EEL1206: Introduction to Machines and Power Systems

ERL2036: Electric Machines and Power System

Chapter 3 – Transformers
Part 1

Prof. Dr. Mohammad Faizal Ahmad Fauzi

faizal1@mmu.edu.my
AR2001 (AI4DP Research Lab) 1
 Learning Outcomes
Analyse the characteristics of transformers based on short/open circuit tests.

1. Understand the construction and principle operation of single-phase

real transformer and its equivalent circuit.
2. Perform short-circuit and open circuit tests on transformer.
3. Construct the simplified equivalent circuit of transformer and
evaluate the corresponding parameters.
4. Calculate voltage regulation and efficiency of transformer.
5. Know the reason and condition of parallel operation of transformer.

2
 Learning Outcomes
6. Learn the construction, connection and application of three-phase
transformer.
7. Understand the construction, operation and application of special
transformers, which include:
▪ Autotransformer
▪ Potential transformer
▪ Current transformer
8. Perform calculations also on three-phase and special transformers.
Reference:
S. J. Chapman, Electrical Machinery Fundamentals, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, 2012.
3
 Outline of Content (Part 1)
1. Introduction
❑ Types of transformers
❑ Construction of transformers
2. Ideal transformer
❑ Voltage and current relationships
❑ Equivalent circuit
3. Real single-phase transformers
❑ Main losses in real transformer
❑ Equivalent circuit
❑ Testing of transformers: open circuit test and short circuit test
4. Voltage regulation and transformer efficiency
4
➢ Transformer is a static device that changes AC
electric power at one voltage level to AC electric
power at another level through the action of a
magnetic field.
➢ It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped
around a common ferromagnetic core.
➢ The connection between the coils is the
common magnetic flux present within the core.
➢ One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of AC electric power
➔ primary (input) winding
➢ The second transformer winding supplies electric power to loads
➔ secondary (output) winding
5
➢ A transformer ideally changes one AC voltage level to another voltage
level without affecting the actual power supplied.
➢ If a transformer steps up the voltage level of a circuit, it must decrease
the current to keep the power into the device equal to the power out of
it.
➢ Power system generating and transmitting power at low voltages
requires very large currents to supply significant amounts of power.
➢ These high currents cause large voltage drops and power losses in the
transmission lines, severely restricting the service area of a generating
station.

6
➢ Transmission losses in the lines of a power system are proportional to
the square of the current in the lines.
➢ Therefore, raising the transmission voltage and reducing the currents by
a factors of 10 with transformers reduces power transmission losses by
a factor of 100.
➢ Applications of transformers include:
❑ Electric power generation, transmission, distribution and utilization
❑ Impedance matching in electronic circuit
❑ Electrical isolation between circuits
❑ Measurement of high voltage and current

7
➢ AC power transmission
➢ Impedance matching
➢ Electrical Isolation
➢ STEP-UP transformer
➢ STEP-DOWN transformer

8
• Construction • Construction • Autotransformers
• Principle of operation • Connections • Instrument transformers
• Equivalent circuit ▪ Potential transformer
• Short/open-circuit tests ▪ Current transformers
• Voltage regulation
• Losses and efficiency
• Parallel operation

9
The main constructional elements of a power-system transformer include:
❑ Cores comprising limbs, yokes, and clamping
devices;
❑ Primary, secondary, and sometimes also
tertiary phase windings, coil formers,
spacers, and conductor insulation;
❑ Inter-winding and winding/earth insulation
and bracing;
❑ Tanks, coolers, dryers, conservators, and
other auxiliaries; and
❑ Terminals and bushings, connections, and A three-phase transformer rated at
tapping switches 1300 MVA, 24.5 kV/345 kV, 60 Hz, 65°C
10
➢ To minimize the leakage flux and improve the magnetic coupling
between the two windings, a variety of cores and winding
configurations have been adopted.

Core-type transformer:
Windings are wound around
two legs of a magnetic core of
rectangular shape.

