Sport, Education and Society

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Curriculum for mountaineering, climbing and

winter sports instructors in Spain. A critical
approach according to key stakeholders

Joana Sans-Osanz & Eduard Inglés Yuba

To cite this article: Joana Sans-Osanz & Eduard Inglés Yuba (10 May 2023): Curriculum for
mountaineering, climbing and winter sports instructors in Spain. A critical approach according
to key stakeholders, Sport, Education and Society, DOI: 10.1080/13573322.2023.2209102

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Published online: 10 May 2023.

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SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2023.2209102

Curriculum for mountaineering, climbing and winter sports

instructors in Spain. A critical approach according to key
stakeholders
a,b a,b
Joana Sans-Osanz and Eduard Inglés Yuba
a
National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain; bGrup
d’Investigació Social i Educativa de l’Activitat Física i l’Esport (SGR01189), Barcelona, Spain

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Outdoor physical activities and sports are growing in popularity: number of Received 20 October 2022
practitioners and professionals are increasing and number of active sport Accepted 26 April 2023
tourism businesses has multiplied. All these activities have become
KEYWORDS
officialised, have grown into an emerging industry and play a powerful Outdoor sports; active sport
role as an economic driver. Qualified instructors are needed, as well as tourism; curriculum;
quality training for these professionals. This study focuses on climbing, qualification; climbing;
mountaineering and winter sports instructor qualifications. Drawing on mountaineering; winter
Bernstein’s framework of the pedagogic device and with a particular sports; stakeholders;
focus on marketisation of education and professionalisation of sport, the qualitative
purpose of this research is to explore the following questions: (a) How do
stakeholders perceive the current mountaineering, climbing and winter
sports curriculum and what are the main lines of improvement of the
curriculum? (b) Does the curriculum meet the knowledge required by
instructors in their occupations? And (c) What is the logic and awareness
underlying the construction of the curriculum? Following a social-
constructivist paradigm, in-depth semi-structured interviews and focus
groups were carried out, with a sample of 46 key involved stakeholders.
The data coding approach and theme development were done both
inductively and deductively and with a latent and semantic focus,
following thematic analysis. Participants specify clear lines of
improvement of qualifications: stakeholders involved in curricular
updating, the general structure of qualifications, admission tests,
assessment, internships, model of the teacher and also highlighted some
training gaps to be resolved due to qualifications breakdown. It is noted
that curriculum updating follows a ‘top-down’ policy demand, that there
is a marketisation of the qualifications that is evident in admission tests,
assessment and internships. This study provides a critical and in-depth
analysis based on the views of a variety of stakeholders that should be
taken into consideration for the improvement of the curriculum of
climbing, mountaineering and winter sports instructors.

Introduction
Background for the study
Vast natural spaces offer a great variety of opportunities for outdoor experiences (Langenbach &
Tuppen, 2017; Liu et al., 2022; Mulero & Rivera, 2018). Outdoor physical activities and sports

CONTACT Eduard Inglés Yuba eduard.ingles@gencat.cat National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC),
University of Barcelona (UB), Avda. Estadi, Av. de l’Estadi 12-22, Anella Olímpica, E-08038, Barcelona, Spain; Grup d’Investigació
Social i Educativa de l’Activitat Física i l’Esport (SGR01189), Barcelona, Spain
© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

(henceforth, OPAS) are growing in popularity. Individuals like enjoying their time in nature engaging
in OPAS (Gürer & Caymaz, 2019) and the number of practitioners (Institut National de la Jeunesse et
de l’Éducation Populaire, 2021; Izenstark & Middaugh, 2022; Kong & Sun, 2022; Langenbach &
Tuppen, 2017; López et al., 2018) and professionals (Thorpe & Dumont, 2019) are increasing. As
an example of the aforementioned growth, the number of active sport tourism (henceforth, AST)
businesses has multiplied in the last 20 years in Spain (ANETA, 2020; Bonnet et al., 2019; Carrasco-
Jiménez, 2020; Mediavilla et al., 2014; Mediavilla & Gómez, 2016; Mulero & Rivera, 2018; Nasarre,
2008, 2016; Secretaría de Estado de Turismo, 2018). Some of the most popular activities on offer
are hiking (17.5%), canyoning and rappel (7.5%) and mountaineering (6.6%) (ANETA, 2020).
All these activities have become officialised (European Observatoire of Sport Employment
[EOSM], 2004; Thorpe & Dumont, 2019), have grown into an emerging industry and play a power-
ful role as an economic driver (Cánovas, 2017; Kong & Sun, 2022). In recent decades, Spain has
witnessed an institutionalisation of sport and market hegemony in the sports system. Materialistic
values have spread, affecting sport, which is nowadays perceived as a means of gaining prestige,
personal enrichment and of consumerism (Moscoso et al., 2014). Neither education (Cerrón, 2010;
García, 2010; Hirtt, 2010) nor OPAS have been left out of these processes. As a result of the
increase in the number of practitioners and businesses and marketisation of the sector, and the
relevant economic role they play, the sector has become increasingly professionalised and the
quality of the activities on offer is highly related to the instructors who run them (Mediavilla,
2014). There is an increasing need for trainers, instructors and guides for these activities
(Thorpe & Dumont, 2019); instructors who can operate in a hyperdynamic environment with
different groups (Mees & Collins, 2022), as well as a need for quality training and education
system for these professionals.

Understanding the context: Spanish outdoor sports instructor qualifications

This study focuses on climbing, mountaineering and winter sports instructor qualifications. Tra-
ditionally, Spanish guides were experts backed by their experience (Nasarre, 2016) and sometimes
working on a voluntary basis. Outdoor sports instructor qualifications were the responsibility of
sports federations (Estrada, 2017; López, 2013; Madrera et al., 2015). In 2000, these curriculums
were published in Spain for the first time so, from the late twentieth century onwards, these qualifi-
cations became a public service assumed by the State and integrated into the formal education
system. The number of students obtaining Spanish outdoor sports qualifications has been on an
upward trend in recent years (Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte, 2020). The Autonomous Communities
(henceforth, AACC) have the powers to develop some aspects of their curriculum under State law
(Sans & Inglés, 2019; Sans & Inglés, 2020).

