Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A comprehensive review on sustainable cold spray additive manufacturing:

State of the art, challenges and future challenges
Gaurav Prashar, Hitesh Vasudev *
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemeš Integration of additive manufacturing (AM) with Cold spray process is the latest solid-state supersonic deposition
method that has gained significant attention of future manufacturing industry owning to its acceptability for
Keywords: mass production, fabrication, and restoration of typical engineering components. Cold spray additive
CSAM manufacturing (CSAM) can build 3D components and this technique has the potential to change the future of the
Additive manufacturing
manufacturing world with remarkable sustainable benefits. This review sums up the research on state-of-the-art
Cold spray
and identified key challenges for deploying a CSAM as a repairing, restoration and sustainable fabrication
Sustainable technology
3D printing process in the future manufacturing industry. The benefits of CSAM for sustainable manufacturing have been
discussed regarding the environmental concerns, and optimized product structures and designs. The outcome of
the current study indicates that challenges associated with CSAM can be overcome with careful planning and
manufacturing strategies. It also presents the recommended future research directions for CSAM’s imple­
mentation as an established viable advanced AM process.

layer via layer mechanism. In comparison to other subtractive tech­

niques of production, AM is genetically less wasteful and holds the po­
1. Introduction tential for de-coupling socio-economic value creations from the
environmental influence of the activities associated with the business. It
1.1. Additive manufacturing offers three major sustainable benefits which are listed below;

The advent of manufacturing technology when combined with
customer demand for more personalized goods is causing changes in
manufacturing size and distribution. The basic concept of
manufacturing the product via AM has been existing for decades. The
initial applications of AM include rapid prototyping, development of
products by generating original models and then subjected them to
testing for validation of these products physically. In the last ten years
period, AM has experienced significant growth in the technological field
and has been employed for direct manufacturing of products in auto­
mobiles, aerospace, and biomedical sector. In contrast with other prime
techniques like servitisation (Neely, 2008), presumption (Fox and Li,
2012), and personalization (Zhou et al., 2013) the evolution of AM as a
direct manufacturing method has lead industries to re-think that where
and how they should carry out their manufacturing. AM is now applied
along with conventional manufacturing (CM) processes in production
lines. For instance, subtractive manufacturing depends upon material
removal to develop the end product (Gebler et al., 2014). AM copies the
biological methods of developing the coatings on product surfaces by
a. Enhanced resource efficiencies: Enhancements can be recognized in
design and production phases as both product and production pro­
cess can be redesigned;
b. Product life extended: Wider reaching technical benefits, specifically
for repair and restoration works of high-cost products extending
their useful service life. The sustainable social-economic design of­
fers better affinities among product-person and close relationships
among producers and customers (Kohtala, 2015);
c. Reconfiguring the value chains: Shorter, collaborative, localized
value chains, and novel distribution models offering remarkable
sustainability benefits.
Manufacturing includes transforming the input of materials into
products and services. The efficacy of this conversion technology is a
primary factor of the ecological effect related to manufacturing. AM
offers significant benefits from the viewpoint of sustainability (Gutowski
et al., 2009). The benefits of sustainability include producing a little

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: E-mail addresses: grvprashar@yahoo.co.in (G. Prashar), hitesh.24804@lpu.co.in (H. Vasudev). hiteshvasudev@yahoo.in (H. Vasudev).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127606
Received 25 January 2021; Received in revised form 23 April 2021; Accepted 19 May 2021
Available online 23 May 2021
0959-6526/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Nomenclature SD Stand-off distance

GC Geometrical control
AM Additive manufacturing LPCS Low-pressure cold spray
CSAM Cold spray additive manufacturing SOPs Standard operating procedures
CS Cold spray OSHA The Occupational Safety and health agency
CGS Cold gas spray ASTM American society for testing of materials
HEA high entropy alloys AM CoE AM centre of excellence
PBF Powder bed fusion ISO International organization for standardization
EBM Electron beam melting PVD Physical vapour deposition
WAAM Wire arc additive manufacturing IssP In-situ shot peening
SLM Selective laser melting CM Conventional manufacturing
R&D Research and development PHT Post-heat treatment
HT Heat treatment IPBs Inter-particle boundaries
CVD Chemical vapour deposition

waste during manufacturing as it is an additive process. The product

geometries may be optimized in designing lightweight parts leading to
the reduction of material used during fabrication and consumption of
energy in use. In the supply chain, there is a reduction in transportation
and inventory wastage owing to the production of parts on demand
easily (Chen et al., 2015; Mani et al., 2014).
According to (Huang et al., 2013) AM is anticipated to grow as a
main fabricating technology in a future sustainable society. In contrast
with traditional AM methods, the generalized AM techniques are pre­
sented in Fig. 1. The left part of Fig. 1 outlined the traditional AM
techniques and the right part indicates the generalized AM techniques
based on energy sources. CSAM appears to be the most popular tech­
nique because it functions like the “3D printing” technique, which can
be employed in the manufacturing of engineering components, repair
and restoration works without altering highly complicated underlying
crystal structure.

