Unit 2

Common errors related to prepositions, articles, modals, Conditionals, Determiners and

Punctuation
For common error one should have through mastery of the basic rule of the topic concerned.
Preposition
Preposition refers the relation/situation between nouns. Preposition is a linking word but after a
preposition there always comes either a noun or a pronoun.

On
(1) When one thing is in touching to another.
The book is on the table.
(2) When one thing is hanging from, supported by or connected with to a particular thing.
Stand on one foot,
Pictures stuck on the wall.
A ball is on a sting.
(3) In a particular direction.
He is on my right /on my left.
(4) To show the person or thing affected by an action or someone’s behaviour.
A tax on cigarettes.
The divorce has had a particular bad effect on the children.
(5) On one of the sides of something such as a river or road.
A cafe on the river.
A beautiful village on the Austrian border.
London on the Thames.
(6) At sometime during a particular day or date.
On Friday, on 24th January.
I was born on July 1st.
(7) About a particular subject matter. (Scientific Study)
A book on India/on cats.
But: For subject matter, when we do not deal with scientific study, about is used.
A book about politics
(8) With transport means. = On + Article+ means of transport
Everyone on the plane was frightened.
He managed to be on the first train back to London.
Exception: foot and horseback are used with zero article with preposition “on”
He came on foot.
He went on horseback.
(8.a) “By” is also used with means of transport. = By +zero Article+ means of transport
By train / by plane / by car / by land / sea / air.
(8.b) “In” is also used with means of transport = In + Article+ means of transport
He came in a boat.
Everyone in the plane was frightened.
(9) Used to say what food someone needs to survive.
We can’t live on rice and water forever.
(10) Used to say what money people use to live, the amount of money someone earns.
People on high salaries should pay more tax.
(11) Used to say that someone takes a particular drug or medicine.
She is on Morphine.
(12) Using a radio or telephone. = to show that someone is using the instrument.
I’m on the phone.
But: When we talk about Medium “over” is used
I don’t want to talk about this over the telephone.
(13) During a trip or journey.
I am on the way.
(14) Used to say that someone is a member of a team.
He is on team.
(15) Compare with other person or thing.
This essay is a definite improvement on your last one.
(16) If there is a date/day with morning and evening, on is used not in.
He came on Saturday morning.
I met him on the evening of 26th January.
(17) If early and late are used with day/date, in is used not on.
In the early morning of 31st March.
In the late night/afternoon of 31st March.
(18) If the thing is visible on is used, if it is invisible in is used.
The ball is on the grass. (visible)
The ball is in the grass. Invisible)
(19) On-upon-onto: If one thing is in physicsl touch to other thing on is used, if there is
movement upon is used, if a thing falls from above to a surface, onto is used.
The cat sprang upon the table.
The cat is sitting on the table.
The ball fell onto his head.
Some other expressions:
On the general’s command, all soldiers must salute.
On arrival/on return.
On fire, on business / pleasure / holiday / vacation, on duty / watch / guard, on purpost, on
second thought, on the average.
In
1. Used with the name of a container, place or area to say where someone or something is.
There is some sugar in the cup.
She is in the room.
2. To show a particular condition.
He died in debt / difficulties / danger.
He is in love.
3. To show medium. = In + Zero Article + Medium
He writes in Hindi / in ink / in pencil.
These painting are done in oils.
The statue was cast in bronze.
His name was cut in stone.
But: To show an instrument “with” is used. = With + Article + Instrument.
Write with a pen/pencil/ink (Instrument).
4. Period of time.
In the morning, in January, in 1999, in winter, in the 20th century.
4. a If there is a date/day with morning and evening, on is used not in.
He came on Saturday morning.
I met him on the evening of 26th January
But: to show the point of time at is used
At 6, At 2 PM, At dawn, At noon, At sunrise, At sunset, At midnight.
Exception:
At night – whole night (Period of time)
5. Used with the names of Countries and Town (large cities)
My father is in Boston this week.
Exception: But one could treat the country or town as a point in the map if global distance were
in mind “at” is used.
Our plane refueled at London on its way from New York to Moscow.
6. With Building: Both at and in can be used. The difference here is that at refers to a
building in its institutional or functional aspects, whereas in refers to it as a three-
dimensional structure:
He is at school. (He is attending school) (Studying)
He is in school. (Inside the building)
7. Include as part of something.
She said all this in her speech.
8. Working at a particular Job.
She used to be a doctor, but she is in marketing now.
9. Wearing something.
He looked very handsome in his uniform.
A woman in gold earring.
But: (a) With is used with anything which is carried.
A lady with a black handbag.
A man with an umbrella.
(b) With is used for physical features and peculiarities or diseases.
A man with red hair.
A boy with a limp.
(c) Of is used with permanent qualities of character & age.
A man of violent temper.
A man of fifty- three.
(d) If we talk less permanent quality we use with not of.
A man with common sense.
10. For arranging so as to from a particular shape.
Stood in line, Sit in small groups, Arrange the words in alphabetical order.
11. Used to show a connection between two things.
Milk is very rich in calcium.
We need a further increment in investment.
She never shows any interest in music.
A lecturer in English.
But A professor of English. A teacher of English.
12. Used to show the feelings you have when you do something.
 She looked at me in horror.
13. Idiomatic Expressions.
In tears
He is blind in one eye.
The map is on page 32. (BUT I opened the book at page 32,)

At
(1) Used to show a point in space where someone or something is, or where an event is
happening.
We’ll meet at my house.
A huge queue at the bus stop.
(2) Used to show an exact time – (Clock- time)
The film starts at 8 O’clock.
(3) Used to show a particular period of time during which something happens.
My brother often works at night.
(4) Used to show the person or thing that an action is directed or aimed at.
Protesters threw rotten eggs at the speakers.
He threw a ball at me. (To hit)
Stop shouting at the kids all the time.
(5) To show someone to be Good/bad etc. at (doing/knowledge).
Ananya is a genius at chemistry.
Enakshi is always good at maths.
(6) Used to show a price, rate, level, age, speed.
Old books selling at 10 cents each.
The house was sold at a price of Rs. 2,50,000.
You should have more sense at your age.
The car was going at about 50 mph.
(7) At or in
He was in the street.

He was at the street.

(8) For holding periods.
At Christmas, At Easter, At the Weekend.
(9) Idiomatic Expressions.
At Jack’s (house)
At the doctors / the book / the airport
At a party / club / funeral.
At school/work.
At lunch / dinner / breakfast / table.
At the moment / at a time.
At least / worst / most.
At the very least / worst / most.
At its / her / their best.
At somebody’s invitation/command.
Rahul attended the dinner at the chairman’s command.
And……At that = also or besides (aur vah bhi) (it is used in the last in the sentence)
 He came at night, and at 12 o’clock at that.
It is a new idea, and a good one at that.
At work/play, at will, at best / worst / most / least / first, at a profit/loss, at home / church
/ sea / mass / school.
For
1. Intended to be given to or belong to a particular person.
I have got a present for you.
2. Intended to be used in a particular situation.
We have bought some new chairs for the office.
A name plate for the door.
3. Used to show the purpose of an object, action etc.
A knife for cutting bread.
4. Used to express a length of time /period of time.
Bake the cake for 10 minutes.
5. Used to express distance.
We walked for miles.
6. For destination.
He leaves for London tomorrow.
7. Used to show (a price) or an amount.
A cheque for a hundred pounds.
I bought a book for ten rupees.
8. Representing a meaning or sign of something.
B for Bombay.
What is the word for ‘happy’ in French.
9. For showing “in favour of”.
He is for the Congres-I.
He is for the topic.
10. Idiomatic expression.
For sale / hire / rent.
On sale: to be available to be bought in shop: New novel will go on sale next week.
For Sale: available to be bought: Are those for sale.
For a while / for now / for the moment.
I am for bed/home (going to).
What is for lunch?