Shell-type transformer:
windings are wound around the
center leg of a three-legged
magnetic core.
11
 IP IS

VP EP ES VS

➢ Transformers utilize the dot convention to determine the polarity of the

voltage and direction of the current in the secondary winding.
➢ If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with
respect to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at
the dotted end also.
➢ If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of
the secondary winding.
12
➢ An ideal transformer is a lossless device, with no losses associated with
iron or copper and no leakage fluxes.
❑ The magnetic permeability of the core is infinite
❑ Core losses are negligible ➔ ideal core has no reluctance
❑ No leakage fluxes ➔ all the flux is confined to the core linking both the
windings
❑ Winding resistances are negligible
❑ No MMF is required to establish the flux

➢ In other word, a perfect transformer

13
➢ The transformer has Np turns of wire on its primary side and Ns turns of
wire on its secondary side.
➢ When a time-varying voltage vp is applied to the primary winding:
❑ A core flux  is established
❑ A counter emf ep is developed Core flux 
Primary side Secondary side

d
vp = ep = N p
ep
dt es
d
v s = es = N s
dt

14
➢ Primary winding is assumed to have zero resistance:
d d1
vp = ep = N p =
dt dt
➢ 1 = N 1 is the flux linkage associated with the primary windings of Np
turns.
➢ Since there is no leakage flux in an ideal transformer, the core flux  also
links all the Ns turns of the secondary winding and produces and
induced emf es.
➢ Resistance of the secondary winding is assumed to be zero:

d d2
v s = es = N s =
dt dt
15
➢ Relationship between the voltage vp(t) applied to the primary side of
the transformer and the voltage vs(t) produced on the secondary side is:
vp ep Np Turns ratio of
= = =a the transformer
vs es Ns
➢ Voltages are transformed in the direct ratio of the turns.
➢ By applying Ampere’s law around the closed contour of the mean path
of magnetic flux:
N p i p − N s is = 0
➢ The net MMF acting on the core of an ideal transformer at any instant is
zero.

16
➢ Relationship between the current ip(t) flowing into the primary side of
the transformer and the current is(t) flowing out of the secondary side
is:
N p i p = N s is
ip Ns 1 Inverse ratio of
= = the turns
is N p a

➢ Currents are transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns.

➢ The instantaneous power input equals the instantaneous power output:

v p  i p = v s  is In unit of volt-ampere
(VA)

17
An ideal transformer is rated at 2400/120 V, 9.6 kVA, and has 50 turns on
the secondary side. Calculate:
(a) The turns ratio
(b) The number of turns on the primary side
(c) The current ratings for the primary and secondary windings

18
(a) The turns ratio.
This is a step-down transformer, since Vp = 2400 V > Vs = 120 V

(b) The number of turns on the primary side.

Given Ns = 50 turns:

19
(c) The current ratings for the primary and secondary windings

S = Vp  I p = Vs  I s = 9.6 kVA

20
The primary current to an ideal transformer rated at 3300/110 V is
3A. Calculate:
(a) The turns ratio
(b) The kVA rating
(c) The secondary current
[Ans: (a) 30; (b) 9.9 kV; (c) 90 A]

21
➢ Consider the case:
❑ Sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding
❑ Load impedance connected to the secondary winding
➢ Equivalent circuit viewed from the source terminal:
Ip Is
• Voltages Vp and Vs are in phase
• Currents Ip and Is are also in
phase
Vp Ep Es ZL Vs
• The directions of the currents
are such that their net MMF is
zero
22
➢ The voltage and current relations:
Vp Np Np Ip Is
= =a  Vp =  V s = a  Vs
Vs Ns Ns
Vp Ep Es ZL Vs
Ip Ns 1 Ns 1
= =  Ip =  Is =  Is
Is Np a Np a
Vs
➢ Since Vs = Z L I s  ZL =
Is
Np
 Vs 2
Vp Ns  N p  Vs
= =  
 = a 2
ZL Complex impedance
Ns of the load
 Is  s  s
Ip N I
Np 23
➢ An impedance ZL in the secondary circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent impedance in the primary circuit:
2
 Np  Vs
Z = 
'
L

 I = a 2
ZL
 Ns  s
➢ Z L' is the load impedance referred to the primary side.
➢ Transferring an impedance from one side of the transformer to the
other side in this manner is known as referring the impedance.
➢ Voltages and currents also may be referred to one side or the other.