Overview of qualifications structure, roles and remits of instructors

This section details the structure of the qualifications, as well as the roles and remits of each level of
instructor, in order to clarify aspects that will later help to understand the results, as the structure of
similar qualifications can be significantly different from one country to another. Abbreviations to be
used henceforth are compiled in Table 1; the qualifications structure is compiled in Figures 1 and 2
and detailed below.
There are three specialities in winter sports instructor qualifications (Figure 2): alpine skiing,
nordic skiing and snowboarding, each with three levels.
The remit of 1st level instructors is to carry out the basic teaching of the speciality but they must
always work under the supervision of a higher-level instructor.
The 2nd level instructor can work unsupervised and their main task is to programme and carry out
the teaching and improvement of the athlete’s technical and tactical execution, as well as to oversee
the basic training of athletes and teams.
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 3

Table 1. Abbreviations.
Climbing & Mountaineering
1st level instructor Hiking HikeInstr
2nd level Instructor Canyoning CanyonInstr
Climbing ClimbInstr
Mountain Leader MountLeader
Superior instructor Climbing ClimbSupInstr
Mountain Guide MountGuide
Winter
1st level instructor Alpine AlpInstr1
Nordic NordicInstr1
Snowboarding SnowInstr1
2nd level Instructor Alpine AlpInstr2
Nordic NordicInstr2
Snowboarding SnowInstr2
Superior instructor Alpine AlpSupInstr
Nordic NordicSupInstr
Snowboarding SnowSupInstr

The duties of 3rd level instructors are to programme and direct the training of alpine skiing ath-
letes and teams, to direct their participation in medium and high-level competitions, as well as to
direct winter sports schools.
The structure of climbing and mountaineering qualifications is very different (Figure 1).
A compulsory hiking instructor course must be taken by all students in order for them to be able
to follow other specialities. This course qualifies instructors to guide users on marked trails in natural
areas, in leisure and environmental education activities and to collaborate in the control of safety in
adventure parks in trees or on artificial structures.
A qualified HikeInstr can take one of the three 2nd level specialities: MountLeader, ClimbInstr or
CanyonInstr. The main duties of MountLeaders are summer mountaineering and guiding in snowy
Nordic terrain, training for beginners and advanced mountaineering sports practitioners as well as
safety control in adventure parks in trees or on artificial structures. Only a Spanish MountLeader
trained in schools accredited by the Spanish Association of Mountain Guides (AEGM) can directly
obtain the UIMLA1 credential. The CanyonInstr’s tasks consist of designing itineraries and leading
users through canyons, summer mountains and equipped via ferratas. The main roles of ClimbInstrs
are indoor and outdoor climbing trainers, climbing guides on equipped, semi-equipped routes and

Figure 1. Climbing and mountaineering qualifications structure.

4 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

Figure 2. Winter sports qualifications structure.

via ferratas, summer mountain guides, climbing school managers and safety control in adventure
parks in trees or on artificial structures.
A ClimbInstr graduate can then access the ClimbSupInstr course, whose main contents consist of
programming performance-oriented climbing training, managing the participation of climbers in
high-level climbing competitions, organising competitions and equipping high-difficulty climbing
routes. Only a person qualified as a HikeInstr, MountLeader and ClimbInstr can access the Mount-
Guide course, whose responsibilities include designing and organising itineraries and guiding
people through high mountain conditions, snow and ice ascents, ice climbing and ski mountaineer-
ing. A Spanish MountGuide does not automatically obtain the IFMGA2 credential; an extended
specialisation is required.

Theoretical framework
Bernstein (1975, 1990, 2000) provided the main theoretical framework for the analysis of how knowl-
edge is constructed in the curricula of mountaineering, climbing and winter sports qualifications in
Spain. Bernstein’s structuralist theory of curriculum and pedagogy was part of a larger project, which
made an influential contribution to the critical study of knowledge and the transmission of that
knowledge (Sadovnik, 1995).
Bernstein explained how the ‘pedagogical discourse’ (defined as a principle of transmission, delo-
calisation and relocation of knowledge, values, etc. among educational settings) is made up of two
other discourses: the ‘instructional discourse’ and the ‘regulative discourse’. The former encom-
passes diverse skills and the relationships between them. Knowledge that is considered appropriate
to be transmitted to learners is selected and concretised in official curricular documents, as well as in
the training centres and educational settings themselves. No ‘instructional discourse’ exists that is
not regulated by the second discourse defined by Bernstein: the ‘regulative discourse’. The ‘regula-
tive discourse’ is a discourse of social order; a moral discourse that creates order, relationships and
identity. It sets the boundaries between what is possible and what is not possible in terms of tea-
chers’ and learners’ knowledge and identities. How a society selects, classifies, transmits and evalu-
ates knowledge reflects the social distribution of power (Bernstein, 1975). ‘Regulative discourse’ is
currently based on the ideology and discourses of the market that underpin the political and man-
agerial priorities of institutions. These ideological elements embedded in the ‘regulative discourse’
are made up of neoliberal policy discourse, economic incentives, market dynamics and the logic of
supply and demand (Kårhus, 2012). Market trends and logics (‘regulative discourse’) work to con-
struct the local ‘instructional discourse’. Thus, the pedagogical discourse that constitutes outdoor
sports instructor qualifications will be affected by competition and market trends. It may happen,
for example, that epistemological perspectives on knowledge development are subordinated to
strategic moves in the market to attract students (Kårhus, 2012).
Furthermore, the analysis has been constructed with a particular focus on marketisation of edu-
cation (Cerrón, 2010; Kårhus, 2012) and sport professionalisation (Dowling et al., 2014; Hall et al.,
2019; Kjær, 2019; Taylor & Garratt, 2010). Taking the relationship between qualifications and
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 5

occupation as a starting point (Kjær, 2019), the occupational professionalisation of sport is defined as
a process by which sport occupations are transformed from a volunteer-driven phenomenon to an
increasingly entrepreneurial phenomenon (Dowling et al., 2014). In the specific case of Spain, the
professional activities of sports instructors and guides have evolved from being based on their
own experience and volunteering to become integrated into the formal education system, although
the most recent literature details that sport professions in Spain are still in the process of professio-
nalisation (Espartero, 2020; Madrera et al., 2015).
In light of the foregoing, the purpose of this research is to explore the following questions: (a)
How do stakeholders perceive the current mountaineering, climbing and winter sports curriculum
and what are the main lines of improvement of the curriculum? (b) Does the curriculum meet the
knowledge required by instructors in their occupations? And (c) What is the logic and awareness
underlying the construction of the curriculum?