To
1. To show a direction towards.
The road to London.
2. To show a direction from a particular person or thing.
China is north of India. 
China is to the north of India. 
China is in the north of India. 
3. From (beginning point) – to/till (last point) / From – to/till.
He sits in his clinic from 8 to 12 in the morning.
He sits in the clinic from 8 to/till 12.
3.a Between (beginning point) – and (last point)
 He sits in his clinic between 8 and 12 in the morning.
3.b From (beginning point) – Through (last point) (it is American use = for more clearity)
From January to/till September. (It is not clear that whole September is included or not)
From January through September. (It is clear that Whole September is included)
4. Used to show the person or thing to which actions or words are directed.
This is a letter to Mohan from Gopal.
5. Used when adding one number to another.
Add fifty to seventy five.
6. Used to show that there is a certain amount of time before an event or before a particular
time.
Only two weeks to Christmas.
Ten to five.
7. Idiomatic expression.
Check to check, face to face, back to back.
I invited him to lunch / what is for lunch.
I told it to his face.
By
1. To show person or thing that does something.
I was attacked by a dog.
2. Show for using a particular thing.
You can reserve the tickets by phone.
3. Means of transport.
By train / by plane / by car / by land / sea / air.
4. Used to show the name of someone who wrote a book, produced a film or composed a
piece of music.
Abhigyan Shakuntalam by Kalidas
5. Not later than a particular time or date.
By 6 O’clock, by Monday, by June 5, 2021.
6. Parts of things or body that someone holds.
He took her by the arm.
7. For oaths: (for making serious promise)
By God, by Father.
8. For divide and multiply.
48 divided by four.
2 multiplied by 2.
9. For giving the measurements of a room, container etc.
A room 15 meters by 23 meters.
10. Idiomatic expression.
By far = by a large amount or degree.
Day by day / bit by bit.
By day / by night (period during which something happens)
By accident / by mistake / by luck.
By yourself, by rights, by degrees, by no means.
By letter, post, hand, cable, telegram.
By chance, design.
With
1. Near someone or something, or in someone’s presence.
I saw Ramesh in town with his brother.
2. Having, possessing or showing a particular thing, quality or feeling.
A book with a green cover.
He is busy with his work.
Jack beamed with pleasure when he heard the news.
3. By means of something or using it.
Eat your maggi with a fork.
4. Used to show the idea of filling, covering or containing something.
Her boosts were covered with dust.
Fill the bowl with sugar.
5. Supporting or linking someone or something.
Some opposition MPs voted with the Government.
6. In the same direction as someone or something.
We sailed with the wind.
7. Used in some expressions to show that one person or thing separates from another.
A complete break with tradition.
Joan doesn’t want to part with the money.
8. With instruments.
He killed the snake with a stick.
9. For the Meaning: Cause
Her face was wet with tears.
10. With a part of physique.
The man with a limb on his back.
The girl with blue eyes.
But: He is blind in one eye.
She is lame in one leg.
From
1. Starting from a particular place, position, condition, time.
Running from one side of the building to the other.
She went from house to house.
From office to office things work differently.
He’ll be here tomorrow from about 7 O’clock onwards.
From the top of hill, you can see for miles.
2. Used to express distance.
We live about five KM from Jaipur.
3. To show the origin of something.
He gets his good looks from his mother.
An infectious disease which he got from another sick dog.
Members are chosen from a list drawn up by the CM.
I got it from cabin.
I bought it from a shop in the market.
4. Sent or given by someone.
I have received a bill for nineteen thousand from hospital.
I had a phone call from John.
5. Someone who comes from a particular place, work or field.
 Students from all faculties will come.
Rohan from the Job center is on phone.
6. For the Meaning: Suffer from
I am suffering from fever.

Over Under
Above Below
(i) Over and under will be used specially for two conditions.
(a) Vertically higher / vertically lower.
(b) Only for short distance.
The fan over my head.
The cat under the table.
(i) Above means ‘simply higher’.
The sky above us. (Over)
(ii) Below means simply lower.
The valley below us.
Over – (Vertically higher & short distance)
1. On something, so that it is covered.
Over the body lay on a thin white sheet.
2. From one side of something to the other side of it.
Some how the sheep had jumped over the fence.
The road over the mountains is steep is dangerous.
3. Down from the edge of something.
The shirt was hanging over the back of the chair.
Apparently the car fell over a cliff.
4. In many part of a particular area, organization etc.
I have travelled over most of Europe.
5. In control or authority of someone.
He ruled over a large kingdom.
6. More than a particular number, amount or level.
Children over 12 are not allowed in the swimming area.
7. Using something such as a telephone or radio. (Medium)
I don’t want to talk about this over the telephone.
8. When something touches another and rises up and touches again.
A bridge over the river.
9. For the Meaning: immediate superior.
He is over me.

Under – (vertically lower & short distance)

1. Directly below something.
Write your name under your picture.
2. Less than a particular number, amount, age or price.
Gifts for under ten dollars are to be bought.
Nursery education for children under five.
3. Be under construction /discussion/attack.
Road is under repair.
 The National Health Service is very much under attack by the Congress Party.
4. For the Meaning: During the reign of.
Tansen lived under Akabar.
Foreign policies under congress.
5. For the Meaning: Subordinate (Position at work)
He works under me.
6. For the Meaning: Under treatment.
He is under Dr. Verma’s treatment.
Above – (simply higher)
1. Higher in rank, power, authority.
A captain is above a lieutenant.
2. More than a particular number, amount, or level.
50 feets above sea level.
3. In a higher position than something.
Our office is above the hairdresser’s.
Raise your arms above your hand.
A saint is above the worldly matters.
4. To a greater degree than someone or something.
The management has always valued hard work above good ideas.
5. Lower or higher in pitch.
We heard a voice above the cry.
Below – (simply lower)
1. In a lower, less important job than someone.
A captain is below a general.
2. Less than a particular number, amount or level.
These families are living below the official poverty line.
3. In a lower place or position than or lower level than.
Please trim my hair just below the ears.
Fish are swimming below the surface of water.
4. Lower in degree.
The temperature is below freezing.
About
1. For subject matter (not for scientific study)
A book about politics.
But For scientific study “on” is used.
A book on India/on cats.
2. In many different directions with in a particular place.
We spent the whole afternoon waiting about town.
Books were scattered about the room.
3. In the nature or character of a person or thing.
There is something really odd about Liza.
What I like about the movie is the dialogue.
4. For asking for news or information about someone or something.
What about Jack?
Between (Generally for Two)
1. In or into the space or time that separates two things or people.
 I sat between Sue and Jane.
Are there any public holidays between Christmas and Easter?
The project will cost between eight and ten million dollars.
They are building a new road between Jaipur and Delhi.

Among (More than Two)

The girl quickly disappeared among the crowd.
Jim relaxed knowing he was among friends.
She was the eldest among them.
For – During – In – Within – At – On (For Time)
1. For is used for a fixed time.
For two hours, For three month.
2. During is used for the whole known period.
During the summer I was in London.
3. In is used to show ‘at the end of the period’.
You should complete your work in a month.
4. Within is used to show ‘before the end of the period’.
You can do it within a week.
5. At is used for exact time (Clock Time).
At 9 O’clock.
6. On is used for days and dates.
On Monday, On 5th June.
Of – From – With
1. If the thing of which something is made is visible “of” is used, it is invisible “from” is
used, and if we talk about ingredients, “with” is used.
The table is made of wood. (Wood is visible)
Wine is made from grapes. (Grapes are not visible)
The cake is made with eggs, sugar etc. (talking about ingredients)
Beside, Besides
1. Beside Means  by the side of.
Sit beside me.
2. Besides Means  in addition to.
Besides my friends, Mohan will also go.
Since – For – From (Time)
(i) Since is used for ‘point of time’/ ‘naming time’.
Since Monday, Since February, Since 1995.
(ii) For is used for ‘period of time’ ‘counting time’.
For two years, for three days.
(iii) From is also used for the beginning time of an action. But it is not used in perfect and
perfect continuous tenses.
From Tuesday, from July, from 1976.
Distinguish between “for the …” and “Since …”
He has been ill since last week.
He has been ill for the last week.
‘for the …’ is a day counting preposition which includes the day on which statement is assert.
‘for the last week’ means last seven days in which today is included.
 He has been ill for seven days included today.
“Since last week” means simply last week.
If the speaker states on Monday, and the week begins on Sunday, He has been ill for 9
days.
I am going to remain busy since next week. (from next week not from today).
I am going to remain busy for the next week. (for seven days including today).
Next week, month etc (without the) is the week, month etc just after this one.
The next week, month etc is the period of seven/thirty/etc days starting at the moment of
speaking.
Next year will be difficult. (= the year starting next January)
The next year will be difficult. (= the twelve months starting now)
Through
1. Used when we enter from one edge and come out from another edge. (generally in
covered sense)
The train passed through turned.
He went through the forest.
The ball went flying through the window.
As the water passes through the filter a log of dirt is taken out.
2. If you see something through grass, a window etc. You are on one side of the glass etc
and it is on the other.
I could see her through the window.
Through the mist I could see the tree.
3. Passing a place where you are supposed to stop.
The driver had gone straight through the traffic lights and hit an ongoing car.
4. Cutting, breaking, or making a hole from one side of something to the other.
The drill pierced through the wood.
5. During and to the end of a period of time.
Sometimes I go to bed at 5 AM and sleep right through the day.

Across
1. Going or looking from one side to another. (not in covered sense)
He went across the road.
We gazed across the valley.
2. On or towards the opposite side of something.
There is a tree across the road.
3. Reaching or spreading from one side of an area to the other.
The only bridge across/over the river.
Slowly a smile spread across her face.
Do you think this shirt is too tight across the shoulders?
4. To show in every part of country, organization, etc.
The TV serial that became popular across the country.
Teachers are expected to teach a range of subjects right across the curriculum.
He swam across the river.
But He waded through the river.
During – Through
1. During indicates the frequency only one time while throw shows many times
 People threw stones at the speaker during his speech. (only one time = beginning or
middle or end).
People threw stones at the speaker right through the speech. (From beginning to end =
many times).
During
1. All through a length of time.
We did not see any student during the holidays.
2. At some point in a period of time.
Henry died during the night.
During – For
1. Always answer to the question that begins with when, with during, but not for.
When did you get those scars? – During the last war.
2. Always answer to the question that begins with How long, with for, but not during.
How long did you stay in ths city of Jaipur? – For two days.
Into
1. For the Meaning: Go inside. When a movement is talked about.
I saw him going into the paper shop.
2. For the Meaning: Involved in something.
At the age of 16, I went into the printing trade.
She puts a lot of time and effort into her work.
3. To show getting different appearance or situation.
You’ll have to eat your vegetables if you want to grow into a big strong boy.
Put the car into reverse.
Cut the cake into pieces.
4. Used when you are dividing one number by another (spoken use).
Eight into twenty four is three.