24
 1
Ip Is I p = I s' = Is
a

Vp Ep Es ZL Vs Vp Ep Z L' = a 2 Z L

V p = E p = Vs' = aVs
Equivalent circuit viewed from
the source terminal
Equivalent circuit referred
to the primary side

25
➢ Unlike ideal transformer, real transformers experience losses during
operation
➢ The main losses that occur in real transformers include copper losses,
eddy current and hysteresis losses (core losses), and leakage flux losses.

26
❑ Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer.
❑ Proportional to the square of the current in the windings ➔ I2R
❑ They are modeled by placing a resistor Rp in the primary circuit of the
transformer and a resistor Rs in the secondary circuit.
Primary leakage Secondary leakage
flux LP Mutual flux M flux LS

Rp Ip Is Rs

Vp Ep Np Ns Es ZL Vs

27
➢ Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to
the transformer.
➢ Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic
domains in the core during each half-cycle.
➢ Hysteresis and eddy currents cause iron losses (aka core losses). These
losses are represented by a resistance Rc.
➢ In addition, the iron core of a real transformer has finite permeability:
❑ The magnetizing current is not negligible.
❑ It is represented by a magnetizing reactance Xm, connected across the
primary voltage source and in parallel with Rc.

28
Rc is the core resistance representing core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)
Xm is the magnetizing reactance representing the finite permeability of the core

29
➢ Not all the flux produced in the primary coil passes through the secondary
coil:
❑ Some of the flux lines leave the iron core and pass through the air
instead.
❑ This flux is the primary leakage flux LP.
➢ The flux in the primary coil of the transformer can be divided into two
components:
❑ Mutual flux which remains in the core and links both windings.
❑ Leakage flux which passes through the primary winding but returns
through the air, bypassing the secondary winding.

30
➢ There is a similar division of flux in the secondary winding between the
mutual flux and leakage flux:
❑ Part of the secondary current generated flux will not link the primary
winding.
❑ This flux is the secondary leakage flux LS.
➢ The flux linking the primary winding is:
I p Lp
 = + = +
P M LP M Np
➢ The flux linking the secondary winding is:
I s Ls
 = + = +
S M LS M Ns

31
➢ These escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary
coils.
➢ The leakage fluxes LP and LS can be replaced by their equivalent
inductances XP and XS, respectively.
Primary leakage Secondary leakage
flux LP Mutual flux M flux LS

jX p Rp I p' Is Rs jX s
Ic Im
Ip
Vp Rc jX m E p Np Ns Es ZL Vs

32
 Primary leakage Secondary leakage
flux LP Mutual flux M flux LS

jX p Rp I p' Is Rs jX s
Ic Im
Ip
Vp Rc jX m E p Np Ns Es ZL Vs

➢ Copper losses → resistive heating

➢ Core losses (eddy current and hysteresis losses)
➢ Finite permeability of the core
➢ Leakage flux losses
33
➢ To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is normally necessary to
convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage level.
➢ An equivalent circuit of a transformer is a graphical representation of a
transformer circuit in which the resistance and leakage reactance are imagined
to be external to the winding.
Ideal
Transformer
jX p Rp I p' Is Rs jX s
Ic Im
Ip
Vp Rc jX m E p Es ZL Vs

34
➢ To simplify the equivalent circuit, the ideal transformer can be removed but the
circuit must be referred to either the primary or secondary side. This
arrangement is termed the exact equivalent circuit.