1.2. CS and CSAM

Fig. 1. Generalized AM techniques.
CSAM utilizes a cold gas spray (CGS) technique which is one of the
growing areas in the thermal spray industry. A group of researchers
between 1986 and 1990, developed a coating deposition method and
two patents for CGS equipment construction (Champagne, 2007). From
1990 to 2000 to fabricate the first CGS setup, the US collaborated with
the government of Russia. The system was developed by A. Papyrin, and
after this US becomes 2nd country to have its CGS system. Germany and
other countries of Europe in the same decade also developed their CGS
systems and start investigating novel applications. Subsequently, basic
studies concerning spray parameters during coating deposition and the
use of technical methods to examine the formation of coating and its

Fig. 2. (a) Evolution of CS technology and, (b) Publications in recent years.

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G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 3. Typical parts manufactured by CSAM process (a) Rocket nozzle and, (b) Titanium housing (Impact innovations, Germany).
microstructure permitted to enhance the CGS applications in the
manufacturing sectors (Grigoriev et al., 2015). After the year 2000, the
CGS technique experimented with vast development, and remarkably
spread to other countries, specifically during the last few years thanks to
R&D activities and dedicated production efforts all around the globe. A
study in 2017 by (Raoelison et al., 2017) prints the installations of CGS
worldwide. Europe accounts for 55% of the CGS system utilized for R&D
and manufacturing, with the United States accounting for 20%, China
for 7%, and India, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Canada, and Australia, ac­
counting for the remaining 18%. The installations around the globe are
employed for R&D (60%) and manufacturing (40%). A broad spectrum
of studies is being carried out at different companies and research cen­
tres which are producing many applications. The evolution of CS tech­
nology and the publications are represented in Fig. 2.
CSAM can build entire new parts. CSAM may serve the role of an
alternative production method in the future manufacturing sector. Some
typical engineering components manufactured by using CSAM are
illustrated in Fig. 3. A rocket nozzle (Fig. 3a) is the propulsion nozzles
(usually de Laval nozzles) used in rocket engines. These nozzles increase
the exit speed, the internal pressure of the combustion chambers,
improve the thrust and the combustion process of the rocket engine. The
CM of the nozzles is tedious and costly (Impact innovations). With the
help of the CSAM, rocket nozzles can be produced in a very short time.
Another typical engineering application of CSAM replacing the con­
ventional method of production is in the AM of rotation symmetrical
casing components with CS developed by (Impact innovations).
(Fig. 3b). The major manufacturers of CSAM are listed in Table 1.
The rotational casing components are mostly used as casings of
aircraft engines, gas turbines, pumps and wind power plants. Mechani­
cal production is usually a combination of several turning and milling
operations steps. A large portion of the material is removed by the
turning and milling process in most cases and the finished casing
component is just of few per cent of the starting material. CSAM is used
to create the contour of the component close to the final shape of the
housing component with a small tolerance. The semi-finished compo­
nent can be completed by turning and milling on the required functional
surfaces. CSAM stands out with huge potential for changing future
manufacturing size and distribution.
1.3. Mechanism of deposit formation
During the CSAM operation, powder particles in un-melted state
impacts with high-velocity on a surface deformed plastically and bonded
together to form a layer via kinetic compaction as shown in Fig. 4. When
impacting the substrate surface the kinetic energy carried by the metal
particles is transformed into plastic deformation of the material. The
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Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
particles are bonded to the substrate at the boundary surface. The rapid
succession of powder particle impact gradually creates a dense layer of
material.
1.4. Areas of CSAM
CSAM can develop complicated freestanding shapes and can produce
blocks rapidly processing advantages in comparison with other methods
as presented in Fig. 5 (Pattison et al., 2007).
The process develops quickly to AM complex and functional parts for
various industrial applications by integrating the additive features of
CSAM with the subtractive effects of CM. A motion platform was utilized
in the Ibarmia 5-axis and Hermle 5-axis machining centre to fabricate
and machine the hybrid CSAM deposits (Flynn et al., 2016). Till now, the
CSAM approach has been utilized for manufacturing/repairing and
welding. It can deposit different industrial materials and their alloys like
Aluminum, Copper, tin-bronze (Guo et al., 2009), composites of Ni–Al
(Li et al., 2008a), metal matrix composites reinforced with diamonds
(Yin et al., 2017), highly reactive metals such as Titanium (Gardon et al.,
2013) and Tantalum (Piercy et al., 2015), as well as HEA (Yin et al.,
2019) onto the surface of substrates without altering the underlying
material properties (Li et al., 2019b), in comparison with conventional
thermal spray approach (Moridi et al., 2014). It can also fabricate
sputtering targets (Miller et al., 2014), crankshafts (Villafuerte, 2010)
and gears (Eason et al., 2011). Also, it joins nonferrous metals (Cadney
et al., 2008). Recently, an Australian advanced manufacturing company
fabricated Titanium drones by CSAM which measures more than 1.8m in
diameter (Titomic 3D prints, Australia). Titanium is generally costly and
hard to manufacture using CM. Investigations, applications, and the
importance of CSAM in the modern era manufacturing sector have been
reported all around the globe already; nevertheless, it is still in a
developing stage. Major areas of CSAM are presented in Fig. 6.
1.5. Merits and de-merits of CSAM
With the recent incorporation of CSAM in AM family, it has all the
merits of the CS method. In contrast, CSAM has special merits as
compared to various well-examined AM technologies based on PBF
principles like EBM, WAAM, and SLM (DebRoy et al., 2018). The most
key advantages of CSAM as compared to other AM techniques are low
production times, higher process flexibility, illimitable product size and
appropriateness for reparation and restoration of damaged components.
Moreover, CSAM is useful in the manufacturing of high-reflective metals
like Cu and Al, which is extremely difficult to manufacture utilizing
laser-based AM techniques.
However, CSAM demerits are also evident that it is a challenging task
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Table 1 for the AM Engineers. CSAM generally manufactures a semi-finished