Up
1. For the Meaning: Towards or in a higher place.
We climbed slowly up the hill.
2. For the Meaning: Towards or at the top of or for end of.
Her office is up those stairs.
They live just up the road. (Further along the road).
After
1. When a particular time or event has happened or is finished.
After the war many soldiers stayed in France.
2. Following someone or something else in a list, series, pieces of writing line of people.
Whose name is after yours on the roll?
The date should be written after address.
3. Used when telling the time to say how many minutes it is after the hour. (American use)
The movie starts at a quarter after seven. = 7:15
The movie starts at a quarter past seven. = 7:15 (British use)
4. To show that the same name is given to someone else, especially an older member of
your family.
Her name is Rekha, after her grandmother.
5. To show the same style as particular painter, musician etc.
 A painting after Turner.
6. Idiomatic expression:
Day after day / year after year / page after page. (the nouns joined by after are in singular
form)
One after another / one after the other.

Along
1. For the Meaning: going side by side.
I went along the road / bridge / river.
She glanced anxiously along the line of faces.
Off
1. For the Meaning: meaning remove, not toughing.
Wipe the dust off the table.
Keep off the glass.
2. Take from someone or something.
Tom borrowed Rs. 500 off his sister.
3. For the Meaning: to get out of bus / train / car.
Both robbers jumped off the train.
4. To show at a particular distance from something.
My house is about 50 yards off main street.
Some more impotant rules
1. With marry, resemble, pity, bag and baggage no preposition is used.
He married __ an American lady.
He resembles __ his father.
I pity __ you.
He had to have Jaipur __ bag and baggage.
2. Reach and make do not receive any preposition, arrive receive “at”, and got receive “to”.
Hea reached __ the station.
He made __ the station.
He arrived at the station.
He got to the station.
3. Senior, Junior, prefer, prior, superior, interior, preferable are followed by “to” and not
“than”.
He is senior to me.
4. Idiomatic expression:
He was sitting in the shade of tree.
He was sitting under a tree.
He was playing __ the guitar.
He was playing a modern tune on the guitar.
He entered __ the room.
He came into the room.
He did not answer __ my question. (answer is verb)
It is no answer to my question. (answer is noun)
He did not reply to my question.
The committee consists of ten members.
 I pity __ her. (pity is verb)
I took pity on her. (pity is noun)
He emphasized/stressed __ the value of discipline. (emphasized/stressed are verb)
He laid emphasis on / put stress on the value of discipline. (emphasized/stressed are
noun)
The police are investigating __ the case.
China invaded / attacked __ India in 1962. (invaded / attacked are verb)
It is a bitter attack on monopoly. (attacked attack is noun)
Useful to sb. = it is useful to me.
Useful for sth. = it is useful for the beg.
Be sad to do sth. = I was very sad to hear that he has died.
Thankful: to do sth = I am thankful to make this journey.
Thankful + For = I am thankgul for a glass of water that she offered me.
Honest: be honest about sth: = At least he has been honest about it.
Be honest with the sb: = She is completely honest with me.
Honest in: = She is honest in all her dealing.
Honest of: = It was very honest of him to give them the money back.

Articles and Determiners

Determiners decide whether the following noun is countable or uncountable, single or

plural and identified or non-identified. The determiner acts as a signal of a noun.

Any Kind of
UN/CSN CSN UN UN/PN PN
Noun
The, My, Our, This, A, An, Each, Much, Little, A lot, A lots Many, Very,
Your, Her, His, That. Every, A little, The of, All Both, Several,
Its, Their, Which, Either, little, A good Enough, Few, A few, The
Whichever, Neither, deal of, A Some, few, Two, Three
Whose, What, No, Another, great deal of. Other, etc., These,
Any. Many a, One. More, Most. Those, A good
When little many, A great
means size, many.
it is used both
in CSN/PN
e.g.
She is a little
girl.
* UN = Uncountable Noun.
CSN = Countable Singular Noun.
PN = Plural Noun.

No Noun No Determiner
A, An and The: These determiners are also called articles. Articles are classified as Indefinite
and Definite.
Indefinite – A, An and Zero (´)
Definite – The
Pronunciation: A (i) /ə/ - Weak form.
(ii) /ei/ - Strong form.
An (i) /ən/ - Weak form.
(ii) /æn/ - Strong form
The place of Articles:
She is a girl. = Article + Noun.
She is a beautiful girl. = Article + Adj. + Noun.
She is a very beautiful girl. = Article + Adv. + Adj. + Noun.

Exception:

So/Too/As/How + Adj. + Article + Noun

Never before have I seen so good a boy.

I am too small a girl.
He is not as good a man as I thought.
How funny a name!

Articles follow the adjectives – many, such, what

Many a year
Such a family
What an awful face!
With the adverbs – quite and rather an article can be used before or after them.
Quite: At quite an early hour. Ö
At a quite early hour. Ö
Rather: It is rather a hard puzzle. Ö
It is a rather hard puzzle. Ö
Use of Indefinite article
1. Indefinite article is used with a singular, countable and non-identified noun.
We drink ´ water.
We eat ´ mangoes.
´ Bread is made from ´ flour.
This is a book.
2. If a noun begins with a vowel sound (not letter) ‘an’ is used and if it begins with a
consonant sound (not letter) ‘a’ is used.
A university An MA
A unique An MLA
A useful An MP
A uniform An SP
A year A superintendent of police
A utensil An LDC
A UDC A lower division clerk
An upper division clerk A ewe (female sheep)
An hour A ewer
An honourable A habitual
 An honest A historian
An heir A historical
A hotel A horrific
A humble A BJP Leader
A herb, An heiress
An heirloom An honorarium
An honorary

3. Hundred, Thousand and Dozen: with singular form these words are used with either
‘A’ or cardinals. With plural form these words are used with neither ‘A’ nor cardinals.
There were ´ two hundred boys. (not hundreds)
There were a hundred boys.
´ Hundreds of people were there. (not hundred)

4. Cricket is the most popular game.

Cricket is a most (very) popular game.

5. With means of transport:

(i) By + Zero Article

He came by ´ car/air/boat.
(ii) On + A/An
He came on a train/car/bus.
(iii) In + A/An
He came in a boat.

Exception: on ´ foot.
on ´ horse back.

6. Name of meals – generally zero article

I had ´ breakfast at 7 am today.
I have taken my ´ lunch.

But: If there is an adjective, the use of indefinite article is a must.

I had a heavy breakfast today.
A late breakfast.
A delicious lunch.
An early lunch.

Exception: When dinner is used for a special meal indefinite article is used without
any adjective.
I invited him to ´ dinner.
I invited him to a dinner (a special meal).
I invited the governor to a dinner.
7. Man and woman: zero article is used for widest possible sense, and for individual sense
indefinite article is used.
´ Man is mortal.
´ Woman is physically weaker than ´ man.
I saw a man crossing the road.
8. Such constructions as go to/go into/lie in are used with zero article.
I am going to ´ bed/college/hospital/school/sleep/town.
Lie in ´ bed.
But: We went past a hospital.
There is a town over the hill.
Lie on a bed.
Make a bed.

10. With the names of professions and occupations indefinite article is used.
My brother is a teacher.
I hope to be a doctor.
Similarly: a hero, a genius, a fool, a thief, a liar.

11. 1½ kilos = one and a half kilos

A kilo and a half.
But: a half-holiday, a half-portion, a half-share.

12. With , , , etc.

a/one third, a/one quarter, etc.

13. Expressions of price, speed and ratio: the indefinite article is used to relate one
measuring unit to another.
70 p a kilo Rs 20 a meter Twice a week
80 kilometers an hour Four times a day Re 1 a dozen.

15. Proper nouns: generally, zero article.

´ Ram is my friend.
But: (a) For unknown person:
I once met a Lucy Jones.
A Mr Verma wants to speak to you.
A Ramesh wants to meet you.
A certain Verma/Ramesh wants to see you.

(b) When we show a lack or need:

India needs a Hitler. (A leader like Hitler).
India lacks a Shakespeare.
India needs a Paris.
 (c) When we talk about works or pictures or posters.
There is a Turner on the wall.
A Shakespeare is on the table.
An Amisha Patel is on the gate.

16. (a) Abstract nouns: generally zero article.

´ Honesty is the best virtue.
But: She is a beauty. (A best example of beauty).
India is a democracy.
He has been a great success/a total failure.

(b) When we talk about particular occasion/person/event.

A general education is perhaps more important than an exact knowledge of some
particular theory.
She had an eagerness for life.
The man had a good education.
A knowledge of English is a must for success in life.
Let us stop and have a rest.
He has a fear of the darkness.

17. Material nouns: generally zero articles.

This chair is made of ´ iron.
But: With articles, meaning changes
This is an electric iron.
He has a smoke after lunch.
He lit a fire.
He is living on an air of innocence.

18. Generic use:

A dog is a faithful animal.
The dog is a faithful animal.
´ Dogs are faithful animals.
The Dogs are faithful animals. (less common)

19. Used before names of days, events in the year etc. to mean a particular one.
I can’t remember a Christmas like this one.

