to "boil" )
• Add copper carbonate to
acid
• Continue adding copper
s
on
carbonate until reaction

stops
•
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Filter unreacted copper

carbonate
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• Gently heat copper sulfate

solution using either
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waterbath or electric heater

•
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Once crystals start to form,

remove from heat
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• Allow remaining water to

evaporate
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• Dry crystals using paper Total

towel = 12
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©
25
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page
5.1 Molten aluminium oxide can 1 This is a very typical exam question. You Chemical
ns
conduct electricity are meant to know why molten ionic Changes
compounds can conduct electricity but Page 130
so
solid ionic compounds cannot.
es
As the ions can move 1 If you wrote "solid aluminium oxide
cannot conduct electricity as the ions
el
cannot move" then that would also
nc
achieve two marks.

e
It is essential that you do not make any

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reference to electrons moving. The only

es
time that moving electrons conduct

electricity is in metals / alloys and in
fre
graphite, graphene and fullerenes. In ionic

compounds, it is the ions moving, not the
©
electrons. Many students lose marks this

way.
5.2 Cryolite lowers the melting 1 Again, a very common exam question. If Chemical
point the electrolysis of aluminium oxide comes Changes
up in your exam ( and it often does ), then Page 130
So less energy is required for 1 I would not be surprised if you are asked
melting about the role of cryolite.
For the second part of this question, I

think it is also worth mentioning that
using cryolite reduces the cost of
extracting aluminium ( as less energy is
needed for melting ).
5.3 Reduction 1 This is simply a recall question. Chemical
Changes
Page 112
5.4 3e- 1 Remember that in electrolysis of a molten Chemical

ionic compound, metal ions are reduced Changes
Al 1 to form the metal atoms. We know that Page 131
the aluminium ion has a 3+ charge. This
means that it must gain three electrons to
form the aluminium atom Al.
s
5.5 Oxygen is produced at the 1 Once again, if the electrolysis of Chemical

on
anode aluminium oxide is on your exam, then Changes

you could be asked why the anode must Page 131
ss
Oxygen reacts with the 1 be replaced. Make sure that you learn it.
graphite
le
For the second and third marks, you

ce
To make carbon dioxide 1 could write the balanced chemical

equation instead.
en
C + O2 -> CO2
5.6 A lot of energy is needed to 1 This is a relatively straightforward recall Chemical
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melt the aluminium oxide question taken directly from the Changes
es
speci cation. Page 131

A lot of energy is needed to 1
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produce the electrical current

Total
©
= 12
26
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page
6.1 Halogens 1 A recall question directly stated in the Atomic
ns
speci cation. Structure
and the
so
Periodic
Table
es Page 38
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6.2 All group 7 elements have 7 1 We know this because the group number Atomic
electrons in their outer energy in the periodic table ( in this case 7 ) tells Structure
nc
level us the number of electrons in the outer and the

Periodic
e
energy level ( apart from group 0 ). All of

Table Page
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the halogens react to gain one more

38
electron for a full outer energy level
es
( either by sharing an electron in covalent

bonding or gaining an electron in ionic
fre
bonding ).
©
6.3 Cl2 1 In this question, you are expected to Atomic

recall that chlorine consists of the Structure
2NaCl 2 chlorine molecule Cl2 and that sodium and the
chloride has the formula NaCl. The Periodic
Table Page
second part of the question is
36
demonstrating that you can balance a
chemical equation.
6.4 1 In this question, you get one mark for the Energy
correct position of products relative to the Changes
reactants on the energy axis. Remember Page 136
that this is an exothermic reaction. That
1 means that energy has been released
from the chemical system, so the
products must have less energy than the
1 reactants. One mark is also given for
correctly labelling the reactants and the
products.
1
The third mark comes from correctly
labelling the activation energy. In my
experience as a teacher, students
frequently get this wrong. The activation
energy runs from the reactants to the
peak of the curve. The arrow always
s
points up for activation energy.

on
The last mark is for correctly labelling the

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energy change. Because this is

exothermic, the arrow must point down.
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If this reaction was endothermic, then the

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energy change arrow would point up.