Materials and methods

Philosophical underpinning
This research follows a social-constructivist paradigm, as it adopts a relativist ontology, a constructi-
vist epistemology and an ‘insider’ subjectivity. Reality cannot exist independently and proprieties of
‘objects’ are always changing. Knowledge is co-produced in the interaction between researcher and
researched, at the same time as the researcher constructs the reality, which cannot be free from bias.
Knower and known are interdependent and have a reciprocal relationship (Alvesson & Sköldberg,
2000; Landi, 2023; Smith & Sparkes, 2017).
Although the criteria for judging qualitative research form an ongoing debate (Braun et al., 2017;
Smith & McGannon, 2018), a relativist approach in terms of conceptualising validity was adopted in
this research. Criteria for judging quality are not drawn from a ‘universal list’ that guides all qualitat-
ive research (Smith & McGannon, 2018). In order to enhance the quality, the following criteria were
included: trustworthiness of the topic; a reflexivity statement; an appropriate sample for the purpose
of the research; generation of data that can lead to important statements; and use of participants’
reflections on our interpretations or analytical constructs (for open up discussion about plausibility
and appropriateness of results). In addition, ‘critical friends’ have been used to approach rigour, fol-
lowing the recommendations of Smith and McGannon (2018), generating a process of critical dialo-
gue between people who listen and offer critical feedback to researchers, to encourage reflection
and exploration of interpretations and alternatives in relation to data and writing. Although there
is relatively little variability in the collective reading of the data, the researchers do acknowledge
that results are interpretations of the conceptualisations voiced by the participants.
The lead researcher acknowledges her subjectivity and examines her positionality (Gaudreault
et al., 2023). For this reason, although researcher bias is accepted as part of the process, a reflexivity
statement has been added. The lead author has a degree in Sports Science (which has professional
competences that may overlap with those set out in the curriculum for mountaineering, climbing
and winter sports instructors), and is a certified mountain leader. Although she is not currently prac-
tising the profession, this may affect the inquiry process. The researcher is not a well-known person
in the field of outdoor sports, does not know the participants and has not worked professionally with
them. This positionality inevitably influences and shapes interpretation and analysis.

Participants
A criterion-based purposive sampling strategy, maximum variation and snowball or chain sampling
were used (Sparkes & Smith, 2014; Suri, 2011). The first sampling strategy ensured the selection of
participants who shared certain inclusion criteria – key stakeholders involved in the field at a
Spanish level: mountaineering, climbing and/or winter sports instructors; AST companies, teachers
6 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

and academic coordinators; sport federation employees or representatives; professional associ-

ations; trade unions; individuals involved in curriculum design and development, and representa-
tives of the National Sports Council. To recruit a sample, letters were sent to training institutions,
professional associations, active tourism businesses, federations and public sport organisations,
and calls for participants were also disseminated on social media. Recruitment lasted until a
diverse sample was considered in terms of the type of stakeholder, years of experience, sport prac-
tised, training institutions and region of Spain represented. Study participants are summarised in
Table 2. There were 46 participants: 23.9% Women, 76.1% Men and 0% Non-binary, and were 23–
62 years old (M = 44; SD = 9.4). The skewed distribution of gender in this sample may illustrate the
general pattern of gender participation in outdoor sports. As examples: only 33% of regular
British climbers (Association of British Climbing Walls, 2019), 22.6% of Spanish canyoners (Martínez
Cerón et al., 2022) and 14.6% of members of Spanish climbing gyms (Sitko & López, 2019) are
women. In the studies cited above, there is no data on participation of non-binary people or
other gender identities.

Instrument
In-depth semi-structured interviews and focus groups were used for data collection (Sparkes &
Smith, 2014).
Interviews are appropriate when investigating specific topics that cannot be obtained through
quantitative methods (Fontana & Frey, 2005). In semi-structured interviews, researchers have pre-
determined queries but flexibility to deviate from these pre-established questions allows the oppor-
tunity for interviewees to share and explain in-depth personal experience without constraint and
allows interviewer to build a deeper understanding of the issue under discussion (Horton et al.,
2004; Sparkes & Smith, 2014). In this research, stakeholders such as representatives of the National
Sports Council, sports federations, professional associations (e.g. AEGM) and trade unions have been
interviewed one by one.
Focus groups bring together a small group of people who share a relationship with a topic (Gau-
dreault et al., 2023), and are recommended when exploring social perspectives (Braun et al., 2017). In
the case of the present research, focus groups brought together stakeholders who occupy different
places and roles within the subject matter (e.g. ski instructors, snowboard instructors, training school
academic coordinators and teachers) in a way that encouraged open dialogue between each other
and debate among the participants.
A schematic interview guide, which only acted as a support for the researcher and was not shown
to the participants was designed based on a literature review and background research. It was also
related to national institutional policy and curriculum documents, and then validated by the
thorough evaluation of three independent experts. The interview guide underwent some changes
due to some themes that emerged from the interviews and focus groups. In each case, peer deb-
riefing was conducted with the group of experts in order to decide if themes were sufficiently
aligned with the purpose of the study and research questions to incorporate them into the guide.
Research protocol received a positive evaluation by an ethics committee.