20. Used before the –ing form of a verb when it is used as a noun.
A crashing of gears.

21. Article with uncountable nouns:

It is a good news. ´
It is a piece of good news. Ö
Give me two papers. ´
Give me two sheets of paper. Ö
 I have an urgent work at home. ´
I have an urgent piece of work at home. Ö
Give me a scissors. ´
Give me a pair of scissors. Ö
With uncountable nouns, if indefinite articles are necessary, they are used with a pair of/a
piece of/a sheet of etc.

22. Idiomatic Expressions:

It is ´ child’s play for me.
This is ´ part and parcel of my duty.
He did it in ´ record time.
You should keep him at ´ arm’s length.
He paid ´ lip service to his ideals.
English has taken ´ pride of place in India.
He is running a temperature.
He is suffering from a headache.
Kashmir is in a shambles.
He was in a temper.
Don’t make a noise.
He is in a hurry/in ´ haste.
a good few/ a fair few/ quite a few = a considerable number of.
Write with a pen/pencil/ink (Instrument).
Mark in ´ pen/pencil/ink (Medium).

DEFINITE ARTICLE – THE

Pronunciation:
The: (i) /ði/ weak form before vowels.
(ii) /ðə/ weak form before consonants.
(iii) /ði:/ strong form.
This is the (/ði/) end of the (/ðə/) news.

1. If the noun is identified the is used, whether it is singular or plural, countable or

uncountable.
We eat ´ mangoes.
We eat the mangoes of Banaras.
Noun is identified in the following three ways
2. Anaphoric use of identifying a noun: when you have to go back to understand (if a
noun occurs in repetition).
I saw a woman. The woman was carrying a baby. The baby was crying.

3. Cataphoric use of identifying a noun: when you have to look forward to understand.
The boy in the corner is my student.
The man to arrive in time was Ram.
The car damaged in the accident belonged to Ram.
4. Homophoric use of identifying a noun: a noun is also made identified with context.
Write it on the black board.
Close the door.
Clean the floor.
The room is stuffy.

5. Generic use of the:

The dog is a faithful animal.
The teacher of English faces all sorts of problems in Rajasthan.

6. Cinema, theatre, museum, office, cathedral:

He is going to the cinema.
He is going to the pictures/movies.

But: (i) To be out of office = to be longer in power.

(ii) To be in office = to hold an official position.
(iii) He is at work = working hard.

7. Time, bed, sea:

Time
(i) For watch time ‘the’ is used.
What is the time?
(ii) For different time zero article is used.
What is ´ time, all kinds of corruptions are in air.

Bed
(i) For primary purpose zero article is used with bed.
He goes to ´ bed at ten o’clock.
(ii) For different role the is used with bed.
He walked over the bed.

Sea
(i) go to/be at + zero article + sea = to become a sailor.
He has gone to ´ sea for sailing.
(ii) go to/be at + the + sea = to go at the seaside.
He has gone to the sea.

8. Court, prison, hospital, school, college/university, church.

(i) Zero article is used when these places are used for their primary purposes.
I went to ´ church to pray.
He was taken to ´ prison as a prisoner.
He met with an accident and was taken to ´ hospital.

(ii) Similarly: in bed, at church, in court, in hospital, at school.

He is getting back from ´ school/college/university.
 (iii) When these places are used for other purposes the is used.
I went to the hospital to see my friend.
He goes to the prison to give lectures.
I went to the church to see the stained glass.
9. First, last, only, same, late.
He was the first/last/only man to arrive in time.
This is the same book that I gave you yesterday.
The late Indira Gandhi.

10. Decades:
In the 1960s.

11. (i) If there are two posts (nouns) and two persons, the is used with the both
and verb is used in plural form.
The president of the congress-I and the Prime Minister of India are leaving for
the USA on Monday.
The principal and the headmaster are going to their houses.

(ii) If there are two posts (nouns) and one person, the is used with the only first post
and verb is used in singular.
The president of the congress-I and ´ chairwoman of Nehru Trust is a cunning
lady.
The principal and ´ headmaster is coming to school.
The innocence and ´ purity of his singing comes entirely from his identification
with the character.
The power and ´ wealth of the United States is a natural source of envy.

12. Proper nouns: generally zero article.

´ Himanshi is my daughter.
But: (i) For compassions
Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.
Jaipur is the Paris of Rajasthan.
Jai Prakash was the Gandhi of the 1970s.

(ii) To distinguish between the same two names.

I mean the Jaipur in the USA.
The Sharma who took first place in the RAS exam is my brother.

(iii) With famous persons.

Are you the Mr Johnson. (the famous)
Do you know the Dr A K Jha. (the famous)

13. Name of countries: generally zero article.

I live in ´ India.
But: (i) If we talk plural structure:
The USA – ´ America
 The USSR – ´ Russia
The UK – ´ England
The Netherlands, the Midlands, the Hebridges, the Shetlands, the
Argentine (but not with Argentina), the Ruhr, the Saar, the Ukraine, the
Crimea, the Midwest, the Everglades, the Sudan, the Transvaal, the
Kingdom of Macedon, the Republic of South Africa, the Punjab, the
Yemen, the Strand.

(ii) We can also say:

The India of my youth.
In the England of Queen Elizabeth.
In the Delhi of today.
The Rajasthan under Rajput Kings.

14. Name of cities and towns: generally zero article.

I live in ´ Jaipur.
But: The Hague, The Bronx, The City, The West End, The East End.

15. With the names of roads ‘the’ is optional, but with the names of streets, avenue,
crescent or lane zero article is used.
I bought this watch at a shop in (the) M I Road.
There are many large shops in ´ Oxford Street.
16. Name of meals: generally zero article.
´ Breakfast is at eight O’clock.
But: (i) When the meal is a particular one.
The dinner will be held at the Grand Hotel.

(ii) When the meal refers to the food rather than the occasion.
We enjoyed the breakfast she gave us.
The lunch was not properly cooked.

17. Name of games: generally zero article.

´ Chess is a game that requires great skill.
But: The chess that Vishwanathan plays.

18. Name of subjects – generally zero article.

´ History is a popular subject.
But: For different role.
This is a unique event in the history of India.

19. Relations: generally zero article.

Mother, father, brother, sister, cook.
But: For different role.
The mother in Indira Gandhi.
The father was the tallest in the family.
20. Use the before the names of municipal and Govt. departments, the names of shops,
business-houses, industrial concerns, banks, etc.
The West Minister Bank, The Ministry of Education, The Public Library, The War
Office, The Army Stores, The University of Rajasthan.
But: Use zero article when these names begin with a personal name.
´ Rajasthan Bank, ´ Rajasthan University, ´ Jawahar Lal Nehru University.
Exception: The Albert Hall, The Usher Hall, The Mansion House, The Hay Market,
The Mall (a street).

21. With the adjectives that take the word ‘people’: this use is for only plural.
The rich hate the poor.
The young believe the old.
The intelligent, The dull, The deaf, The dumb, The dead, The wounded.
Exception: ´ white hate ´ black.

22. With the superlative degree of an adjective.

He is the best player.
Cricket is the most popular game.
But: Not with the superlative degree of an adverb.
Well – Better – Best.
Much – More – Most.
He plays ´ best.
He likes it ´ most.

23. With comparative degree:

(i) To show that two things increase or decrease in the same ratio.
The more he studies, the less he understands.
The earlier you detect a problem, the easier it is to cure.
The more militant we became, the less confident she became.

(ii) Comparative degree (head word) + of + noun group (refer things being compared)
The shorter of the two lines.
Enu is the more beautiful of the two.

24. With abstract adjective when it stands without noun.

The writer is telling about the wonderful.
The writer is telling about ´ wonderful things.
The beauteous, The mysterious, The marvellous, etc.

25. With the inhabitants of a country collectively but not with their languages:
The French live in France.
The Russians sent up the first earth satellite.
The inhabitants of France speak ´ French.

26. With the post that is held by one person at a time.

The principal, The headmaster.
 The Prime Minister of India, Man Mohan Singh is a financial expert.
Man Mohan Singh, (the) Prime Minister of India is a financial expert.
´ Prime Minister Man Mohan Singh is a financial expert.
´ President Pratibha Patil, ´ King George-V, ´ Queen Elizabeth-II.
But: The Emperor Julius Caesar.

27. Name of diseases: generally zero article.

I am suffering from ´ fever.
But: The plague, (the) flu, (the) measles, (the) mumps.

28. Home: zero article.

He is at home.
He went home.
But: For some years this was the home of your queen.

29. Normally, ‘the’ is not used before abstract nouns used in a general sense.
The government is trying to reduce ´ poverty.
But: The poverty which exists in the country is appalling.

30. With material nouns ‘the’ is not used.

I am taking ´ milk.
But: The milk of cow makes healthy.

31. With abbreviations – (when pronounced letter-by-letter, the is used).

The BBC, The MP, The AIR.
But: ´ UNESCO – (when pronounced as a word)
´ SAARK

32. Before trades and professions following a proper noun.

Newton, the scientist.
Shakespeare, the author.

33. Names of rivers:

The Thames, The Gangas.
But: When the name of a river forms part of the name of town that stands on it, the is
not used.
Startford – upon – Avon. Kingston – on – Thames.
Delhi – upon – Yamuna.