The major manufacturers/producers of CSAM. component with a rough surface and called for post-machining. Own­
Main Users and applications Parts Website link ing to inherent defects generated due to difficulty in controlling process
manufacturer manufactured/ parameters, CSAM developed parts have poor properties in their man­
repaired ufactured condition. Post treatments are repeatedly required to enhance
SPEE3D, • Marine applications • Al bronze https://sp their properties. CSAM has been utilized mainly for the manufacturing
Australia • Royal Australian propeller ee3d.com/ of industrial components/parts with rotational geometry like cylinder
Navy • Al Camlock walls, and tubes. However, with help of a good designed and drafted
• Aerospace fitting
companies • Rocket nozzle
mandrel, complicated geometries like array fin heat exchanger and
• Architectural cover metal 2D code can be manufactured (Champagne and Helfritch, 2016).
hardware • Sparkless Cu- A systematic and detailed review of the work associated with CSAM
applications engineers is urgently needed. To date, studies by various researchers have focused
hammer
on state-of-the-art CSAM technologies in the broader state of affairs (Yin
• Cu-cable clamp
• Al interior door et al., 2018b). has explored CSAM as repairing and restoration tech­
handles nology with microstructure, material and mechanical properties (Li
• Al compressor et al., 2019a). summarized ‘CS +’ techniques to highlight the effec­
drive wheel tiveness in refining the microstructure of CSAM deposited parts. (Pathak
TITOMIC • Hockley Pattern & • Aerospace https://tit
Kinetic Tools, UK tooling omic.com/
and Saha, 2017), reviewed the progress of the CS process in scientific
fusion, • TITOMIC, Australia • Satellite parts and technological terms in the area of repair and restoration using the
Australia has collaborated AM concept.
with Lockheed
Martin, American
2. Recent challenges for CSAM
Aerospace
company and RMIT
University, With the evolution of high-efficiency CSAM tools, a vast tally of
Australia to deliver materials like Mg, Al, and Ti alloys, metal matrix composites, and even
AM satellite parts super-alloys are anticipated to be sprayed for fabricating and in-situ
Centerline, • Airbus Group, • Multi-material www.
Canada Netherlands 3D parts for supersonic
quick repair works. Certain challenges in CSAM that may restrict its
• Obninsk Center for Airbus spray.com practical applications are represented in Fig. 7.
Powder Spraying, • Automotive parts
Russian company • Turbine and 2.1. Challenges associated with material properties
• International pump restoration
Thermal Spray • Generator repair
Association, • Spray forming of The CSAM is sufficiently smart enough to build components with
America circuit complex shapes and functionalities such as mechanical, biologic or
conductors electrical. This requires good material properties which is one of the
HERMLE AG, • Tool and mould https://www. challenges in CSAM. In comparison with CM methods, which have un­
Germany making hermle.de/d
• Additive build up e/home
dergone years of materials R&D; the material development of CSAM has
on semi-finished just initiated. In the initial years of CSAM, when the focus of AM in­
parts dustries was on prototyping development, little attention was put on the
• Integrated heat properties of materials. However, with the transformation of technology
elements
into production solutions, material properties have been explored.
Impact • Impact spray https
Innvoatios systems ://impact-inn Table 2 summarizes the important material functional properties and
GmbH, • Impact powder ovations. applications.
Germany feeder com/en/
• Impact of CS gun 2.1.1. Presence of inter-particle boundaries (IPBs) and micro-pores
• CS combustion
chamber
The inconsistencies in the material properties are still a big challenge
• CS ortho grid in CSAM. For instance, typical deposit defects found in CSAM processed
structure Cu, steel and Ti deposits are the presence of IPBs and micro-pores. Poor
• CSAM set-up for inter-particle bonding and insufficient plastic deformation during
depositing
deposition may generate these defects when impact velocity is less (Yin
Ti–6Al–4V using
N2 as He gas et al., 2018b). Fig. 8 depicted the mechanism of deposit formation
Inovati, • Rocket nozzles www.inovati. during the CSAM of ductile metals. After the formation of the first layer,
US • Add stiffening com three main stages were noticed, each stage having its contribution to the
ribs to Al panels consolidation of deposit. The growth of deposit initiates by the defor­
• Aircraft kinetic
metallization
mation and rotational motion of powder particles when they impact the
repairs substrate surface. This double kinematics mechanism contributes to­
VRC Metal • Department of • GEN III™ https wards the onset of the dense deposit. During the second stage, porosity
Systems, defence portable HP CS ://vrcmetalsys decreases further by plastic deformation of the particles thus producing
US • Shipping industry system tems.com/
the inter-particle bonding. At last densification of the deposit ends with
• VRC VIPER™ CS
systems hardening of the particles and this is the last stage in coating build-up
• Automated and (Raoelison et al., 2017).
additive Therefore, for ductile deposits like Cu, micro-pores are hardly found
subtractive due to better ductility, hardening and less strength to density ratio of
systems
ductile materials (Raoelison et al., 2016). The main defect that results in
the reduction of mechanical properties is primarily IPBs in the case of
Cu.Whereas, for other CSAM deposited materials like steel (Meng et al.,
2011) or Ti (Goldbaum et al., 2011), both micro-pores and IPBs affect

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G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Fig. 4. The schematic diagram for the development of coating during CSAM.

thermal and electrical conductivity levels of bulk Cu material.