Procedure
Prior to the interview or focus group, participants were sent a written informed consent stating the
purpose and procedure of the research, as well as its voluntary nature and the anonymous confiden-
tiality of data analysis. A pseudonym was assigned to each participant to ensure confidentiality and
anonymity (Kaiser, 2009). Participants were allowed to ask questions to the research team. Per-
mission to record the conversation was requested (Gaudreault et al., 2023) for further transcription
and data analysis. Participants were informed of their right to stop or withdraw from the research.
The lead author conducted the interviews and focus groups between October 2021 and May
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 7

Table 2. Participants.
Pseudonym Age Gender Occupation Sport
Martí 62 Man Professor, National Sport Council official NR/DK
Josep 54 Man Teacher, National Sport Council official NR/DK
Jordi 37 Man Mountain guide, Mountain leader, TD & TDS Climbing & mountaineering
Teacher
Fran 53 Man Climbing guide, Mountain guide, TD Teacher, Climbing&mountaineering
Trade union leader
Julià 45 Man Mountain guide, Canyoning guide, Ski Canyoning, Nordic Skiing
instructor, TD Teacher
Juli 55 Man Mountain guide, TD Teacher Climbing & mountaineering
Arnau 40 Man Mountain guide, TD & TDS Teacher Climbing & mountaineering
Om 55 Man Mountain guide, Ski instructor, TD & TDS Alpine skiing, Cross-country skiing, Back-
Teacher country skiing, Climbing & mountaineering
Xavier 41 Man Climbing guide, sports federation employee, Climbing & mountaineering
TD & TDS Teacher
David 39 Man Climbing guide Climbing & mountaineering
Mariano 48 Man Climbing guide Climbing & mountaineering
Saüc 40 Man Climbing guide, ski patrol lifeguard Climbing & mountaineering, Alpine skiing
Llum 51 Woman Climbing guide, Mountain leader, Snowboard Climbing mountaineering; Snowboarding
instructor
Edgar 44 Man Active tourism businessman, Canyoning guide, Canyoning, Mountaineering
TD Teacher
Jesús 44 Man Mountain guide, Canyoning guide, TD & TDS Canyoning, Mountaineering
Teacher, professional association
Anna 37 Woman Climbing guide, Canyoning guide, TD Teacher Canyoning, Climbing & mountaineering
Julio 31 Man Canyoning guide Canyoning, Mountaineering
Jordina 33 Woman Canyoning guide, Teacher Canyoning, Mountaineering
Pep 48 Man Mountain guide, Canyoning guide, TD & TDS Alpine skiing, Canyoning, Climbing &
Teacher mountaineering
Kilian 53 Man Canyoning guide, TD Teacher Canyoning, Mountaineering
Ausiàs 55 Man Mountain guide, Mountain Leader, Climbing Alpine skiing, Canyoning, Climbing &
guide, Canyoning guide, TD & TDS Teacher, mountaineering
Academic coordinator
Ramón 46 Man Mountain guide, TD Teacher, Academic Climbing & mountaineering
coordinator
Òscar 44 Man Mountain guide, Canyoning guide, TD & TDS Canyoning & mountaineering
Teacher
Júlia 36 Woman Mountain leader Mountaineering
Annelie 30 Woman Mountain leader, Canyoning guide Canyoning, Mountaineering
Maria 48 Woman Mountain leader Mountaineering
Amadeu 58 Man Mountain leader Mountaineering
Armengol 23 Man Mountain leader, Climbing guide, TD Teacher Climbing & mountaineering
Nit 29 Woman Ski instructor Alpine skiing
Olga 56 Woman Academic manager Winter sports
Pau 33 Man Ski instructor, TD & TDS Teacher Alpine skiing
Guiu 40 Man Snowboard instructor, TD & TDS Teacher, Snowboarding
University teacher
Santi 54 Man University teacher, TD & TDS Teacher Alpine skiing
Joan 29 Man Ski instructor Alpine skiing
Ingrid 53 Woman Ski instructor, sports federation employee, TD Alpine skiing
& TDS Teacher
Marc 55 Man Mountain guide, Ski instructor, TD Teacher Alpine skiing, Cross-country skiing, Climbing &
mountaineering
Kai 24 Man Ski instructor Alpine skiing
Joshua 48 Man TD & TDS Teacher Alpine skiing, Canyoning, Climbing &
mountaineering
Nacho 42 Man Mountain guide, Canyoning guide, TD Teacher Canyoning, Climbing &mountaineering
Sergi 48 Man Mountain guide, Climbing guide, Canyoning Canyoning, Climbing&mountaineering, Alpine
guide, Ski instructor, TD Teacher skiing
Oriol 36 Man TD Teacher Alpine skiing, Back-country skiing, Climbing &
mountaineering
Mel 46 Woman Climbing guide, TD & TDS Teacher Climbing & mountaineering
Raül 44 Man Mountain guide, Canyoning guide, TD Teacher Canyoning, Mountaineering

(Continued )
8 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

Table 2. Continued.
Pseudonym Age Gender Occupation Sport
Eduard 46 Man Mountain guide, TD Teacher, Academic Climbing & mountaineering
coordinator
Virgínia 41 Woman Sports federation employee, Academic NR/DK
manager
Pere 48 Man Ski instructor, TD & TDS Teacher Alpine skiing

2022. Interviews and focus groups consisted of different parts: demographic characteristics; an initial
ice breaker question; a main part and final component; and the participants were asked if they had
anything else they would like to say, or if they had any questions. The researcher did not always ask
the same questions, neither in exactly the same order, nor with the same non-verbal expressions or
emotional tone, nor in repeated contexts and social situations (Smith & McGannon, 2018). Curiosity-
based follow-up questions were used to obtain richer data (Sparkes & Smith, 2014). The researcher
acted as a facilitator in the focus groups (Gaudreault et al., 2023). The recordings lasted (min:sec) an
average of 60:51, with a standard deviation of 12:03 and a range of 53:31 (minimum 43:50 to
maximum 97:21). All interviews and focus groups were digitally recorded verbatim, and transcribed
with Express Scribe (10.17). They were analysed using ATLAS.ti software (22.0.2) (Silver & Lewins,
2014) and stored on a secure computer at the authors’ institution.