34. Name of mountains:

The Himalayas, The Alps, The Rockies.
But: Not with mount-tops.
´ Mount Everest, ´ Vesuvius.
´ Mount Abu, ´ Snowdon.
Exception: The Meije, The Matterhorn, The Jungfrau.
35. Name of seas, oceans, bays, canals, deserts.
The Atlantic, The Dead Sea, The Bay of Bangal.
The Panama, The Erie, The Suez, The Sahara.

36. Name of hotels, restaurants, theatres, cinemas, clubs, museums, libraries.

The Grand Hotel, The Savory, The Hilton, The Raj Mandir, The Globe, The Country
Club.
But: ´ Jaipur Place.
37. Name of uniques:
The Sun, The Earth.

38. Name of epics or scriptures:

The Ramayan, The Bible, The Paradise Lost.

39. Name of political parties:

The Congress-I, The BJP.

40. Names of newspapers:

The Indian Express, The New York Times, The Rajasthan Patrika.
But: Not with magazines and periodicals:
´ India Today, ´ Time, ´ New Scientist.
Note: After genitives and possessives the article is dropped.
Today’s ´ New York Times.

41. Musical Instruments:

The Guitar, The Lute.

42. Inventions:
The Watch, (The) Radio, (The) TV, (The) Press.

43. Name of the parts of human body:

On the head.
Catch him by the hand.

44. Name of lakes: zero articles.

´ Lake Windermere, ´ Silver Lake,
´ Pichhola, ´ Sambhar.

45. In of construction:
The district of Jaipur = Jaipur district.
The city of Jaipur.
The University of Rajasthan = Rajasthan University.

46. Name of festivals: zero article.

´ Christmas, ´ Independence Day, ´ Easter, ´ Good Friday, ´ Holi, ´ Dipawali.
But: During the Easter of that year.
 The Holi of the year 2008.

47. Months and days of the week: zero article.

´ January, ´ February, ´ Monday, ´ Tuesday.

48. By + the + measurements.

Eggs are sold by the kilo/by the dozen.
She sits watching TV by the hour.
Earthen oil is sold by the litre.

49. Generally, the is not used in the expression: at/by/on + time.

At dawn/daybreak, at sunrise/sunset, at noon/midnight, at dust/twilight, at/by night, on
Monday.

Some other expressions:

All day, all night, all the morning, all the afternoon, all the evening, all the week, during
the day, in the afternoon, in the dusk, in the night, in the daytime, in the evening, the
benefit of the doubt on earth, on deck, underground, above ground. You are in the
wrong/right, you are wrong/right. He answered in the negation/affirmation.
But: On the Monday after Christmas.
Some other Determiners
Many/Many a:
Many: Plural noun + Plural verb + Plural pronoun.
Many a: Singular noun + Singular verb + Singular pronoun.
Many boys were present there.
Many a boy was present there.

Enough:
(i) Enough + Noun. Ö
Noun + Enough Ö

(ii) Enough + Adjective. ´

Adjective + Enough. Ö
He had enough money to buy a car. Ö
He had money enough to buy a car. Ö
We have enough water. Ö
We have water enough. Ö
He is enough brave to do it. ´
He is brave enough to do it. Ö
He wasn’t clever enough to understand. Ö
Old enough, mature enough, wise enough.

(iii) Exception: the nouns ‘fool’ and ‘man’ are treated as adjective when they are used with
enough.
He is enough fool. ´
He is fool enough. Ö
 He is enough man. ´
He is man enough. Ö

(iv) Enough can be followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with ‘for’ to indicate a
person involved.
A girl in the factory was not good enough for him.
The soft drink is not cold enough for me.

(v) Enough/Sufficient
Enough is used for quantity.
Sufficient is used for degree.
The poor students could not afford to buy enough books for their university course.
I am sure that you have sufficient reason to resign, in view of the treatment you have
received.

Other:
Other will do it. ´
Other man will do it. Ö
Others will do it. Ö

Little/Few: “Little” is used with an uncountable noun while “few” is used with a countable
noun.

Little = (Negative sense: A little = (Positive sense: The little = Not much but all
nothing) some) that there is. (Uncountable)

Few = (Negative sense: A few = (Positive sense: The few = Not many but all
almost none) some) that there are. (Countable)

The little = not much but all that is.

The few = not more but all that are.

I have little money. (Nothing)

I have a little money.
There are few students in the class. (No one)
There are a few students in the class.
I can give you the little money that I have.
The few intelligent students are absent from the class.

Note: There is no fix standard to measure the quantity or number but it concerns to the
speaker’s sense or criterion e.g.
The amount of 500 rupees is considered with different people differently.

For a poor man ® The little.

For a middle class-man ® A little.
For an extremely rich man ® Little.

Little – Less – Least (Uncountable)

Few – Fewer – Fewest (Countable)

For money, distance and time – little is used.

He is a sensible man and so he broke the tie giving a little thought to it.
You seem to have taken little care over your homework and you have made many mistakes, if
you had taken a little care, you would have made fewer mistakes.
There were no fewer than ten students present in the conference.

Several: 3 or more than 3, but not many.

There are several boys in the ground

Each/Every:
(i) Each: = for two and more than two.
Every: = for three or more than three.
Each of the two boys was present there. (not everyone)
The owner's name was painted on each side/on both sides of the van. Ö
The owner's name was painted on every side of the van. ´
(ii) Each was present in his room. Ö
Each boy was present in his room. Ö
Every was present in his room. ´
Every boy was present his room. Ö

Each = Determine/Pronoun.
Every = Only determine.
(iii) Each/Every + Singular Noun + Singular Verb + Singular Pronoun.
Each/Every boy was studying in his book.

(iv) Each/Every + of + P.N. + Singular Verb.

Each of the boys was given an orange.
Each of them has his/her own priorities.
Each of the boys plays games.
Each and every soldier has taken his place.
Every book and magazine was found in its proper place.

(v) Each and Every may be followed by a plural pronoun, especially when they are talking
about both male and female.
Each person must make up their/his/her own mind.
If each member of the party would do their/his her, the party would surely prevail.

(vi) Plural noun/pronoun + Each + Plural verb + Plural noun/pronoun.

The work men each take their lamps from the store.
They have each decided to comply with our request.
My brother and I have each decided to go our separate ways.
 We each have our own priorities.

(vii) In many contexts either word is possible, but there is a difference in meaning.
Each is used for one by one reference while every is used for all at once reference.
Each child looked when the chief guest entered into the hall. (= one by one) ´
Every child looked when the chief guest entered into the hall. (= all children) Ö
Each child was given a medal with his or her name engraved on it.
Every shop was open. (= all the shops)
We went into each shop in turn.

Some/Any = A certain number or amount:

Any is used with negative or interrogative verbs while some is used with affirmative verbs.
Do you have any money on you?
Yes, I have some money.
No, I don’t have any money.
Exception: (i) If there is a request instead of a question in an interrogative
sentence, some is used.
Will you please have some more sweets?
Would you like some wine?

(ii) If the expected reply is yes, some is used.

Do you have some money on you? (reply is expected, yes)
Didn’t I give you some money yesterday? (reply is expected, yes)
Do you have any money on you? (reply may be yes or no)
Did somebody telephone (the) last night – yes.
Did anybody telephone (the) last night – no.

Any:
(i) With negative adverbs any is used.
I have hardly any spare time.

(ii) With ‘without’ any is used when meaning is ‘with no’.

He crossed the frontier without any difficulty.

(iii) After if/whether and in the expression of doubt ‘any’ is used.

If/whether you need any more money, please let me know.
I don’t think there is any petrol in the tank.

(iv) Any is also used in the meaning: practically every/no particular one.
Any book about riding will tell you how to saddle a horse.
Any dictionary will give you the meaning of these words.
English is more difficult to learn than any language in the world. (not any)

None:
(i) None may be followed by either a singular or plural verb.
 None of them was/were present there.

(ii) None always takes the singular when amount or quantity is referred to:
None of the money has been spent.
None of the rubbish has been removed.

All, Both, Half – Pre determiners:

These all mangoes are sweet. ´ All these mangoes are sweet. Ö
My both hands are dirty. ´ Both my hands are dirty. Ö
The half work is over. ´ Half the work is over. Ö

Conditional Sentence

1. Open condition / Factual condition

If you labour you will pass.
If clause – simple present
Main clause – simple future
You will pass if you labour.
Time – Future

Variations

(a) Factual conditions

If you heat butter, it melts / it will melt.
If you mix blue and yellow, you get green / you will get green.
Present simple may be used in both the clauses.
(b) If clause – should + verb
Main clause – imperative / simple future
should happen telephone the police
If anything should + verb , imperative .
should happen shall telephone
If anything should + verb , I simple future the police.
If may be replaced by should.
Should anything happen, telephone the police.
Should anything happen, I shall telephone police.
(c) If clause – simple present
Main clause – imperative
If you need money, send me a wire.
(d) Positive condition – Imperative + and + simple future (result)
Say it again and I shall beat you.
If you say it again, I shall beat you.
And – compound sentence
If – complex sentence
(e) Negative condition – Imperative + or + simple future (result)
Do you homework or your teacher will punish you.
 If you do not do your homework your teacher will punish you.