Superalloys are the candidate material for high-temperature appli­
cations like in gas turbines and in energy sectors where service tem­
perature exceeds 1000 ◦ C and it may be a challenging task to deposit
superalloys with CSAM owning to its higher hardness (Bagherifard et al.,
2018). This leads to insufficient plastic deformation and can hinder the
formation of a dense deposit. As a result, deposits have poor mechanical
behaviour like poor strength with limited ductility due to excessive work
hardening of the surface during deposition. To investigate the chances of
getting good mechanical and physical properties of CSAM deposited
superalloys, possible PHT has been requested (Levasseur et al., 2012).
investigated pressureless sintering of IN-78 CS deposits. For the
as-sprayed condition, porosity was around 2.5% and after sintering, it
was observed that porosity decreases to 0.2%. The increased flexural
strength after the sintering was responsible for the enhancement of both
ductility and strength of CS IN-718 coatings. The tensile property of a CS
IN-718 coating using helium and nitrogen as driving gas was investi­
gated in the study carried out by (Wong et al., 2012). Initially, it was
Fig. 5. Comparison of CSAM with other techniques (Pattison et al., 2007).
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
noticed that the tensile strength of CS IN-718 coating employing helium
as a carrier gas is larger than exercising nitrogen. Secondly, deposits
become more ductile due to the increase in value of engineering strain as
the deposited properties owing to their higher hardness or higher
the HT temperature rises irrespective of the gas used to develop the
strength to density ratio.
IN-718 deposits (Fig. 10). This may be associated with the enhanced
inter-particle bonding due to sintering at elevated temperatures
2.1.2. Post heat treatment of deposits
(Bagherifard et al., 2018). recently compared CSAM fabricated
The effect of inter-particle boundaries and micro-pores can be
Inconel-718 samples before and after HT with SLM. CSAM leads to a
reduced by increasing the impact velocity of particles to improve plastic
homogeneous structure and also preserved the feedstock original
deformation of particles, or by PHT to introduce recrystallization within
microstructure, in comparison to the SLM series. HT promoted the
CSAM deposited particles and also across the IPBs (Huang et al., 2015;
intra-particle metallurgical bonding and leads to the significant increase
Gärtner et al., 2006a).
in ductility and cohesive strength of the CSAM series. Hence, elevated
The comparison of an etched Cu deposit in as-fabricated and
temperature in PHT can significantly enhance the performance of CSAM
annealed form can be observed in Fig. 9 (Yin et al., 2018a). In an
deposited superalloys used in future industry.
as-fabricated state, the presence of inter-particle boundaries can be
observed clearly with a minimal concentration of pores as shown in
2.1.3. Mechanical properties of deposits before and after HT
Fig. 9a. Whereas, after the annealing, process recrystallization occurs
Different spraying materials may exhibit distinct cold-spraying
both across IPBs and within the particles and assisted in the repair of
owing to their mechanical properties. Spraying materials for CSAM
defects at boundaries as seen in Fig. 9b. Moreover, repairing of IPBs
can be categorized into three main groups:
eliminates the barriers for heat transportation and currently leading to
enhanced electrical (Stoltenhoff et al., 2006; Borchers et al., 2005) and
• Materials that were hard-to-deform such as Ti–6Al–4V and superal­
thermal conductivity (Seo et al., 2012) of CSAM deposits. Both tensile
loy IN-718
strength and percentage elongation after annealing can reach a similar
• Soft materials, like Al, Cu and their alloys; and
level as bulk Cu. Annealed deposits can get more than 90% of the
• Moderate strength materials, such as stainless steel.

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G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Fig. 6. The major areas of CSAM.