➢ To further simplify the circuit and the computation, two types of approximate
equivalent circuit can be considered by:
o Moving the excitation branch to the front of the transformer (approximate
equivalent circuit)
o Neglecting the excitation branch entirely (approximate equivalent circuit –
no excitation branch)

➢ As the term implies, both types of approximate equivalent circuit only produce
approximate computation as opposed to the exact equivalent circuit.
35
➢ Recall the equations for an ideal transformer (Slide 25):

1 Vp Vs
Vp = a Vs and I p =  I s =a 2
= a2ZL
a Ip Is
➢ An impedance can be transferred from secondary side to the primary
side by multiplying by the square of the turns ratio
➢ The ideal transformer is removed from the equivalent circuit

36
The transformer model can be referred to its primary voltage level by using the
given conventions:
RS' - Primary equivalent of secondary resistance = a2 RS
To refer to the
XS' - Primary equivalent of secondary reactance = a2 XS primary side, all
secondary side
IS' - Primary equivalent of secondary current = IS /a components
have to be
ZL' - Primary equivalent of secondary impedance = a2 ZL adjusted
accordingly
VS' - Primary equivalent of secondary voltage = a VS

37
 IP RP jXP a2 RS j a2 XS IS/a
+ +

VP RC jXM a VS
a2 ZL

-
-

38
➢ Recall the equations for an ideal transformer (Slide 25):
1
Vs = Vp and I s = a  I p
a

Vs 1  V p  1 '
= 2 = 2 ZL
I s a  I p  a

➢ An impedance can be transferred from primary side to the secondary

side by dividing by the square of the turns ratio.

39
The transformer model can be referred to its secondary voltage level by using the
given conventions:

RP' - Secondary equivalent of primary resistance = RP / a2 To refer to the

secondary side,
XP' - Secondary equivalent of primary reactance = XP / a2 all primary side
components
IP' - Secondary equivalent of primary current = a IP have to be
adjusted
VP' - Secondary equivalent of primary voltage = VP / a accordingly

40
 a IP RP/a2 jXP/a2 RS j XS IS
+ +

VP/a RC/a2 jXM/a2 ZL VS

-
-

41
Given the source voltage, VP = 707.2 0 V:
a) Calculate the impedance Z'L from the primary side and sketch the
circuit with Z'L reflected to the primary side.
b) Calculate the primary current IP.
c) Draw the circuit with VP and RP reflected to the secondary side.
Calculate the secondary current IS.
RP=1000 Ω
10:1

+ +
IS 10 Ω
IP
VP ZL
EP ES
+ j20 Ω
_ _

42
(a) Calculate the impedance Z'L
from the primary side and
sketch the circuit with Z'L
reflected to the primary side.

2
𝑁1
𝑍𝐿′ = 𝑍𝐿 =
𝑁2 RP=1000Ω

+
IP 1000
Z'L
EP
VP + j2000

43
(b) Calculate the primary current IP.

RP=1000Ω
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅𝑃 + 𝑍𝐿′ =
+
VP =707.2 0 V IP 1000
Z'L
VS
j2000

𝑉𝑃
𝐼𝑃 = =
𝑍𝑇

44
 (c) Draw the circuit with VP and RP reflected to the secondary side. Calculate the
secondary current IS.

R’P = 10Ω
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅′𝑃 + 𝑍𝐿 =
+ 10
IS
+

ZL
VS
V’P = 70.72 0 V
+ j20
- -
𝑉′𝑃
𝐼𝑆 = =
𝑍𝑇

45
➢ The excitation branch has a very small current compared to the load
current of the transformers.
➢ In fact, it is so small that under normal circumstances it causes a
completely negligible voltage drop in RP and XP.
➢ The excitation branch is simply moved to the front of the transformer,
and the primary and secondary impedances are left in series with each
other.
➢ Theses impedances are just added, creating the approximate equivalent
circuit.