2. Remote possibility / hypothetical condition / imaginary condition / unseal past

If you labored you would pass.
You would pass if you labored.
If clause – simple past
Main clause – future in the past simple or would / should / might + V1
Time – future (result has not come)
If wishes were horses, beggars might ride.
Note: There is no one-to-one relationship between tense and time. Here the tense is past but time
is future.

Variations

(a) If I were a bird, I could fly.

(a)i Were I a bird I could fly.
(b) If he were to come, we should go for a picnic.
If clause – were + to + verb
Main clause – Should / would / could / might + V1
(b)i Were he to come, we should go for a picnic.

3. Rejected condition / impossible condition

If you had labored you would have passed.
You would have passed if you had labored.
If clause – past perfect.
Main clause – Future in the past perfect or would / should / could / might + have + V3
Time – past
If you had not explained, I would not have understood it.
Variation

Had you labored, you would have passed.

But for your help, it would not have been possible for me to complete this work.
If you had not helped me, it would not have been possible for me to complete this work.

But for – without

Father sends me money every month. But for that I would not be here in Jaipur.
 Modal Auxiliary
Auxiliary = helping verb
Modal = mood

The helping verb which tells about the attitude / mood of the writer / speaker is a modal auxiliary
verb.
He is playing chess = we see only action.
He can play chess = we see attitude or ability of his.

To decrease the number of words in the sentence or to say effectively we generally use a modal
verb.
It is possible that he will come tomorrow.
He may come tomorrow.
Do you allow me to come in, sir?
May I come in, sir?
Modal verbs have no ‘-s’ in the third person singular.
After modal auxiliary verbs, we use the infinitive without ‘to’ of other verbs. ‘Ought’ is an
exception.
Modal verbs do not have infinitives or participles [to-may, maying, mayed do not exist), and they
do not normally have past forms (though would, could, should and might can sometimes be
used as past tenses of will, can, shall and may).
Form of Modal

Every modal has its four tense like forms.

1. Simple form – Modal + V1
With the simple form of a model generally we can tell the present or future time. No
modal tells past time with its simple form (Could and would are exception; they can tell past
tense with their simple form)
He can play chess.
2. Continuous form – Modal + be + V1 + ing
With continuous form of the modal, we talk about the present time.
He must be waiting for me.
He may be hiding somewhere in Jaipur.
3. Perfect form – Modal + have + V3
With the perfect form of a modal, we talk only past time.
He may have missed the bus.
4. Perfect Continuous Form – Modal + Have + Been + V1 + ing
It may have been snowing hard in Shimla.  (So, here it is cold. It is implied)
The police may have been harassing him.  (So, he died. It is implied)
He may have been beating her.  (So, she divorced. It is implied)

With the perfect continuous form of a modal, we talk a time span from past to present. (Spoken
moment) The focus is always on the result of the action in present time.
Use “ought to” in the following sentence
He was not careful enough.
He ought to be more careful. 
He ought to have been more careful. Ö
The given sentence is in Past Tense, Modal will be in perfect form.
Use “can” in the following sentence
He was able to lift 100 Kg in his youth.
He can lift 100 Kg in his youth. 
He could lift 100 Kg in his youth. 
He can have lifted 100 Kg in his youth. Ö
Note: After the modal verbs could, might, ought, should, would and needn’t, we often use
perfect infinitives to refer to unreal situations.
Did you see him fall? He could have killed himself. = He did not kill himself.
You should have written - 1 was getting worried. = The person did not write.
I would have gone to university if my parents had had more money. = The speaker did not go to
university.)
She needn't have sent me flowers. = She did send flowers.
 Use Modals / Modal Auxiliary
Can
1. Ability
He can read Latin.
2. Capability
He can move this table.
3. Possibility
It can be true.
4. Request (Informal)
Can you tell me time?
5. To give and seek information
Can I come in?
Yes, you can.
Can + be + noun/Adjective.
Children can be a nuisance.
He can be witty.
= What one is occasionally capable of being/doing. (Sense of wonder/puzzlement)
Could
1. Capability in past
He could run fast when he was young.
2. Ability in past
She could read German at the age of 6.
3. Possibility in the past
It could be true.
4. Could you help in moving the table? Request (informal)

May
1. Possibility
He may come today.
(a) Possibility  Factual possibility
The road may be blocked. Result  so you can take other way.
(b) Possibility  Theoretical Possibility
The road can be blocked.  (Perhaps/maybe)
He may not come today. = It is possible that he will not come today.
2. To seek and give permission
May I come in, Sir?
Yes, you may.
(a) May I come in, Sir?  Formal 
Can I come in, Sir?  Informal. 
(b) Yes you can.
Yes you may. 
No, you may not (Modal negate)
 3. Wonder
How old may she be?
4. wish / curse
May God bless you.
May God curse you
5. Purpose
He works hard so that he may pass the exam.
Might
Note: Might does not normally have a past meaning. It is used in the same way as may to talk
about the present and future. The difference is that might usually refers to situations which are
less probable or less definite.
1. Remote Possibility
He might come today.
2. Guess
The question might be asked in the exam.
It might be the postman.
3. Purpose
He worked hard so that he might pass the exam.
4. Request with hesitation
You might do me a favor.
Might I use your scooter?
(a) He could help me.
= (i) He was in 1 position to help me.
= (ii) He could help me (if I asked)
(b) He could have helps me.
= He was in a position to help me but he did not.
(a) He is a rash drive. He may have met with an accident.
(b) He is a careful drive. He might have met with an accident.

He might have missed the bus.

= There was a possibility of his missing the bus but he didn’t.
We can say: He may have missed the bus.
He might have gone for lunch/tea.
= There was a possibility of his going to lunch but he didn’t.
We can say: He may have gone for lunch.
The car so nearly hit me, I might have been killed.
= There was a possibility of to be killed but it didn’t happen.

Must
1. Compulsion/Necessity/obligation.
Student must get 60 marks for a first.
Strong obligation: must, will, need
Students must register in the first week of term.
All staff will arrive for work by 8.00 a.m.
Need I get a visa for Hungary?
 2. Deduction (saying that something is logical or normal) /logical inference/strong
possibility.
He must be about forty.
3. Certainty
He does not have clothes to wear, let alone a house to live in. He must be
extremely poor.
He always takes a first. He must be intelligent.
4. Positive deduction (guess) in the past.
He must have reached Delhi by now.
Note: For Negative deduction in the past must is not used. We use can/could
He cannot/could have done it on his own.
5. Prohibition
Student must not smoke in the class.
Note: for absence of necessity ‘need not’ is used
You need not to go there.
Shall / Will.
Note:
1. The of ‘will’ with 1st person pronoun and the use of ‘shall’ with 2 nd and 3rd person
pronoun indicates definiteness, intention.
2. This is known as Colored Future
3. Generally contractive forms are not used for Colored Future
I will go to the cinema. (Future + Determination)
I will dismiss you. (Future + threat)
I will see him tomorrow. (Future + Promise)
He shall go there. (Future + command)
You shall get a bike. (Future + promise)
They shall not enter the room. (Negative commend)
Some other usages of shall
1. To know somebody’s desire (should is also used)
Shall I/we/he/she/they hire a sick show for you?
This is used only in an interrogative sentence and only with 1 st and 3rd person
pronoun/noun
2. Offer of help.
Shall I carry the box for you?
Some other usages of will
1. Request
Will you please close the door?

2. Inevitability
Boys will be boys.
Accidents will happen.
Should
1. To seek/give advice.
Which book should I read in this topic?
You should read Hornby’s A Guide to patterns and usage in English.
2. Duty / Desirability
 You should help the poor.
3. Something desirable has not happened.
You should have consulted the doctor.
4. Something undesirable has happened.
You should not have behaved like that.
Ought to
1. Moral obligation.
We ought to respect our elders.
= Now a days ‘ought to’ and ‘should’ are interchangeable.
Should and ought to are both also used to talk about logical probability.
I've bought three loaves - that should / ought to be enough.
That should / ought to be Janet coming upstairs now.
Must is stronger than should/ought
Must has similar meanings to should and ought, but is stronger or more definite.
It expresses great confidence that something will happen, or that something is
true; should and ought express less confidence. Compare: -
The doctor said I must give up smoking: (an order which is likely to be obeyed)
You really ought to give up smoking. (a piece of advice which may or may not be
followed)
Rob must be at home by now. (= I'm sure he is at home.)
Rob should be at home by now. (= I think he is probably at home.)
Examples of compulsion
1. I must do it – internal compulsion.
2. I have to do it – external compulsion.
3. I ought to do it – moral compulsion.
4. I should do it – duty (desirable)
5. I am to do it – Arrangement.

Would
1. Polite request.
Would you close the door?
Would you mind closing the door?
2. Insistence.
She would not listen to her doctor.
3. Past habit (Exception could and would)
He would sit in the Ram Niwas Bag for hours together.
‘Used to’ can be substitute
He used to sit in the Ram Niwas Bag for hours together.

