Physics of Music exam questions 2014

Question 1
(a) A modern concert grand piano sounds very different from an early 18th century
[8*]
instrument. A big difference is in string tension. Explain why the tension in modern
piano strings is so much higher than in early pianos.
(b) Describe and explain other changes in design such as the linear density of the strings, [12]
their contact ratio, methods of dealing with the inharmonicity of stiff strings and the
effect this has on the tuning of the piano.

Question 2
(a) Describe an acoustical test that can be applied to a violin and what the outcome
[8*]
should be for a good quality instrument.
(b) Compare violin acoustics with those of a viola and cello, explaining how they differ
[8]
and why. Describe how the design of these instruments may be changed to improve
their sound.
(c) A 19th century “shoulder cello” was smaller than a standard instrument so it could be
[4]
held with a strap over the shoulder like a guitar but still played with a bow. Comment
on what you expect its acoustics to be like compared to a standard cello. Give reasons
for your answer.

Question 3
(a) You are to design a concert hall for listening to orchestral music. Describe three
[8*]
main aims of the design and how you can achieve them.
[4]
(b) Describe two acoustic faults and how they may be avoided.
(c) The shape of the hall can have a large effect on its acoustical properties, yet many
[8]
modern halls are built with a wide variety of shapes. Describe how a simple shape
may work well and what design features can enhance the acoustics of a modern hall
of any shape.
 Outline answers

Question 1
Strings are made as massive as possible to increase the power of the instrument. This
means the tension must be very large to keep the lengths of string within reasonable
bounds. Usually six different lengths of string are used throughout the piano to keep
the tension roughly constant over the whole compass of the keyboard. This prevents
warping of the frame. The tension is also large to sustain high frequency partials to
give a bright tone. Massive strings are stiff which gives rise to inharmonic partials. A
small amount of inharmonicity is acceptable as this adds a bit of ‘spice’ to the tone of
the instrument. However, there is naturally too much inharmonicity and this must be
reduced to improve the tone. High pitch notes are given three strings per note. This
retains the mass while reducing the string thickness resulting in reduced
inharmonicity. Low notes have single strings which are wound with copper wire.
This allows a thinner inner string while the copper winding adds mass but does not
contribute to the stiffness. The inner string which is thinner than it otherwise would
be, and is therefore more flexible, resulting in less inharmonicity.

Question 2
(a) A loudness curve can be obtained by playing the violin as loudly as possible for
each note over the whole range of the instrument. There should be no
outstandingly loud notes or extremely quiet ones. However a limited variation in
loudness adds interest to the sound. Two peaks in the loudness curve will
correspond to the main ‘wood resonance’ – the fundamental resonance of the
violin body – and the ‘cavity resonance’ – the fundamental resonance of the air in
the violin body. These resonances ought to occur within a semitone of the two
middle strings for a good quality instrument – this comes from tests of good
violins.
(b) Violas and cellos have not been developed to the same extent as violins and their
acoustics are therefore inferior. A viola plays a perfect fifth below the pitch of a
violin. Therefore to get the resonances in the same position in the loudness curve,
it should be 50% larger in all its dimensions. This would make it too large to play
under the chin like a violin, so it is made smaller than it should be and the main
resonances are therefore at too high a frequency. The cello suffers from a similar
fault. It plays an octave below a viola and should therefore be three times the size
of a violin. It is normally less than twice the size of a viola, so it is much too
small for good acoustics. Using the violin as a copy, the viola and cello can be
made larger in correct proportion to keep the resonances in the relative positions
of those of a violin. This results in superior instruments. Such instruments have
been made to critical acclaim, but they remain experimental and unaccepted by
mainstream musicians.
(c) A shoulder cello is even smaller than a standard cello, which is already too small
for good acoustics. Its resonances therefore enhance the higher harmonics of the
notes played giving it a rather thin sound lacking in ‘body’. Without the
enhancement of low frequency resonances, the bass notes of the instrument are
particularly awful.
Question 3
(a) Members of the audience should feel immersed in sound. This is achieved by the direct
sound being louder than reflections from walls, ceiling and other surfaces and the first
reflection received laterally, usually from a wall.
The hall should have an optimum reverberation time which depends upon its size.
The design of a hall to give a particular reverberation time is beyond the scope of the course.
Reverberation is affected by the distribution of surfaces in the hall and their absorption of
sound as a function of frequency.
Spectrum balance is achieved by avoiding heavy absorption by surfaces at certain
frequencies.
Warmth of sound is achieved by having a slightly longer reverberation time at low
frequencies than at high, i.e. less absorption of low frequency sound from most surfaces.
(b) Echoes are avoided by arranging for adjacent reflections of sound reaching the
audience to be within 35ms of each other. Path lengths can be diminished using strategically
placed acoustical baffles.
Focussing of sound is avoided by having no concave surfaces in the structure of the
hall.
(c) The classic ‘shoe box’ shape of hall naturally gives good acoustics, provided other things
are correct. The narrow shape and high ceiling ensures that early reflections come from the
walls rather than the ceiling.
Sound diffusion gratings can be placed on the ceiling and other surfaces to divert reflection of
sound into the desired directions.
Acoustic baffles (convex surfaces) can be positioned to shorten path lengths and distribute
the sound more evenly.
The audience may be separated into sections at slightly different levels by low walls so
everyone can receive early reflections from a nearby wall.
Many halls now have artificial reverberation to enhance the acoustics. This is mentioned
though not described in detail in the course.