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27
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page
6.5 Covalent 1 All of the elements in group 7 form Structure
ns
diatomic molecules with a single covalent and Bonding
bond. Page 54
so
6.6
es
Calculate the Mr of Cl2 as 71 1 Each chlorine atom has a relative atomic Quantitative
el
mass of 35.5. Chlorine molecules (Cl2) Chemistry
nc
Number of moles of Cl2 = 71 / 1 have two chlorine atoms, so they have a Page 87
71 = 1 mole relative formula mass of 71. Remember
e
that relative formula mass has no unit.

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One mole of Cl2 produces 2 1

es
moles of Cl- ions For the second mark, we use the

equation
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2 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.20 x 1024 1

number of moles = mass / relative
formula mass.
©
For the third mark, you need to look at

the large numbers in the equation. There
is no large number in front of the Cl2. If
there is no large number, then this means
"1". We have a large "2" in front of the Cl-.
This means that 1 Cl2 makes 2 Cl-.
The nal answer should be in standard

form to 3 signi cant gures.
Total
= 14
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28
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page
7.1 2 pairs of electrons in the 1 For this question, you are given the Structure
ns
bonding region information that oxygen is in group 6. This and Bonding
1 means that oxygen atoms have 6 Page 58
so
4 electrons outside of the electrons in their outer energy level. To
bonding region in each atom work out how many electrons it will need
es to share, subtract 6 from 8. This means
that each oxygen atom will need to put
el
two electrons into the bonding region.
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Remember that the other four electrons

e
on each oxygen atom must not be in the

ci
bonding region. You can put them

es
anywhere else on the outer energy level

of that atom.
fre
This is one of the eight di erent small

©
covalent molecules that you are expected

to know ( and were covered in the
Structure and Bonding topic ).
7.2 2.4 / 24 = 0.1 moles of O2 1 For this question, you need to remember Quantitative
that 1 mole of any gas has a volume of 24 Chemistry
0.1 moles of O2 requires 0.2 1 dm3 at room temperature and pressure. Page 105
moles of H2O2 The clue was the phrase "at room
temperature and pressure".
Mr of H2O2 = 34 1
First we calculate the number of moles of
0.2 x 34 = 6.8g 1 gas by using the equation
number of moles = volume ( dm3 ) / 24
The large "2" in front of the H2O2 tells us

that 2 moles of hydrogen peroxide are
required to make 1 mole of oxygen gas.
So we need 0.2 moles of H2O2
To calculate the mass of H2O2, we use the

equation mass = number of moles x Mr
7.3 Some product can be lost ( eg 2 These three reasons why the amount of Quantitative
in separation ) max product is less than the amount predicted Chemistry
are speci cally stated in the speci cation Page 75
Reversible reactions may not and are worth learning.
s
on
go to completion
ss
Some of the reactants may

react in unexpected ways
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29
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page
7.4 Energy required to break bonds 1 There are several key points to remember Energy
ns
in reactants = about this type of question. Changes
2 x O-O = 146 x 2 = 292 Page 137
so
4 x O-H = 463 x 4 = 1852 • Remember to include the large
Total = +2144 numbers. For example, we have 4 O-H
es bonds on the left hand side because
el
Energy released in forming new 1 the large 2 tells us that we have 2
bonds = molecules of H2O2. Many students
nc
4 x O-H = 463 x 4 = 1852 forget to include large numbers.

1 x O=O = 495 • The total energy change on the left
e
Total = -2347 hand side is positive as we are

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breaking bonds and we have to put

es
Energy change = +2144 - 2347 1 energy in to do that.