Data analysis
The data coding approach and theme development were done both inductively and deductively
and with a latent and semantic focus, following ‘big Q’ Thematic Analysis (TA). By identifying pat-
terns in a dataset and offering a method for interpreting the meaning of those patterns or themes,
TA emerges as an excellent tool not only for providing analyses of people’s experiences in relation
to an issue but also for identifying patterns in people’s views and perspectives on a topic (Braun
et al., 2017).
The data analysis process, carried out by the research team with the support of ‘critical friends’
(Smith & McGannon, 2018), followed stages based on Braun et al. (2017) and Sparkes and Smith
(2014), giving enough time to every phase and giving it a light ‘once-over’: (1) immersion or fam-
iliarisation, giving equal attention to each data item. One researcher transcribed and then checked
the accuracy of transcriptions with another researcher. The research team then read transcriptions
multiple times in order to become familiarised with the data; (2) inclusive and comprehensive data
coding, discussing initial readings and potential initial codes; (3) searching for and identifying
themes, checking against each other and back to the dataset; (4) constant reviewing of themes
and theme development, team meetings to discuss similar codes for grouping into higher-order
themes, peer debriefing with the group of experts if necessary as highlighted previously; (5)
defining, refining and naming themes: the first author drew a thematic map later contrasted
with the other researcher; (6) analysing data, trying to match analytical statements and data
extracts; and (7) writing a research report providing a balance between analytical narrative and
extracts.
This inquiry process was conducted in Spanish and later the article is written in English. It is rel-
evant to note that the structure and content of certain languages can affect research, both in terms
of data collection and analysis (Charmaz, 2014).

Results and discussion

An overview of the themes covered in this section is detailed below. First, the process of curriculum
updating will be explored, as well as stakeholders involved. Then, more curricular and pedagogical
aspects will be presented such as qualification structure and professional profile, admission tests,
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 9

training gaps, qualifications breakdown and pedagogical coherence, assessment, internships and
requirements in teachers’ qualifications.
Italics in quotations mean words or phrases stressed by the participants.

Stakeholders involved in curricular updating

At the time of the study, the climbing and mountaineering curriculum had been updated (2019)
while winter sports curriculums had not been updated since 2000. The fact that the curriculums
had not been updated earlier was negatively assessed: ‘It is unacceptable that it takes 20 years to
change a curriculum … 5–10 years would be reasonable’ (Martí).
The process of curriculum development and curricular updating is generally defined by partici-
pants as ‘unilateral’, ‘hermetic’ and ‘not very transparent’. In the case of climbing and mountaineer-
ing, the opinion exists, especially among instructors and federations, that the update has taken too
long and creates problems: ‘The new curriculum was written between 2013 and 2015. It’s been kept
in a drawer and was published in 2019. It improves the situation of the previous 2000 curriculum, but
for us it’s already outdated’ (Virgínia). Jordi also reported: ‘This update has been done very badly
because it does not respond to the needs of mountain guides’.
In the case of winter sports, the instructors and training schools interviewed were not aware that
work was being done on an update, given that one person from the federation does so on behalf of
the National Sport Council.
There is no consensus among different authors on whether sports instructor qualifications have
been consolidated (Estrada, 2017) or not (López, 2013) in Spain. Sport has sufficient importance in
Spanish society today to merit an academic organisation comparable to other disciplines
(Madrera et al., 2015). The state educational administration should demand greater curricular inno-
vation (Madrera et al., 2015), in line with the results of the present study, which also confirms the
need for more frequent curriculum updating and broader participation of stakeholders, as discussed
below. It is necessary to seek medium-term strategic plans for the improvement of curricular models
and curriculum designs for instructors. Madrera et al. (2015) assign this responsibility to the National
Sport Council.
In winter sports, curricular updating is carried out by one single person from the Federation. Par-
ticipants pointed out that there was then a risk that, instead of focusing on the needs of the students
as potential learners and future trainers, the curriculum design might focus on the interests of the
Federation. They proposed consulting training institutions and considering the diversity of every
AACC before publishing the updated curriculum.
In climbing and mountaineering sports, other actors than the Federation have been taken into
account according to the National Sports Council: ‘Participation has been much more diverse
[than in winter sports]. The Federation and educational administrations [only the AACC of
Aragón] and professional associations [referring to the AEGM] have participated. I think there
were, at some point, up to 10 experts’ (Martí).
This contrasted with other opinions:
I know how it works in Catalonia. The Federation was asked to review the curriculum that was being developed
and it was reviewed by whoever the Federation wanted. I proposed that they had to be instructors, teachers …
and, in the end, it was given to business people (…). (David)

Same in Madrid. A round table of experts was set up with different stakeholders. Possibly not in the right pro-
portions. In fact, there were more business interests than from instructors. There was also representation from
the AEGM, which is supposed to represent all of us, but often only fights for the interests of a small group,
namely mountain guides. (Xavier)

The fact that only a few stakeholders are taken into account can lead to the representation of
certain interests. Listening to employers, for example, can lead to realigning the curriculum to the
dynamics of the market (García, 2010). Also, the last quotation relates to the ‘competency-based
10 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

approach’ in curriculum development, which emphasises the need to train students so that compa-
nies can have an adaptable workforce in an unforeseeable economic environment (Hirtt, 2010).
Public authorities in Spain play a very active role and do not need to negotiate to a large extent
with other stakeholders. Also, this ‘configuration’ shows a limited capacity to adapt to the evolution
of contemporary sport because the system is based on a rigid set of rules. This is due to the inertia of
the system, which feeds the diverging interests of the different groups that form it (EOSM, 2004). In
contrast with the results in this article, it was agreed that other stakeholders should be consulted, in
particular teachers, academic coordinators and instructors. Jordi stated: ‘It has been done behind the
backs of the professional sector. It does not solve the problems we have. We [instructors] have not
been consulted’.
And Nacho (ski instructor) commented:
I don’t like the change that has taken place either. Because we training institutions, which have a vision of both
the professional profile and the evolution of the students, have not been taken into account, and the focus has
been more on the multiple skills of the instructor that companies need.

It seems that curriculum development and updating follows a ‘top-down’ policy demand (Kårhus,
2012), requiring schools to comply with the curriculum, but without consulting or involving them
in the process. The previous quote comments on curriculum updating based on the interests of
the market and OPAS companies; this relates to Bernstein’s ‘regulative discourse’ concept, in
which it appears to be more important to consider consumer choices in the market than notions
of form and content of educational practice, as pointed out by Kårhus (2012) in curricula for physical
education teachers.

