Nematodes

- Metazoan parasites either:

- helminths
- Three groups:
- Annelids
- leeches
- Nematodes
- roundworms
- elongated and cylindrical in shape
- bilateral symmetry
- complex digestive tract
- muscular pharynx is triradiate
- with separate sexes but some ar parthenogenetic
- there are sensory organs in:
- anterior (ampids)
- posterior ends (phasmids):
- phasmids are useful in grouping
nematodes

- Phasmid worms:
- Ascaris belongs to: Ascaridida
- Parastrongylus and hookworms:
Strongylida
- Strongyloides: Rhabditida
- Enterobius: Oxyurida
- Filarial worms: Spirurida
- are grouped based on the
basis of the habitat of the
adult worms
- mostly found in:
● small intestine
- Ascaris
- hookworms
- Strongloides
- Capillaria
● large intestine (colon)
- Trichuris
- Enterobius
● outside the intestines
(extraintestinal nematodes)
- Wuchereria (lymph nodes
and lymph vessels)
- Brugia (same to Wuchereria)
 - Parastrongyloides (eyes and
meninges
- Larvae of Trichinella
(muscles)

Mode of Infection:
1. Ingestion of embryonated eggs:
- Ascars
- Trichuris
- Enterobius
2. Skin Penetration by filariform larvae
- hookworms
- Strongloides
3. Bite of mosquito vectors
- Wuchereria
- Brugia
4. Ingection of infective larvae
- Capillaria from fish
- Trichinella from pork
- Parastrongylus from snails
5. Autoinfection
- Capillaria
- Strongyloides
- Enterobius
6. Transmission through inhalation of embryonated eggs
- Enterobius
- Ascaris

- Flatworms:
- arthropods
- fall under Kingdom Animalia

Cestodes
- Groups of worms:
- tapeworms or cestodes
- ribbon like, segmented
- do not have digestive tract

- Adult tapeworms
- hermaphroditic
- found in intestines of definitive host
- larval stage is found in tissues of intermediate host
- scolex → neck → strobila
 - scolex
- anterior structure
- main organ of attachment of the worm to definitive
host
- neck
- region of growth
- segmentation or strobilation originates here
- Segments of proglottids that are nearest to
- the neck are the most immature → increasingly
mature segments → most distal are gravid
segments
- Strobila

- Two orders of tapeworms:

- Order Pseudophyllidea
- spatulate colex with sucking grooves called bothria
- genetial pores
- uterine pores
- allow release of eggs from the gravid uterus
- Infections:
- segments may not be found
- Eggs:
- operculated and immature
- require aquatic development of embryo called
coracidium
- Worms:
- require 2 intermediate host in their life cycle
- 1st: eggs encyst as procercoid larvae
- 2nd: plerocercoid larvae
- e.g:
- Diphyllobothrium → Definitive host: humans
- Spirometra → Intermediate host: humans
- Order Cyclophyllidea
- globular colex with 4 muscular suckers
- genital pores
- do not contain uterine pore so they undergo apolysis
- body of the worm and eggs are eventually released
- Infections:
- eggs and segments are recovered from the patients
- Eggs:
- non-operculated
- passed out readily
- contains hexacanth embryo
- Worms:
 - require only 1 intermediate host but different
species of Cyclophyllideans produce different types
of encysted larvae in the intermediate hosts:
- cysticercus
- Taenia
- cysticercoid
- Hymenolepis
- Dipylidium Raillietina
- hydatid
- Echinococcus spp.

- flukes or trematodes
- leaf-like, unsegmented
- incomplete digestive tract
- both cestodes and trematodes do not have circulatory system
- belong to Platyhelminths or flatworms
- dorso-ventrally flattened
- bilateral symmetry

Trematodes
- Adult trematodes
- with oral suckers
- ventral suckers called acetabulum
- third sucker called genital sucker or gonotyl
- observed only among heterophyids
- all are hermaphroditic
- all require 2 intermediate hosts in their life cycle
- all have operculated eggs
- infective stage: encysted larva called metacercaria
- develops in the second intermediate host
- except schistosomes: infective stage – cercaria
- 1st intermediate host: always snails
- 2nd: maybe fish, crustacean, another snail, or freshwater
plants
- Adult Paragonimus worm
- found in lung parenchyma
- Fasciola, Clonorchis, Opisthorchis
- in liver and bile passages
- Fasciolopsis, Echinostoma, Heterophyids
- in intestine

- Eggs passed out by an infected host may be:

 - Mature → contains an embryo called miracidium
- Schistosoma
- Clonorchis
- Opisthorchis
- Heterophyids
- Immature → mericidium develops in an aquatic environment
- Fasciola
- Fasciolopsis
- Echinostoma

Arthropods
- bilateral symmetry
- segmented
- jointed appendages
- body is covered with chitinous exoskeleton
- includes:
- insects
- mites
- ticks
- spiders
- scorpions
- centipedes
- millipedes
- crustaceans
- Pentastomids or pentastomes (have the attributes of both arthropods and
annelids)

Ways how arthropods affect human health:

1. Envenomization
- through bites of spiders, flies, bugs, mites, and ticks
2. Introduction of venom
- stings of scorpions, ants, wasps, and bees
3. Exposure to arthropod allergens
- arthropods that feed on human blood
- biting flies and mosquito = biological vectors to:
- Plasmodium
- Filaria
- Trypanosomes
- Babesia
- Leishmania
- Inhabit unsanitary environment
- flies and cockroaches = mechanical vectors of:
- microbes
 - parasites

4. Dermatologic manifestations
- flies and lice
- due to prolonged contact with human hosts
- Fly larvae
- cause infestation and invasion of human tissues known as myiasis