= -203 • On the right hand side, the total energy
fre
change is negative as we are making

bonds and making bonds releases
©
energy.
• For the nal calculation, simply move
the right hand total below the left hand
total. The signs tell you what to do.
In the exam, if you make a mistake in the

rst two marking points, the examiner will
check your nal answer. If this agrees
with the answers to the rst parts ( even
though you made a mistake ) you can still
pick up the nal mark. This is called error
carried forward or ecf.
Total
= 11
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30
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page
8.1 Ethanoic acid only partially 1 The speci cation states three weak acids Chemical
ns
ionises that you should learn ( these are ethanoic Changes
acid, citric acid and carbonic acid ). Weak Page 120
so
Because reaction is reversible 1 acids do not fully ionise. We can see this
es by the fact that they have reversible
ionisations. Strong acids such as
el
hydrochloric acid fully ionise and are not
reversible.
nc
8.2 The pH would increase 1 If we dilute an acid, then the Chemical

e
concentration of H+ falls as we have Changes

ci
Concentration of H+ would 1 added more water. pH is a measure of the Page 121

es
decrease H+ concentration, with lower pH values

meaning a higher H+ concentration.
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Because the H+ concentration has fallen

in this case, the pH will increase.
©
8.3 pH 3 1 Remember that the pH scale is Chemical

logarithmic. This means that each pH Changes
Each order of magnitude = 1 1 value has 10x ( in other words one order Page 121
pH point of magnitude ) the H+ concentration as
the pH value one higher. The question
Lower pH = greater H+ 1 states that the H+ concentration is two
concentration orders of magnitude greater. So this
means 2 pH points. As the H+
concentration is greater, the pH value will
be lower.
8.4 Moles of calcium hydroxide = 1 Titration is only on the Chemistry spec Chemical
concentration x volume = 0.15 (not the Combined Science spec). This Changes
x 0.025 = 0.00375 moles means that it is highly likely to be on your Page 124
exam. You could either be asked to carry
out a titration calculation such as this
Moles of hydrochloric acid = 1 question, or you could be asked to
0.00375 x 2 = 0.0075 moles describe how to carry out a titration
( required practical 2 ).
Concentration of hydrochloric 1
acid = number of moles / In this case, I've rounded the number to
volume = 0.0075 / 0.0225 = three signi cant gures (which is fairly
0.33 mol / dm3 typical in science questions). I would
recommend not rounding any more than
that as it will a ect your nal answer.
s
on
Notice that for the nal mark, I have

converted the volume of hydrochloric
ss
acid from cm3 to dm3.

le
Award 1 mark only for 0.33 mol / dm3

ce
without working ( most of the marks in

this question come from the working, so
en
make sure that you show it ).

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page
8.5 A pipette is used to measure a 1 A pipette measures a single volume very Chemical
ns
single volume accurately so it's perfect if we only need Changes
one speci c volume ( in this case 25cm3 ). Page
so
The volume of hydrochloric 1 A burette can measure any volume 122-123
acid could be any volume accurately ( burettes normally measure up
es to 50 cm3 maximum ).
el
8.6 Methyl orange produces a 1 In the exam, you could be asked why Chemical
nc
single colour change at certain indicators are better than others Changes
neutralisation for a titration. The key idea of a titration is Page 122
e
that the neutralisation point ( which

ci
It is harder to determine the 1 scientists call the end-point ) must be

es
exact neutralisation point with clear. Certain indicators ( such as methyl

universal indicator orange or phenolphthalein ) produce a
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clear colour change. However, universal

As universal indicator produces 1 indicator produces a range of colour
a range of colour changes changes so the exact point of
©
neutralisation is not clear.

8.7 H+ + OH- -> H2O 1 You need to learn this equation. All acids Chemical
release H+ in aqueous solutions and all Changes
alkalis release OH-. So the equation for Page 114
neutralisation does not depend on the
acid or the alkali used.
Total
= 16
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page
9.1 Negative particles ( accept 1 In the exam, you could be asked to Atomic
ns
electrons ) describe the plum-pudding model or you Structure
could be shown a selection of di erent and the
so
In a region of positive charge 1 models for atomic structure and asked to Periodic
identify the plum-pudding model. Table
es Page 19
el
9.2 1. Alpha particles were directed 5 The examiners want you to understand Atomic
nc
at gold foil max that scienti c models evolve over time Structure
and sometimes a scienti c model is and the
e
2. ( Most ) particles passed replaced with a better model. The alpha- Periodic
ci
straight through scattering experiment is really important Table

es
in Chemistry because it caused scientists Page 20

3. So most of atom = empty to completely change their model of
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space atomic structure.
4. ( Some ) particles were In this question it is really important that

©
de ected you link the nding with the conclusion.