Qualifications structure and professional profile; occupations in the process of

professionalisation
The present study shows that the qualifications structure and the professional profile established in
new mountaineering and climbing curricula are clearer than the previous ones, in line with Madrera
et al. (2015) who suggested that, with a good clarification of concepts, the future system of matching
training and professional skills will be clearer and more attuned to the labour market. The new cur-
riculum takes into account competencies that were not covered by the old curriculum, such as:
guiding in non-winter conditions, adventure parks and via ferratas (for CanyonInstr and ClimbInstr),
controlling safety in adventure parks (for CanyonInstr, ClimbInstr, MountLeader) and organising trek-
king trips (for MountLeader). These generate opposing opinions in the sector: (1) previously qualified
guides who stand to benefit directly from the change; and (2) a training deficit (via ferrata and adven-
ture parks) for those who trained before the curriculum update. Jordina said: ‘Canyoning instructors
now have the professional competency for via ferrata that we didn’t have before. We haven’t done it
in any course. People who trained before the change of curriculum don’t have that training’.
Professional profiles have been redefined, leading to changes and differences in the legitimacy
and status of previously qualified and newly qualified instructors. As new professional profiles
take shape, existing and previously qualified professionals are left in an undefined limbo, as has
been the case in other sports coaching contexts (Taylor & Garratt, 2010).
The training pathway to become a MountGuide and IFMGA guide is considered too long in Spain,
much more than it was with the previous curriculum. Of all the specialities under study, none of them
are regulated professions in Spain despite being occupations characterised by specialised training
and skills, code of ethics, complexity and professional relationship with clients; characteristics associ-
ated with occupational professionalisation (Dowling et al., 2014). Even so, mountain guides are inter-
nationally recognised and represent the highest level of qualification according to international
standards. The same is true for mountain leader and UIMLA accreditation. In relation to this,
gaining specific credentials is another common characteristic associated with occupational profes-
sionalisation (Dowling et al., 2014; Taylor & Garratt, 2010). The new curriculum makes it more
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 11

difficult to obtain the IFMGA credential, as it introduces an extended specialisation, which is required
in addition to the mountain guide qualification.
Participants highlight the need for the creation of a higher qualification for canyoning instructors
and mountain leaders, which does not exist in Spain:
Julio: A higher level of canyoning instructor is needed, as in other specialities. The canyoning competition is
starting to grow, the figure of the canyoning coach should grow, and more professional skills will be needed.

From a new competitive practice that is beginning to emerge in Spain, participants support the
need for new knowledge and professional skills that will translate into the figure of the canyoning
coach, an occupation that has not existed until now.
Regarding climbing, participants raise the possibility of separating indoor and outdoor climbing
into two different qualifications. ‘I would like the idea of separating indoor and outdoor climbing
qualifications. In our work, it is one thing to guide outdoors and another to train indoors’ (Llum);
‘And now there’s a need for people working indoors. Why don’t they create an indoor climbing qua-
lification?’ (Jordi).
A concern that appeared in the results should be highlighted: the winter sports curriculum stipu-
lates that 1st level instructors cannot practise the profession without the supervision of a 2nd or 3rd
level instructor. It was noted that this was not the case in ski resorts. Pere said:
A 1st level instructor can’t work independently […]. But it doesn’t really happen like that. We all know that.
They’re currently the most profitable workers for the companies and the companies are taking advantage of
them because there’s no control whatsoever.

As highlighted by Cerrón (2010), Spanish occupational training responds to the needs of the
labour market and focuses on a way of enriching the labour supply that instructors and guides
bring to the labour market.

Admission tests
The participants agreed on the need to maintain admission tests to guarantee the technical level of
candidates, necessary for the proper follow-up to training. In the case of climbing, the new curricu-
lum proposes lowering the difficulty of the climbing grade and eliminating the ‘aid climbing’ test,
which existed in the previous curriculum. Participants believe it will soon be a problem: ‘If you
haven’t asked for much in the admission tests, in the end we’re lowering the level of the course.
This is a problem that we find in schools’ (Sergi).
Even so, the access scales established in the legislation are sometimes not being complied with,
as noted by Josep: ‘In many of the tribunals the president really lacks knowledge, and the judges are
teachers from the same training school. So, we do have to demand greater rigour in the application of
what is published in the official curriculum’.
There was agreement on the fact that evaluation by the tribunal is very subjective, even if the
criteria are written into the curriculum. Sometimes the tribunal members know the applicants and
can be more or less benevolent in their assessment. This relates with the schools’ interests and
the marketisation of qualifications (Kårhus, 2010, 2012), explaining how they are strongly regulated
by the way the market functions. By significantly increasing the competitiveness of institutions in
attracting and retaining students, more applicants are allowed to pass the tests, even if they are
not up to the level, in order to enter the system. According to participants, this could lead to a deva-
luing of qualifications.
I have seen the evolution over time. A phenomenon has emerged that is the marketisation of education, and
with it the associated distortion of the philosophy or the purpose of what an entrance test is and what a
sports instructor qualification is. (Om)

This quote reflects on what a sports instructor qualification is and the purpose underlying an
admission exam, on which learner model is selected and which model is left out. According to
12 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

Bernstein (2000), the learner model is never purely utilitarian; it inevitably contains ideological
elements. As an example, participants commented that the focus of the admission tests is purely
technical and centred on the physical conditioning, attributes of a guide or instructor which are ideo-
logically given more value in admission tests than knowledge of the environment, ethics, socio-edu-
cational perspective or mountain experience.
The level of admission tests varies from region to region and between training schools. Applicants
take advantage of this to sit the tests in one place or another. These data relate to the state validity of
the diploma as opposed to the regulatory development of the curriculum by the AACC. The diversity
in the implementation of sports instructor qualifications (Madrera et al., 2015) and the differences in
curricula between regions (Sans & Inglés, 2019; Sans & Inglés, 2020) have been noted previously, but
they can also be considered positive as they allow adaptation to the specific needs and peculiarities
of the actual sporting activity of each AACC (Nasarre, 2008). However, taking into account the results
of the present study, a major problem to be solved relates to the large differences among the AACCs
in admission tests.
The new admission tests in canyoning propose changes with which the sector does not agree; the
canyoning admission test is defined with very specific characteristics in the state law (and the tech-
nical level has been lowered compared to previously established admission tests) so the applicants
can only practice those knots and techniques detailed in it. This fact makes it possible to pass the
exam without having any experience in canyoning. Furthermore, linked to the previous paragraph,
applicants may decide to pass admission tests in AACCs where the level is known to be lower. Anna
said that these canyoning tests are not considered to screen effectively: ‘There are people who have
only been canyoning once in their lives before entering training and sometimes it’s the same canyon
as in the entrance exams. In tests that are unable to select applicants and future canyoning guides,
something is going wrong’.
The approach of the snowboarding admission test is not considered to be suited to the charac-
teristics of snowboarding, as it has alpine-type characteristics that come from skiing, not from
snowboarding.
The programmes implemented must be aligned with curriculum and standards frameworks
(Penney et al., 2009). Although the admission tests are clearly set out in the curriculum, problems
arise due to the large differences among AACCs, the schools’ interests and the marketisation of qua-
lifications; it is proposed that there should be a unitary state tribunal and some control or inspection
of the admission tests by the central administration. For climbing and mountaineering, in addition to
the admission tests, it is proposed to incorporate the demand for a ‘mountaineering curriculum’ that
in some way demonstrates experience in general mountaineering and in the specific speciality, as
well as a personal interview.