46
 IP Req P jXeq P
+ IS/a
+

Req P = RP + a2 RS
a VS
VP RC jXM a2Z L
Xeq P = XP + a2 XS

-
-

Referred to primary side

47
 aIP Req S jXeq S
IS
+ +

Req S = RS + RP/a2
VP/a RC/a2 jXM/a2 ZL VS
Xeq S = XS + XP/a2

- -

Referred to secondary side

48
➢ In some applications, the excitation branch may be neglected entirely without
causing serious error.
IP Req P jXeq P
+ IS/a
+

ReqP = RP + a2 RS
VP a2ZL aVS
XeqP = XP + a2 XS

-
-
Referred to primary side
49
 aIP Req S jXeq S
IS

ReqS = RS + RP/a2
VP/a ZL VS
XeqS= XS + XP/a2

Referred to secondary side

50
A 20 kVA, 2400/240 V transformer has the following resistance and
reactance values: Rp=0.8, Xp=3.0, Rs=0.0084 and Xs=0.028.
Calculate the equivalent transformer values:
a) in the primary; and
b) in the secondary.

51
 2400
(a) The primary terms of the transformation ratio, a = = 10
240
Rep = Rp + a2 Rs =
Xep = Xp + a2 Xs =

(b) For the secondary terms:

𝑅𝑝
𝑅𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 + 2 =
𝑎
𝑋𝑝
𝑋𝑒𝑠 = 𝑋𝑠 + 2 =
𝑎

52
➢ Short-circuit test
➢ Open-circuit test (also known as the no-load test)
The purpose of the short-circuit test is to determine:
i. Full-load Copper loss
ii. Parameters of the series elements, Req and Xeq
The purpose of the open-circuit test is to determine:
i. No-load losses
ii. No-load current
iii. Magnetizing branch parameters, Rc and Xm

53
➢ The series impedance of a transformer is calculated from a short circuit
test.
➢ The low voltage side (LV) is short-circuited and the high voltage (HV) is
supplied by a reduced voltage which drives rated current through the
transformer.
➢ The voltage Vsc , current Isc, and power loss Psc are measured.

Isc Psc
A
short
Reduced W circuit
voltage V Vsc A

HV LV
54
➢ The equivalent circuit shows that the series impedance can be
calculated from this data.
Isc Req jXeq Isc sec
➢ The equivalent resistance calculation is:
𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 Vsc
𝐼𝑠𝑐

➢ The equivalent reactance calculation is: HV LV

𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐

2 2
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞 PSC

55
➢ The magnetizing impedance of a transformer is calculated from the open
circuit test.
➢ The high voltage side (HV) is open and the low voltage side (LV) is
supplied by the rated voltage, which drives magnetizing current through
the transformer.
➢ The voltage Voc, current Ioc and iron loss Poc are measured.

Io Po
A

W
open V Rated
circuit
V Vo voltage

HV LV
56
➢ The equivalent circuit shows that the magnetizing impedance can be
calculated from this data.
➢ If the series impedance is negligible, the magnetizing impedance is:
Ioc
2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 Re jXe
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑃𝑜𝑐 Rc jXm Voc

2 2
𝑆𝑜𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜𝑐 + 𝑄𝑜𝑐 HV LV

2 2
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 𝑆𝑜𝑐 − 𝑃𝑜𝑐
Poc Ioc
2
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑋𝑚 =
𝑄𝑜𝑐 Voc
Rc jXm
57
During a quality control test with the primary winding connected to a 120V
and 50Hz source, it is found that the transformer with no load draws an
exciting current of 5A. The iron losses are found to be 180W. Calculate:
(a) the impedance corresponding to the iron losses, Rc.
(b) the reactive power absorbed by the core .
(c) the magnetizing reactance, Xm.
(d) the currents Ic and Im.