Because of this, marking point 3 is linked
5. So central region ( nucleus ) to marking point 2. So you cannot get
= positive marking point 3 without stating marking
point 2 (since the conclusion is based on
6. ( Some ) particles bounced the experimental nding). Marking points
back in original direction 4+5 are linked and so are marking points
6+7.
7. So most of mass contained
in central region ( nucleus ) You can achieve marking points 2, 4 and
6 without stating points 3, 5 and 7.
9.3 He proposed that electrons 1 Once the alpha-scattering experiment Atomic
exist in energy levels ( or established the nuclear model, the model Structure
shells ) was developed by the work of two more and the
scientists. Niels Bohr proposed the idea Periodic
of energy levels. You need to know that Table
his calculations were supported by Page 21
experimental observations (but you don't
need to know the observations).
James Chadwick later discovered the

existence of the neutron and this
explained the existence of isotopes. This
was not required for this question but it is
s
on
a popular question with examiners.

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Total
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Suggested Level Boundaries
Please note that the level boundaries shown below are very approximate.
ns
so
This is because the paper above is a specimen paper. Real exam papers
es
go through a long process of review where questions are analysed and
el
modi ed before being issued.
enc
ci
In the real GCSE Science exams, the level boundaries are determined
es
when all of the candidates' papers have been marked. This allows the
fre
exam boards to adjust the grade boundaries up (if the exam appeared
©
slightly easier than usual) or down (if the exam appeared slightly harder
than usual).
I do not offer any guarantee that the level you achieve in this specimen
paper is the level that you will achieve in the real exam.
Mark / 100 Level

75 9
66 8
56 7
46 6
36 5
26 4
16 3
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ns

Atomic Structure and the

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

reduction, or electrolysis. We'll see both of these in later topics.

2e Remember that any elements chemically combined is a molecule. However, to also be a

2f Physical separation techniques include ltration, crystallisation, simple distillation, fractional

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

1a KCl: number of potassium atoms = 1, number of chlorine atoms = 1

(NH4)2SO4: nitrogen (2 atoms), hydrogen 8 atoms, sulfur (1 atom), oxygen (4 atoms)

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

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the opposite of the plum-pudding model.

this does show the plum-pudding model.

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the helium nucleus contains two protons.

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Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

2 Al = 13 protons, 14 neutrons, 13 electrons

Zn = 30 protons, 35 neutrons, 30 electrons

Ag = 47 protons, 61 neutrons, 47 electrons

Oxygen-16 has 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons

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so the total number of electrons for this calcium ion is 18.

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Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

1a The columns in the periodic table are called "groups".

so I would not be surprised to see Dobereiner in a question.

element reacts in a similar way. He called these "octaves".

scienti cally valid.

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Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

1a Scientists call group 0 "the noble gases".

1d Helium has 2 electron in the rst energy level.

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than protons so they form a positive ion.

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1a The group 1 elements are called the alkali metals.

2a lithium + oxygen -> lithium oxide

potassium + oxygen -> potassium oxide

2b As we move down group 1, the elements get more reactive.

potassium oxide = K2O

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3c 2 Li + Cl2 -> 2 LiCl

when every group 1 metal reacts with water.

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Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

lithium iodide + chlorine -> lithium chloride + iodine

than chlorine so no displacement will take place.

sodium chloride + bromine -> sodium chloride + bromine

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.

1d Transition elements tend to form compounds which are coloured.

1e Transition elements are frequently used as catalysts, to speed up chemical reactions.

Copyright Shaun Donnelly. Copying of this workbook is strictly prohibited.