Training gaps, qualifications breakdown and pedagogical coherence

Specialised knowledge allows instructors to differentiate themselves from other occupations and
provides legitimisation to the people who practice the occupation (Dowling et al., 2014). This special-
ised knowledge, mostly acquired through certification, and technical expertise are critical attributes
for the professionalisation of an occupation, as established by Taylor and Garratt (2010) in a similar
field: sports coaching. A great majority of teachers and students think that they lack time to acquire
all the specific knowledge. Time is limited by law and by the logistics of the qualifications course
programmes, which makes it necessary to prioritise some content at the expense of others. Also,
Fran commented: ‘We think that the curricular content does not exactly meet the real needs of
the sector in some subjects’.
When asked in more depth what needs this participant was referring to, he clarified that it was to
the needs he has as a guide and the knowledge he believes he must have. He felt that the knowledge
he has gained through experience should be learned during the qualification course. According to
the other instructors and teachers interviewed, content should be improved to fill what they
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 13

considered to be ‘training gaps’, and which would subsequently be refined through experience.
There was consensus on the need to insist on more dedication to3: Psychology (all specialities), Rou-
tesetting (climbing), Guiding in ridge traverse and ferrata (climbing), Training & performance (climb-
ing), Methodology and didactics (in mountaineering and climbing specialities), Professional
development (all specialities) and Mountain environment (for mountain leaders and in all winter
sports). Also, mountain leaders lack training in natural protected areas, emotional aspects of
guiding and leading the group, values, symbolic aspects of nature and the relationship between
environment and health. In canyoning, much more emphasis needs to be placed on Great verticals,
White water, Winter canyoning, Expeditions, Coasteering and Training. In winter sports, there is also
a need to incorporate into the curriculum contents on Freeride4 and Freestyle5, as these practices,
like other OPAS, are rapidly evolving by merging or blending with others (López et al., 2018),
making legislation quickly obsolete and unaligned with needs of the sector (Bonnet et al., 2019; Car-
rasco-Jiménez, 2020; Mediavilla, 2014; Mediavilla & Gómez, 2016).
Overcoming the ‘training deficits’ highlighted by the participants is a challenge to the Spanish
outdoor sports qualifications system, but even if instructors have not acquired some professional
skills in the qualification courses (e.g. via ferrata guiding), they should have been educated as intel-
lectuals, able to integrate theory and practice and able to continue learning throughout their pro-
fessional life, as Hall et al. (2019) found in other sports coaching qualifications.
Despite details in the curriculum, there appear to be variations between training institutions, as
Armengol noted: ‘It depends on each training school. There are schools that focus more on one
aspect such as guiding, others that focus more on knowledge of the environment … . This also
depends a little on the teachers’.
In the present research, instructors and academic coordinators commented that there was cur-
rently a juxtaposition of teachers who have no connection with each other, where each teacher
tailors the curriculum to his or her preference. They raised the need to create stable teaching
teams to achieve greater educational coherence, but reported that they do not receive sufficient
support from the administration to create them. According to Cerrón (2010), training divided into
modules implies coordination among the teaching staff, the difficulty of which lies in enabling
the student to obtain a qualification through a cumulative process of certifications that may have
been spread over time or carried out in different centres; a relevant aspect of curricular quality
must be the integration of all programme areas (Penney et al., 2009). Although there is an intention,
there has been no coordination, transfer or integration of knowledge. Also, as Cerrón (2010) stated,
in Spanish occupational training, if qualifications are broken down into modules, the systemic con-
ception of what a profession is lost; the whole (qualification) is more than the sum of its parts (com-
petences). The application of the different competences that form part of a qualification in the
professional context takes place in an integrated and globalised way, not in a partial way, as the
training structure is suggesting. This is what is currently happening with climbing, mountaineering
and winter sports qualifications in Spain, and was also found with formal coach education curriculum
in the analysis of Dempsey et al. (2022).

Assessment
Although Bernstein’s ‘instructional discourse’ is set out in official curriculum documents, it also
takes shape in training centres and educational contexts. The representatives interviewed from
the National Sports Council think that the assessment criteria are clearly stated in the written cur-
ricula. Even so, other stakeholders said that sometimes these were not the criteria that training
institutions made available to teachers to assess the students, because an interest exists in
student recruitment and retention, as pointed out by Kårhus (2012). Participants (instructors, tea-
chers and academic coordinators) reported that their assessment was subjective, and there were
pressures and interests in the assessment by schools, enabling students to pass the 1st level
assessment in order to remain in school for the 2nd and/or 3rd levels. These data bring us
14 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

back to the concept of the process of marketisation of education in general and of these qualifi-
cation courses in particular. Xavier noted:
The criteria are clear. If I have to assess a 6b6 climbing route everyone [he refers to teachers] would know how to
assess this. Another thing is that, in the interest of my school, I apply it more or less strictly …

As with the admission tests, there are differences in assessment between training institutions and
the AACC. In Spain, students’ assessment is carried out by the teachers of the same training
school. This assessment must take into consideration power relations and the relationship
between teachers and students:
Júlia: ‘In my course there was a student who worked for the teachers’ company and we all knew that he would
pass and he did. He was the worst!’