58
a) The impedance corresponding to the iron losses is:
2
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑅𝐶 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑐

b) The apparent power supplied to the core is:

𝑆𝑜𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 =

The iron losses 𝑃𝑜𝑐 =

The reactive power absorbed by the core is:
2 2
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 𝑆𝑜𝑐 − 𝑃𝑜𝑐 =

59
c) The magnetizing reactance is:
2
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑋𝑚 = =
𝑄𝑜𝑐

d) The currents Ic and Im are:

𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝐼𝑐 = =
𝑅𝑐

𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝐼𝑚 = =
𝑋𝑚

60
➢ Voltage regulation (VR) of a transformer is defined as the change in
secondary voltage (VS) from no-load to full-load with respect to full load
voltage, keeping the primary voltage constant:
𝑉𝑆𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝑆𝐹𝐿
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑆𝐹𝐿

➢ When the transformer equivalent circuit parameters are referred to the

primary side, the voltage regulation is given by:

𝑉𝑃 − 𝑎𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑎𝑉𝑆

61
➢ When the transformer equivalent circuit parameters are referred to the
secondary side, the voltage regulation is given by:

𝑉𝑃 Τ𝑎 − 𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑆

➢ Usually, it is good practice to have small voltage regulation as possible.

62
➢ The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power
to input power:
Pout
= 100 % ---- (1) OR
Pin

Pout
= 100 % ---- (2)
Pout + Ploss

➢ The output and input power of the transformer are given by:

Pin = Vp I p cos p and Pout = Vs I s cos s

63
Losses in transformer are:
(1) Copper losses in the windings (depend on load current), the
combined copper loss may be determined as:
Pcu = I p2 R p + I s2 Rs = I p2 Reqp = I s2 Reqs

(2) Core losses (Hysterisis and Eddy-current losses, depend on supply

voltage)
(3) Stray losses due to current induced in the transformer structure due
to leakage flux (negligible)
Output power, copper losses and hence efficiency will differ when the
output power is other than the rated power of the transformer.

64
The equivalent circuit referred to the secondary and its parameters of a
5000-kVA 230/13.8-kV single-phase power transformer are shown below.
If the voltage on the secondary side is 13.8 kV and the power supplied is
4000 kW at 0.8 PF lagging:
(a) Find the voltage regulation of the transformer.
(b) Find its efficiency.
RcS = 4240  = Rc/a2
XmS = 936  = Xm/a2
ReqS = 0.38 
XeqS = 1.9 

65
(a) Voltage Regulation
If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is 4000 kW at 0.8 PF
lagging and the secondary voltage is 13.8 kV, the secondary current is:
𝑃LOAD
𝐼𝑆 = =
𝑉𝑆 PF

66
(b) Efficiency

67
Summary of Important Formula
for Chapter 3 Part 1

68
 Equivalent Circuit Equivalent Circuit
Turn Ratio
(Referred to Primary) (Referred to Secondary)

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉 ′ 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑃
= 𝑉 ′𝑃 =
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑠 𝑎
𝐼′𝑠 =
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑠
𝑎 𝐼′𝑃 = 𝑎𝐼𝑃
= 𝑅′ 𝑠 = 𝑎2 𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃 𝑅𝑃
𝑅′ 𝑃 =
𝑋 ′ 𝑠 = 𝑎2 𝑋𝑠 𝑎2
𝑋𝑃
𝑍 ′ 𝐿 = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿 𝑋 ′𝑃 =
𝑎2
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑃 = 𝑅𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑃
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑆 = 𝑅𝑆 +
𝑎2
𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑃 = 𝑋𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑋𝑠
𝑋𝑃
𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑆 = 𝑋𝑆 + 2
𝑎

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 Short Circuit Test Open Circuit Test

𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑐 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑃𝑜
𝑃𝑠𝑐 𝑆𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 2
𝑄𝑚 = 𝑆𝑜 2 − 𝑃𝑜 2
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 2 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞 2 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑋𝑚 =
𝑄𝑚

Voltage Regulation & Efficiency

VSNL − VSFL
VR = 100 %
VSFL
Pout Pout
= 100 % = 100 %
Pin Pout + Ploss

70