2.2. Inter-particle bonding control

The inter-particle bonding effect corrosive media penetrations (Xie

et al., 2019b; Wei et al., 2018), the load transmissions (Frattolin et al.,
2019; Feng et al., 2018), current and heat flow transmissions (Li et al.,
2017, 2018bib_Li_et_al_2018bib_Li_et_al_2017) and hence, it decides the
performance and application of CS metallic deposited parts. In CS de­
posits the inter-particle bonding is closely connected to the plastic
deformation of impacted particles (Li et al., 2020), and oxide scale
presence at the interface of deposited-particle (Aghamiri et al., 2019).
This oxide scale at the interface results from the spraying powder surface
and is relevant to the powder natural characteristics (Luo et al., 2016).
Supersonic impact during CS results in the cracking of this brittle sur­
ficial oxide scale on spraying powder and trapped finally at the
inter-particle boundaries after deposition of the following particles,
which inhibits the effective bonding formation at the interface of the
deposited particle (Li et al., 2007).
For the high quality of coatings on modern industrial components,
bonding mechanism has significant importance in CSAM technology
Fig. 7. Diagram outlining the challenges of CSAM.
(Ichikawa et al., 2019). The authors have discussed that inter-particle
bonding in the area of CS remains a central point of contention, spe­
cifically for asymmetrical pairs like Ni and Ti. The Ni particles experi­
All the CS deposits possess limited ductility and tensile strength
ence more deformation when sprayed on the Ti substrate (Nikbakht
before HT, although by selecting an appropriate HT process better
et al., 2018). In the case of Ti particles when sprayed on Ni substrate,
strength could be achieved. PHT is an effective method to enhance both
similar deformation levels are experienced both by particle and sub­
ductility (Fig. 11) and the strength of the deposits (Fig. 12) (Li et al.,
strate leads to a significant increase in inter-particle bonding. The major
2018).
bonding mechanisms in CSAM are metallurgical (Bae et al., 2008), and
All CS powder feedstocks provide an excellent combination of tensile
mechanical (Assadi et al., 2003; Xie et al., 2015).
strength and ductility. Sufficient ductility and tensile strength are
needed for better mechanical integrity.
2.2.1. Bonding mechanism
The inconsistencies in the material properties can be minimized by
Metallurgical bonding (MB) is regarded to generate higher adhesion
using a solid material database with proven parameters and stated
strength in CS coatings. It was proved experimentally through evidence
specifications for the development of successful 3D printing. The stan­
of intermetallics, amorphous phases and dimple-like features at fracture
dards developing organizations such as ASTM and ISO have released
surfaces of CS coatings or individual splat (Price et al., 2007; Bai et al.,
very few specifications for metal powders such as Ni, Ti and SS. These
2009). To achieve superior coatings with enhanced bonding strength
developments may be a key factor in affirming that CSAM materials can
and ductility, realizing the shift from mechanical to MB can be benefi­
meet future manufacturers demands for better efficiency and reliability.
cial. The MB in CSAM is described in Fig. 13. During the CSAM process,
large impact pressure developed from high velocity sprayed particles

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G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Table 2
Overview of material functional properties for CSAM deposits.
Materials Functional properties

Corrosion- Oxidation Erosion Wear- Conductive/ Biocompatibility Anti- Bulk material

resistant resistant Resistant resistant Insulation bacterial

Metals and
alloys
Metal/Polymer
Oxides
Nanomaterials
Ceramics
Intermetallics
Polymers

Applications
• Aerospace • Aerospace • Aerospace • Automobile • Electronic • Biomedical • Biomedical • Variety of
industrial sectors
• Automobile • Automobile • Naval • Aerospace • Aerospace • Dental
• Electronics • Electronics • Machining • Energetic • orthopaedic
• Defence • Defence • Decoration • electric
contact
• Petrochemical • Petrochemical

Fig. 8. Plastic deformation stages for ductile metals during CSAM (Raoelison et al., 2017). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

produce compaction, severe deformation and plastic flow (Fig. 13a)
which in-turn removes the oxide films from the component surface
(Fig. 13b), and consequently a large surface area of the fresh metal is
revealed, which permit intimate contact of metal-to-metal (Fig. 13d).
The MB is confirmed by a dimple-like ductile hallmark at the surface of
the fracture. Most of the studies that centred mostly on the
cross-sectioned examinations by using SEM, TEM, and even FIB methods
cannot give proper particular information regarding the bonding situa­
tion (Xie et al., 2019a). (Hussain et al., 2009) observed that with an
increase in thickness of oxide layers on the substrate, jets are difficult to
form during the CS process and jets are vital for better inter-metallic
bonding.
2.2.2. Peening effect
To enhance the MB of CSAM developed coatings for efficient use in
future industry, further investigations are needed on better inter-particle
bonding control. One such effective method to enhance the inter-particle
bonding is the introduction of the “peening effect”. The peening effect
not only intensifies the plastic deformation but also improves densifi­
cation in CSAM sprayed coatings. For instance, to densify the coating
deposits, the in-situ shot peening (IssP) effect was applied by mixing big-
sized particles of SS (120 μm–180μm) with the coating powders (size 10