Punctuation
1. Full stop (.)
(i) Sentence division
Full stops (AmE periods), question marks and exclamation marks (AmE exclamation
points) are used to close sentences. After one of these, a new sentence has a capital letter.
 I looked out of the window. It was snowing again.
Why do we try to reach the stars? What is it all for?
They have no right to be in our country! They must leave at once!
(ii) Abbreviations and acronyms
A full stop is often used at the end of the abbreviation if it takes the form of the first few
letters of the word, e.g., Prof. (Professor), but is not necessary if it takes the form of the first
and last letter of the word, e.g., Dr (Doctor). However, some people prefer to write, e.g., Mr.,
Mrs., with a full stop. Again, whatever you choose to do, you should be consistent
throughout your correspondence.
We usually write abbreviations without full stops in modem British English. Full stops (AmE
‘periods') are normal in American English. Mr (AmE M. r.) kg (AmE kg.)
(iii) Indirect questions We do not use question marks after indirect questions
I asked her what time it was.
2. Colon (:)
(i) Explanations
A colon (:) usually introduces an explanation or further details.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
There was a problem with the car: it was losing oil.
(ii) Lists
A colon can introduce a List.
The main points are as follows: (1) (2) (3) ... .
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
(iii) Subdivisions
A colon can introduce a subdivision of a subject in a tide or heading.
Punctuation: colon
(iv) Letters
Americans usually put a colon after the opening salutation (Dear. . .) in a business
letter. Dear Mr. Callan: I am writing to ...
British usage prefers a comma or no punctuation mark at all in this case.
3. Semi-colon (;)
(i) Instead of full stops
Semi-colons (;) are sometimes used instead of full stops, in cases where sentences are
grammatically independent but the meaning is closely connected. Semi-colons are not
nearly as common as full stops or commas.
Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings. It is a fine
idea; let us hope that it is going to work.
(ii) In lists
Semi-colons can also be used to separate items in a list, particularly when these are
grammatically complex.
You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscription is paid regularly;
that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you undertake to
make good any damage; ...

4. Comma (,)
Commas (,) generally reflect pauses in speech.
(i) Co-ordinate clauses
 Clauses connected with and, but or or are usually separated by commas unless they
are very short. Compare: -
]ane decided to try the home-made steak pie, and Andrew ordered Dover sole with
boiled potatoes.
Jane had pie and Andrew had fish.
(ii) Subordinate clauses
When subordinate clauses begin sentences, they are often followed by commas.
Compare: If you are ever in London, come and see me.
Come and see me if you are ever in London.
Commas are not used before that-clauses.
It is quite natural that you should want to meet your father.
(iii) Unusual word order
If words or expressions are put in unusual places or interrupt the normal progression
of a sentence, we usually separate them off by commas.
My father, however, did not agree.
Jane had, surprisingly, paid for everything.
We were, believe it or not, in love with each other.
(iv) Adjectives
(a) After ‘be’ and other 'link verbs commas are always used between adjectives.
The cowboy was tall, dark and handsome.
(b) Before a noun, we generally use commas between adjectives which give similar kinds of
information.
This is an expensive, ill-planned, wasteful project.
(c) Commas are sometimes dropped between short adjectives.
A tall (,) dark (,) handsome cowboy.
(d) Commas cannot be dropped when adjectives or other modifiers refer to different parts of
something.
A green, red and gold carpet.
Concrete, glass and plastic buildings
(e) Commas are not normally used before a noun when adjectives give different kinds of
information.
Have you met our handsome new financial director?
(v) Lists
We can use commas to separate items in a series or list. A comma is not usually used
with and between the last two items unless these are long. Compare:
I went to Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Germany.
I spent yesterday playing cricket, listening to jazz records, and talking about the
meaning of life.
(vi) Direct speech
A comma is generally used between a reporting expression and a piece of direct
speech.
He said, ‘There's no way we can help her.'
5. Dash (-)
(i) Dashes (-) are especially common in informal writing. They can be used in the same
way as colons, semi-colons or brackets.
There are three things I can never remember - names, faces, and I've forgotten the other.
 We had a great time in Greece - the kids really loved it.
(ii) A dash can introduce an afterthought, or something unexpected and surprising.
We’ll be arriving on Monday morning - at least, I think so.
6. Quotation marks (‘….’)
Quotation marks can be single (‘...') or double (“ .."). They are also called ‘inverted
commas’ in British English.
(i) Direct speech
We use quotation marks (single or double) when we quote direct speech. For
quotations inside quotations, we use double quotation marks inside single (or single
inside double).
‘His last words,’ said Albert, ‘were "Close that bloody window”.’
(ii) Special use of words
We often put quotation marks (usually single) round words which are used in special
ways - for example when we talk about them, when we use them as titles, or when we
give them special meanings.
People disagree about how to use the word ‘disinterested’.
7. Apostrophe (’)
We use apostrophes (’) for three main reasons.
(i) Missing letters/ contracted forms
Apostrophes replace letters in contracted forms
can’t (= cannot) I’d (= I would/had)
(ii) Possessives
We use apostrophes before or after possessive.
the girl's father
Charles's wife
my parents' house
(iii) Special plurals
Words which do not usually have plurals sometimes have an apostrophe when a
plural form is written.
It is a nice idea, but there are a lot of if's.
(iv) Apostrophes are used in the plurals of letters, and sometimes of numbers and
abbreviations.
There are two o’s in the word book..
It was in the early J360's. (More usually: ... 1960s.)
I know two M P’s personally. (More usually: .., MPs.)
8. Capitalization:
Capitalize the first word/letter of a sentence.
Capitalize names and other proper nouns.
Capitalize the first word in inverted commas.
Capitalize days, months, and holidays.
Capitalize Content words in titles.

Proof-reading and Editing of Documents

Vigorous and accurate writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words . . .
for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no
unnecessary parts. Proof-reading and editing are the styles to make the writing accurate and
immaculate with special attention to the most conscious and contemplated use of language.
Stylistics is not a stylish word, but it is well connected. Proof-reading is but to use the best words
in the best order to convey the explicit meaning. When proper words prevail, ambiguity flees
away so endevour a lot to achieve immaculateness. To gain accuracy, one should very nicely
know the proof-reading art and reexamines it with a true critic’s skill.
To be successful in the business world, you must be able to turn out business messages and
presentations that are concise, clear, and vigorous. One has to follow certain techniques to
achieve those qualities. These techniques are part of the third phase of the writing process, which
centers on revising/editing and proofreading. Editing means improving the content and sentence
structure of your message. It may include adding, cutting, and recasting what you’ve written.
Proofreading involves correcting the grammar, spelling, punctuation, format, and mechanics of
your message.
Rarely is the first or even the second version of a message satisfactory. Experts say that only
amateurs expect writing perfection on the first try. The revision stage is your chance to make
sure your message is clear, forceful, and says what you mean. This is where your message gets
hammered out, where the real work takes place as you struggle to clarify your thoughts.
Objectives of Proof-reading and Editing of Documents
Following are the areas that one should especially pay attention to when one proofread?

1. Understand the third phase of the writing process: revision.

2. You need to take a step back from your work and become an editor, which involves a
shift in emphasis so that you can read through your work critically and make it as good as
it possibly can be.
3. Read your work aloud so you can hear what it sounds like and come to it afresh. You can
even ask a friend to read it to you if it helps.
4. Leave as much time between the writing and the editing as you can to help you get
distance from your work and come to it as a reader would.
5. When you’re ready and have waited as long as you can, read the whole story through in
one sitting, if possible, or two or three long ones, jotting notes to yourself as you go.
6. Revise messages to achieve concise wording by eliminating wordy prepositional phrases,
long lead-ins, outdated expressions, and needless adverbs.
7. Revise messages to eliminate fillers, repetitious words, and redundancies.
8. Revise messages to use jargon sparingly and avoid slang and clichés.
9. Revise messages to include precise verbs, concrete nouns, and vivid adjectives.
10. Don’t be afraid to throw away large sections if they don’t fit in – you can always file
these away for future stories. In particular, cut any redundant scenes and repetitions. Most
writing is rewriting.
11. Weed out any glaring clichés and sentences that don’t make sense. Look out for
continuity errors and fix them. Spell-check your work and punctuate properly!
12. Use effective techniques for proofreading routine and complex documents.
13. Format your manuscript according to usual publishing conventions – double-spaced, with
wide margins and paragraphs indented.
 Editing Process of Documents
1. Concise wording
In business, time is indeed money. Translated into writing, this means that concise messages
save reading time and, thus, money. In addition, messages that are written directly and efficiently
are easier to read and comprehend. In the revision process look for shorter ways to say what you
mean. Examine every sentence that you write. Could the thought be conveyed in fewer words?
Notice how the following flabby expressions could be said more concisely

Flabby Concise
at a later date late
at this point in time now
in addition to the above also
in spite of the fact that even though
in view of the fact that because