Annelie: ‘In my canyoning course this also happened! Only the employee of the teachers’ company passed. Very
suspicious … We should be evaluated by an external tribunal’.

The proposal has emerged for an external student assessment (that should not be carried out by the
same teachers of the school), in order to minimise the effect of the interests that each school may
have and any power relations.

Internships7
In relation to internships, one participant stated:
I think internships are fundamental in our field of study. We should be very serious about internships in training,
and that’s not the way it is. Internships are signed up for without ever being done and other things are done
badly. (Sergi)

Previous research proposed that the education administrations in the AACC should review the
organisation and regulation of internships (Madrera et al., 2015). This coincides with the present
research, where all the participants considered internships to be a point for improvement. They
agreed that doing a quality internship is very important for their subsequent professional activity
but, on the other hand, they agreed that internships were generally not being carried out as they
should be and widespread problems existed such as: (1) internships were signed up for by students
without ever being done; (2) students did not do all the hours set out in the curriculum; (3) internship
hours were done in a field that was not specific to the modality, speciality or level; (4) the capacity to
respond to all internship students was not available with the current conditions in companies and
with freelancers; (5) there was a lack of staff in schools for tutoring internships; and (6) some com-
panies understood internships as a source of free labour, as Jordina explained: ‘My personal experi-
ence is that all the internships I’ve done have been for the benefit of the company, and it’s very hard
to say that’.
While professionalism can bring status and prestige, elements of exploitation can also be dis-
cerned in relationships (Thorpe & Dumont, 2019), as in this case between employers and trainees.
In relation to Cerrón (2010), vocational training should be focused on education for the development
of the whole person and for caring for others, not just learning to serve the market and become a
workforce. Thus, participants proposed solutions: (1) paid internships or internship contracts; (2) col-
laboration agreements with companies and freelancers; (3) subsidies to companies and freelancers
who host students; (4) support for schools and improvements in student mentoring; and (5) moni-
toring of the process by the education administration.

Requirements in teachers’ qualifications8

Participants highlighted concerns about the qualifications required for instructor trainers, a
regulated profession. It was reported to be respected in many schools, but in winter sports, it
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 15

was noted that some teachers were being allowed to teach without the qualifications required
by law. Pere said: ‘Even the teachers are not respecting the rules: the qualification to be a
teacher is not respected. The vast majority of people don’t have what it takes. All this is
being allowed’.
Regarding the new climbing and mountaineering curriculum, establishing different regulations
for public and private centres, the participants made some criticisms: ‘I don’t understand why
there’s a law with different regulations for a public and for a private school, when I think that the
requirement for being a teacher (…) should be the same in both cases’ (Pep).
This reflection recalls that the ‘regulative discourse’ affects the question of ‘what’ in pedagogical
discourse, but also the question of ‘how’ in the theory of instruction, which in turn contains a model
of the teacher that will always be affected by ideological elements (Bernstein, 2000). The Spanish
education administration should review specific aspects especially related to these expert teachers,
according to Madrera et al. (2015).

Concluding comments
The participants in this study were very critical of the qualifications under study. They specified clear
lines of improvement of qualification courses in areas such as stakeholders involved in curricular
updating, the general structure of qualifications, admission tests, assessment, internships, model
of the teacher, among others and also highlighted some training gaps to be resolved due to qualifi-
cations breakdown. It is noted that curriculum updating follows a ‘top-down’ policy demand, that
there is a marketisation of the qualifications under study that is evident in admission tests, assess-
ment and internships, relating to Bernstein’s ‘regulative discourse’ concept. In a context where
these occupations are in the process of professionalisation, perhaps their training has not only
helped instructors to acquire some of the tools necessary to care for their clients and athletes,
but they have also developed philosophical skills and feel more empowered to make changes in
their sport and profession. According to Kjær (2019), this empowerment can push the process of pro-
fessionalisation. However, how can instructors and guides become real agents of change and have
their views on curricula and their profession heard?
Further research would be needed to analyse each of the qualifications separately in more depth
to further adjust to the specific characteristics of each speciality and the needs and concerns of their
instructors. Also, it cannot be ignored that the study focuses only on Spain, a country in which the
system of sport education is determined by the distribution of competences between the State and
the AACC (Estrada, 2017). Accordingly, specific AACC research could be conducted to take into
account in the curriculum the particular needs of each region with regard to OPAS and AST practice.
Moreover, a comparison between countries would be useful, because sharing experiences and ways
of dealing with the situations that states have to face is a powerful stimulus for change (EOSM, 2004).
The sample of the present study could be larger (and also more gender-diverse), although a substan-
tial amount of in-depth data is available.
This study provides a critical and in-depth analysis based on the views of a variety of stakeholders
that should be taken into consideration for the improvement of the curriculum of climbing, moun-
taineering and winter sports instructors.

Notes
1. Union of International Mountain Leader Associations.
2. International Federation of Mountain Guide Associations.
3. The concepts below are names of subjects and contents which are part of the curriculum of the qualifications
covered in this study.
4. Briefly, freeriding is a style of snowboarding or skiing that is practiced in unprepared natural terrain, without a
fixed course.
16 J. SANS-OSANZ AND E. INGLÉS YUBA

5. Briefly, freestyle snowboarding and freestyle skiing can be considered any practice that involves performing
tricks, aerial pirouettes and turns. The rider uses natural and man-made elements such as boxes, rails, jumps,
and countless others to perform tricks.
6. Climbing grades are expressed in a French scale.
7. In Spain, internships are a compulsory part of the qualification. Students undertake unpaid work in a company or
with a freelancer as part of their training before obtaining their diploma.
8. The curriculum in Spain states what qualifications teachers must have in order to teach the different subject
blocks.

Acknowledgements
Authors thank the Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC) of Generalitat de Catalunya and Grup d’In-
vestigació Social i Educativa de l’Activitat Física i l’Esport (GISEAFE, SGR01189) for providing the necessary support for
this study. The authors would like to thank all the participants for their contribution in the study.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding
This work was supported by Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology, under predoctoral Grant FPU EST21/00145.

ORCID
Joana Sans-Osanz http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9234-7874
Eduard Inglés Yuba http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7798-1116

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