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G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 9. Microstructure comparisons of an etched Cu deposit (Yin et al., 2018a).
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
μm–50μm) to deposit Ti6Al4V and pure Ti-coatings. The outcomes
exhibited that the IssP effect can remarkably enhance the densification
and coating microhardness through significant strain hardening (Luo
et al., 2015). Identical findings were also observed by (Wei et al., 2018)
and they developed fully dense Al6061 alloys on the AZ31B component
by depositing Al6061 powder (size 20 μm–50μm) mixed with big-sized
SS particles (size 200 μm–300μm). The outcomes revealed that with
IssP coating porosity decreases and corrosion resistance enhances. Based
on the further consolidations and compactions of coating microstruc­
tures, pure Al coating developed by IssP exhibited strong adhesion
strength with high corrosion resistance (Wei et al., 2017). Fig. 14 shows
the in-situ shot peening (IssP) process for better inter-particle bonding.
Besides the peening effect, the unbonded powder particles (no need
for mixing larger particles in powder feedstocks) can also introduce
peening effects on the already deposited coatings (Xie et al., 2019a). The
impact of strengthened peening effect (SPE) at high propelling gas
pressures on the bonding features among Nickel particle/Aluminium
substrate and Nickel coating/Aluminium substrate were examined to
understand the mechanism of bonding. It may be suggested prudently
that the SPE introduced by the successive impact of incoming particle is
the deciding factor for the MB formation during deposition of the full
coating. Fig. 15 shows that the insufficient kinetic energy possessed by
individual Nickel particle has resulted in the absence of MB developed
among Nickel splat and Aluminum substrate.
For the full nickel coating deposition, massive impacts of subsequent
nickel particles with higher velocities can lead to the formation of MB as
Fig. 10. Tensile test outcomes and porosity for as-sprayed and HT IN-718 deposits using He and N2 as driving gas (Wong et al., 2012). Reproduced with permission
from Springer Nature.
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Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
presented in Fig. 16. The SPE can significantly enhance the area of MB
among coating and substrate for better bonding inside the deposited
coating. Such promoted deformation of Nickel particle can also justify
the reduction in coating porosity content at high propelling gas pres­
sures. The SPE significantly enhances the bonding strength of the CSAM
deposited coating. The SPE at high propelling gas pressures can provide
a novel direction to enhance the deposited coating properties by CSAM.
For instance, it is possible to enhance remarkably the bond strength and
densification rates of a CS sample by employing IssP, which may break
via bottleneck of the development of the CS equipment.
2.2.3. Removal of the surficial oxide scale of the feedstock powder
The surficial oxide scale of the coating powder decreases the depo­
sition efficiency of feedstock powder in CS, but it also degrades the
deposit’s properties due to its effect on inter-particle bonding (Li et al.,
2017, 2018bib_Li_et_al_2017bib_Li_et_al_2018). Acid pickling is used to
dissolve the oxide scale present on the surface of the received powder, to
improve both the deposition quality of the spraying powder and the
deposit properties (Li et al., 2021). Acid-pickling is done by utilizing a
weak hydrochloric acid (HCL) solution and alcohol (ratio of HCL to
alcohol was 1:5). The received powder is submerged in the pre-prepared
acid alcohol solution and thereafter stirred. Stirring continues at room
temperature for more than 5 min until the powder colour did not change
and then dried. To avoid powder oxidation during drying, the process of
drying is conducted in a sealed tank having low pressure and continued
for 24 h. The powder was withdrawn and vacuum sealed when its weight
stopped decreasing. The morphology of as-received and acid-picked
powders are represented in Fig. 17. The acid-pickled powder is light
yellow, with only a few white spotty oxides such as “isolated-island”
remaining as shown in Fig. 17b.
The mechanism for the deposits using as-received and acid-picked
feedstocks is represented in Fig. 18 The oxide film present on the sur­
face of feedstock breaks into parts and further these parts get trapped in-
between the splats as presented in Fig. 18a-c. In the case of acid-pickled
feedstock powder, the oxide film present on the powder particles already
broke down into tiny parts and doesn’t much affect the inter-particle
bonding as presented in Fig. 18(d–f).
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Fig. 11. Tensile strength of widely used CSAM deposits.

Fig. 12. % Elongation of widely used CSAM deposits.

2.3. Residual stresses 2.3.1. Microscopic level

CSAM is also anticipated to produce residual stress in parts and bulk
components and can result in component cracking or shape distortions.
As-fabricated deposits of CS contains compressive residual stresses
which occurs due to the accumulation of peening stresses among suc­
cessively deposited layers (Luzin et al., 2011; Suhonen et al., 2013).
Such compressive residual stresses in the CSAM deposits can be released
via post-spray annealing (Coddet et al., 2015). In past research studies
associated with residual stresses were concentrated on various scale
levels.
The microscopic level is also known as the “splat scale” was the focus
of studies due to the issue of splat bonding and the mechanism of deposit
formations. Residual stresses and related plastic deformation phenom­
ena were the main part of studies because it was necessary to understand
the CS deposition mechanism; the Microscopic level of understanding is
examined in various single-splat deposition simulations (Li et al., 2009;
Ghelichi et al., 2011). Such simulations, specifically multi-particle ones,
showed that the pattern of residual stress development within the
deposited splats is complex spatially and temporally; At this level re­
sidual stress in multilayer, deposits is highly oscillating and can locally

9
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Fig. 13. MB mechanism of CSAM. (a) Impacting particle, (b) Breaking of oxide film due to severe deformation, (c) Extruding of oxide film, and (d) jetting formation.

Fig. 14. In-situ shot peening (IssP) process for better inter-particle bonding (Monette et al., 2020). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.

Fig. 15. Surface morphologies of individual nickel splat at varying gas pressures (Xie et al., 2019a). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.

reach the yield point of the specific material.
2.3.2. Mesoscopic level
Mesoscopic level (in thin coatings scale), stress distribution coherent
effect leads to the conviction of deposition stress which may be termed
as the stress-related with infinitesimal thin material layer. All localised
oscillations disappear, leaving a moderate deposition stress value. This
deposition stress concept becomes the basis for analytical deposition
models (Tsui and Clyne, 1997a, 1997bbib_Tsui_and_Clyne_1997a­
bib_Tsui_and_Clyne_1997b) and many experimental works (Luzin et al.,
2018). Generally, it is anticipated that this deposition stress in CS
coatings is compressive (Papyrin, 2001).
2.3.3. Macroscopic level
Macroscopic level (in thick coatings scale) residual stress may have a
complex 3D distribution that depends upon shape, size and strategy