2. Wordy Prepositional Phrases

Some wordy prepositional phrases may be replaced by single adverbs. For example, ‘In the
normal course of events’ becomes ‘normally’ and ‘as a general rule’ becomes ‘generally’.
Wordy: We have taken this action in very few cases.
Concise: We have seldom taken this action.
Wordy: We have taken this action in very few cases.
Concise: We have seldom taken this action.
3. Long Lead-Ins
Delete unnecessary introductory words. The meat of the sentence often follows the words that or
because. Avoid long lead-ins that delay the reader from reaching the meaning of the sentence.
Wordy: This e-mail message is being sent to all of you to let you know that new parking permits
will be issued on January 1.
Concise: New parking permits will be issued on January 1.
Wordy: I am writing this letter because Dr. Steven Hunt suggested that your organization was
hiring trainees.
Concise: Dr. Steven Hunt suggested that your organization was hiring trainees.
4. Outdated Expressions
The world of business has changed greatly in the past century or two. Yet, some business writers
continue to use antiquated phrases and expressions left over from the past. They are trapped by
the notion that these familiar phrases are necessary to sound “businesslike.” Forget that idea!
Replace outdated expressions such as those shown here with more modern phrasing:
Outdated Expressions Modern Phrasing
pursuant to your request at your request
thanking you in advance thank you
under separate cover separately

5. Needless Adverbs
Eliminating adverbs such as very, definitely, quite, completely, extremely, really, actually,
somewhat, and rather streamlines your writing. Omitting these intensifiers generally makes you
sound more credible and businesslike. Writers who wish to sound sincere and conversational
often include some intensifiers, but they guard against excessive use.
Wordy: We actually did not really give his proposal a very fair trial.
Concise: We did not give his proposal a fair trial
6. Fillers
Avoid the monotony of unintentionally repeated words. Avoid fillers that fatten sentences with
excess words.
Wordy: I am very happy to inform you that the report on student involvement in academic
decision-making that was completed for your research department is being sent to you along with
this letter of mine.
Concise: Enclosed please find the report on student involvement in academic decision-making,
completed for your research department.
7. Redundant Words
Repetition of words to achieve emphasis or effective transition is an important writing
technique. The needless repetition, however, of words whose meanings are clearly implied by
other words is a writing fault called redundancy. For example, in the expression final outcome,
the word final is redundant and should be omitted, since outcome implies finality. Learn to avoid
redundant expressions such as the following where the coloured items are redundant.
red in color, cubic in shape, new innovation, in the month of December, in the year 2023,
grateful thanks, adequate enough, mutual cooperation, necessary prerequisite, basic
fundamentals, advance warning, repeat again.
8. Jargon
Except in certain specialized contexts, you should avoid jargon and unnecessary technical terms.
Jargon is special terminology that is peculiar to a particular activity or profession should be
reserved for individuals who understand it. For example, geologists speak knowingly of
exfoliation, calcareous ooze, and siliceous particles. Engineers are familiar with phrases such as
infrared processing flags, output latches, and movable symbology. Telecommunication experts
use such words and phrases as protocols, clickstream, neural networks, and asynchronous
transmission. Every field has its own special vocabulary. Using that vocabulary within the field
is acceptable and even necessary for accurate, efficient communication. Don’t use specialized
terms, however, if you have reason to believe that your reader may misunderstand them.
9. Slang
Slang sounds fashionable, but it lacks precise meaning and should be avoided in business
writing. Slang is composed of informal words with arbitrary and extravagantly changed
meanings. Slang words quickly go out of fashion because they are no longer appealing when
everyone begins to understand them. Consider the following statement of a government official
who had been asked why his department was dropping a proposal to lease offshore oil lands:
“The Administration has an awful lot of other things in the pipeline, and this has more wiggle
room so they just moved it down the totem pole.” He added, however, that the proposal might be
offered again since “there is no pulling back because of hot-potato factors.”
The meaning here, if the speaker really intended to impart any, is considerably obscured by the
use of slang. Good communicators, of course, aim at clarity and avoid unintelligible slang. If you
want to sound professional, avoid expressions such as snarky, lousy, blowing the budget,
bombed, and getting burned. Good communicators aim at clarity and avoid unintelligible slang.
10. Clichés
 Clichés are expressions that have become exhausted by overuse. Clichés are dull and sometimes
ambiguous. These expressions lack not only freshness but also clarity. Some have no meaning
for people who are new to our culture. The following partial list contains clichés you should
avoid in business writing.
below the belt, better than new, beyond a shadow of a doubt, easier said than done, exception to
the rule, fill the bill, first and foremost, good to go, shoot from the hip, stand your ground, think
outside the box.
11. Concrete Nouns and specific words
Concrete nouns and specific words help readers visualize the meanings of word. Abstract nouns
name concepts that are difficult to visualize, such as automation, programming. Concrete nouns
name objects that are more easily identified such as desk, car, and laptop.
General a person called.
Concrete James Grover, the senior marketing manager, called.
General we received numerous inquiries.
Concrete we received 78 inquiries.
12. Buried Verbs
Buried verbs are those that are needlessly converted to wordy noun expressions. Converting
verbs into wordy noun expressions weakens business writing. In the following sentences, see
how you can make your writing more concise and more powerful by avoiding wordy verb/noun
conversions:

13. Tactful writing

During editing stage, one should have a clear view about correct attitude, correct tone along with
the correct language.
Correct Attitude: attitude in a technical writing refers to the reflection of the opinion of the
writer on the reader. To establish goodwill and a long-term relationship with the reader, avoid a
poor and negative language.
Tactless Version We will not be able to process your order because your business terms are too
vague and are unacceptable to us.
Tactful Version Please send us your specific and clear business term so that we can process
your order.
Correct Tone: tone in a technical writing refers to the manner or mood of expression. It helps
establish the relationship that the writer wishes to establish with the reader. The tone should be
formal, tactful, personal, and positive. A tactless or negative tone can lead to misunderstanding,
resulting in negative response from the reader.
Tactless Version Your project is so complex and your demand of satisfaction are so ambitious
that it cannot be completed on stated time-span so we need more time to complete the project
report.
Tactless Version To complete the project report to the best of your satisfaction, please give us
an extension of 3 days.

Understanding the process of proofreading

Once you have the message in its final form, it’s time to proofread. Don’t proofread earlier
because you may waste time checking items that eventually are changed or omitted.
What to Watch for in Proofreading
Careful proofreaders check for problems in these areas:
1. Spelling. Now’s the time to consult the dictionary. Is recommend spelled with one or two
options? Do you mean affect or effect? Use your computer spell checker, but don’t rely
on it totally.
2. Grammar. Locate sentence subjects; do their verbs agree with them? Do pronouns agree
with their antecedents? Review the principles in the Grammar/ Mechanics Handbook if
necessary. Use your computer’s grammar checker, but don’t let it replace careful manual
proofreading.
3. Punctuation. Make sure that introductory clauses are followed by commas. In compound
sentences put commas before coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, nor). Double-check
your use of semicolons, colons, direct question with sign of interrogation, indirect
question with full stop. verify consistency for quotation marks and spelling.
4. Names and numbers. Compare all names and numbers with their sources because
inaccuracies are not immediately visible. Especially verify the spelling of the names of
individuals receiving the message. Most of us are offended when someone misspells our
name.
5. Format. Be sure that letters, printed memos, and reports are balanced on the page.
Compare their parts and format with those of set standards. If you indent paragraphs, be
certain that all are indented.

How to Proofread Routine Documents

Most routine messages, including e-mails, require a light proofreading. Use the down arrow to
reveal one line at a time, thus focusing your attention at the bottom of the screen. Read carefully
for faults such as omitted or doubled words. Be sure to use your spell checker. For routine
messages such as printed letters or memos, a safer proofreading method is reading from a printed
copy. You’re more likely to find errors and to observe the tone.
“Things really look different on paper,” observed veteran writer Louise Lague at People
magazine. “Don’t just pull a letter out of the printer and stick it in an envelope. Read every
sentence again. You’ll catch bad line endings, strange page breaks, and weird spacing. You can
also get a totally different feeling about what you’ve said when you see it in print. Sometimes
you can say something with a smile on your face; but if you put the same thing in print, it won’t
work.” Use standard proofreading marks, to indicate changes.

How to Proofread Complex Documents

Long, complex, or important documents demand more careful proofreading using the following
techniques:
1. Print a copy, preferably double-spaced, and set it aside for at least a day. You’ll be more
alert after a breather.
2. Allow adequate time to proofread carefully. A common excuse for sloppy proofreading is
lack of time.
3. Be prepared to find errors. One student confessed, “I can find other people’s errors, but I
can’t seem to locate my own.” Psychologically, we don’t expect to find errors, and we
don’t want to find them. You can overcome this obstacle by anticipating errors and
congratulating, not criticizing, yourself each time you find one.
4. Read the message at least twice—once for word meanings and once for grammar/
mechanics. For very long documents (book chapters and long articles or reports), read a
third time to verify consistency in formatting.
5. Reduce your reading speed. Concentrate on individual words rather than ideas.
6. For documents that must be perfect, have someone read the message aloud. The reader
should spell names and difficult words, note capitalization, and read punctuation.
7. Use standard proofreading marks to indicate changes.
8. For both routine and complex documents, it’s best to proofread from a printed copy, not
on a computer screen.

Your computer word processing program may include a style or grammar checker. These
programs generally analyze aspects of your writing style, including readability level and use of
passive voice, trite expressions, split infinitives, and wordy expressions. To do so, they use
sophisticated algorithms (step-by-step procedures) to identify significant errors. In addition to
finding spelling and typographical errors, grammar checkers can find subject–verb lack of
agreement, word misuse, spacing irregularities, punctuation problems, and many other faults.
However, they won’t find everything. While grammar and spell checkers can help you a great
deal, you are the final proofreader.

Most proofreaders use following standard marks to indicate revisions