10
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 16. Bonding features of nickel coating at the interface at varying gas
pressures after HT with diffusion layer indicated by white arrows (Xie et al.,
2019a). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
Fig. 17. (a) Morphology of as-received spray powder and, (b) acid-pickled
powder (Li et al., 2021). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
Fig. 18. Schematic diagram illustrating the influence of acid pickling on the inter-particle bonding of CS metallic deposit (Li et al., 2021). Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier.
11
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
adopted for deposition. For thin coatings, scale both residual and
deposition stresses are the same but for thick multilayer coatings
deposition, stress and residual stress were not the same. Although for
every individual layer, deposition stress may be the same but the re­
sidual stress will not be consistent. It can be difficult conceptually and
experimentally to switch from the 1D system of coatings to arbitrary 3D
objects of varying shapes and sizes.
Although residual stress generation is known in CS coatings (on a
cylinder and flat surfaces) the experimental residual stress investigations
amount on studies for 3D components is still very limited (Luzin et al.,
2020). Using the combined knowledge of residual stress development in
coatings and generalized principles of stress distribution across 3D ob­
jects, some key predictions can be made to eliminate high residual
stresses in CSAM deposited coatings (Luzin et al., 2020). demonstrated
that residual stresses in CSAM deposits formed mainly via mismatching
of co-efficient of thermal expansion among coating powder and sub­
strate. This however can be eliminated by choosing the coating powder
and substrate with a similar thermal expansion coefficient. But stress
arising during deposition can’t be eliminated by this approach and this
should be the focus in CSAM deposits. The sign and magnitude of the
deposition stress during CSAM are determined by knowing the CSAM
system and spraying conditions used, but it can be altered by changing
the parameters (temperature–pressure) of the CSAM process.
Deposition stress may be compressive or tensile. Compressive
stresses are advantageous as they assist in preventing crack formations
and their propagation but on the other side tensile stresses should be
avoided. Tensile stresses take place when spray temperature is too high
to achieve better plastic deformation for hard-to-deform and moderate
strength materials. For instance, CS spraying of Ti at temperature
1100 ◦ C and pressure 50 bar demonstrates straight away tensile depo­
sition stresses (quenching) (Boruah et al., 2019). Another example is the
CS of duplex SS at temperature 800 ◦ C and pressure 35 bar generated
tensile stress. As tensile stress assists in the formation of surface cracks,
the CSAM regimes that produce tensile deposition stresses are not rec­
ommended from the viewpoint of the structural integrity of CSAM
deposits.
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 19. Cu particles: (a) Spherical shape, and (b) Dendrite shape (Malachowska et al., 2017). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
2.4. Supersonic deposition of metals
2.4.1. Mechanical efficiency
In the field of supersonic particle deposition (CSAM), researchers
have found various problems related to the supersonic deposition of
metals. For instance, there have been few research investigations on the
enhancement of the mechanical efficiency of the supersonic particle
deposition process (Gartner et al., 2006). recommended that the use of
fluid dynamics may help to design optimized nozzle geometry (Leitz
et al., 2018). elaborated that the final mechanical properties of the
coating were greatly influenced by initial particle temperature. The
interaction between the nozzle and the particle can be modelled and
then predicted. The impacting particle temperature profile can be
simulated according to design applications. Higher particle temperature
and larger particles upon impact reduce critical velocity (Faizan-Ur-Rab
et al., 2016). recommended that to obtain higher efficiency in the CSAM
technique, a 3D model is required to calculate the acceleration of par­
ticles and their impact temperature. This 3D model also predicts the flow
Fig. 20. Comparative analysis of the artificial neural network (ANN) and Gaussian modelling approaches (Ikeuchi et al., 2019).
12
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
of the particle as a function of particle temperature, size, and velocity
and also accounted for individual particles path within the nozzle. The
3D model can be employed to reduce costs and will assist in the devel­
opment of more accurate CSAM processes.
2.4.2. Thickness of coatings
Al is a preferred material owing to its less weight and excellent
ductility in the CSAM industry. Coatings deposited using CSAM are
characterized by higher bond strength which arises from the better
bonding mechanism among powder particles. But still, limited infor­
mation is available in the literature on the adhesion strength of coatings
and their dependence upon resulting coating thickness (Winnicki et al.,
2016). discussed that the thickness of the coating is directly proportional
to the surface roughness. As thicker coatings contain higher waviness
which develops more extended topography. The coatings adhesion
strength decreases when the thickness of the coating increases from 250
to 1000 μm. For thicker coatings (range 1500–3000 μm) the bond
strength value typically amounted up-to 61 MPa.
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
2.4.3. Deposition on polymers
The CSAM method has been commercialized around the globe for
deposition of metallic, ceramics, and composite coatings only on
metallic substrates, but in future, more research activities are needed on
an urgent basis to unlock the material properties feasible with CSAM
deposition of metallic materials on polymers. As polymers individually
can’t possess all requirements related to design and service. The polymer
cores were strengthened by the deposition of metallic materials for
structural usage by using CSAM. With additional development, the
CSAM route could provide an alternative for quick replacement of
damaged parts, reduction in weight of metallic parts leading to
competitive advantages. But the shape, powder oxidation and hardness
of spray particle as discussed by (Malachowska et al., 2017) have a
decisive influence on the formation of the excellent coating during CS as
it can directly impact critical velocity. Less erosion was produced by
dendrite-shaped powders when sprayed on polymers owing to a larger
contact area among the spray particles and the component. Fig. 19
shows the Cu particles for CS and the micrograph in Fig. 19a shows
spherical Cu particles. The SEM micrograph presents Cu particles with a
dendrite shape as shown in Fig. 19b. However, more porosity was
observed in final coatings with dendrite shaped powders.
Spraying particles of soft nature like lead or tin can be deposited
easily on polymer substrates. While during deposition of materials such
as Al or Ti on polymer substrates, the supersonic particle deposition
method also leads to erosion of substrate. This erosion is more prevalent
when Cu is sprayed. Oxidation present on the spray powder can also
assist in poor spray adhesion and poor spray bonding as the metallic
bonding is inhibited due to oxides (Malachowska et al., 2017). There­
fore, for the successful deposition of metallic coatings on soft polymers,
all these challenges must be accounted.
2.4.4. Low geometrical control
Another barrier in the worldwide commercialization of the CSAM
process is that the geometrical control (GC) and deposition accuracy
during CSAM manufacturing are also not high (Chen et al., 2017). Low
GC limits the application of CSAM like the post-machining necessity,
difficulty in manufacturing complex geometries, property variations
induced due to geometry, and inconsistent manufactured parts quality.
Addressing GC challenge is of major note in CSAM and other AM tech­
nologies. From the viewpoint of GC, the evolution of a higher-accuracy
process model on the compact processing unit like a single CS track
provide an encouraging solution to the above-said problem as single
track aggregate may be helpful to determine final part geometry. The
single-track model also plays a vital role in the modelling of larger
processing units like overlapping and overlayer models in the available
literature (Ding et al., 2015; Nenadl et al., 2016).
2.4.5. Use of neural network model
A neural network model may be used in the profile prediction of
CSAM coatings to improve GC with a suitable process planning algo­
rithm (Ikeuchi et al., 2019). This network model can predict the com­
plete track profiles both for normal angles and off-normal spray angles.
Fig. 20 represents the comparative analysis of the artificial neural
network (ANN) and Gaussian modelling approaches. ANN modelling
approach possessed the capability to provide the complete prediction of
track profiles in detail during CSAM at similar levels of accuracy or
higher.
2.4.6. Low deposition accuracy
CSAM deposition accuracy is limited owing to the dispersion of the
particle near the component due to their complex shapes like the pres­
ence of corners and sharp edges that reduces the process efficiency and
precision in these areas. To overcome this issue, the use of a particle
injector consisting of micro-nozzles having smaller diameters is an op­
tion (Sova et al., 2013). The micro-nozzles in CS can lead to an increase
in high deposition accuracy and spatial resolution but it needs fine
13
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
Fig. 21. Photographs representing (a) growth of track, (b) vertical wall
developed (Pattison et al., 2007). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
powders and even dense structure cannot be obtained owing to the
limitation of shot acceleration path.
In developing complex shaped profiles, the in-appropriate spraying
angle of the gun also leads to low deposition accuracy and lesser effi­
ciency. The impact of the spraying angle on the developed track profile
was also studied in the literature. It was found that by varying the gun
angle, the deposited layers profiles can be triangles with desired angles,
and by ensuring a specific pattern, complex shape geometric profiles can
be developed (Pattison et al., 2007). have analyzed experimentally that
a triangular profile can be generated during coating deposition. By
tilting the spraying nozzle, deposition of particles can be achieved
normal to the inclined surface of previously generated tracks. Hence, by
achieving the deposition of triangular profiles in the right pattern, ver­
tical walls could be developed as shown in Fig. 21 (Yin et al., 2018b).
also has similar findings and authors recommended that by following
the right pattern, complex-shaped geometries can be generated and also
particles dispersion on inclined surfaces can be minimized. But on the
other hand powder deposition efficiency strongly relies on the height of
the triangle. In specific, increasing track height results in a significant
reduction of deposition efficiency (>than 35%) owning to diminishing
of effective impingement spray angle among particles and surface
(Kotoban et al., 2017).
(Garmeh et al., 2020) examined the effects of impact angle and
substrate shape on the particles’ in-flight behaviour. The numerical
modelling approach presented in the experimentation provides better
insights about the deposition accuracy and deposited layers shape
developed by CSAM. Three shapes of objects include two cylindrical
frustums with distinct angles and a cylinder was placed as the AM parts
on substrate top as shown in Fig. 22.
Owing to particle deviation and high-speed particles deposition at
the base of the frustum and cylinder, the deposited material angle keeps
on increasing with time, and lastly, a triangular profile can be devel­
oped. The easiest method to resolve this issue is tilting the nozzle for the
particles deposition normal to slanted surfaces. Moreover, to optimize
process deposition and to understand particle behaviour close to in­
clined surfaces and basic flow structure, numerical simulations required
to be performed in near future for CSAM deposits.
2.5. Process parameters control
The process parameters should be analyzed in an organized manner
for the development of superior deposits. In fabricating 3D parts by
CSAM technology, the robot-assisted spraying strategy plays a key role.
The various kinematic CS process parameters are manipulated and
controlled with help of a robot. The CS spray gun moves to the
component by controlling and monitoring the various kinematic pa­
rameters such as the spraying trajectory, the relative speed among the
nozzle and the component, the spraying distance (SD), the angle of
spraying and the scanning step.
In CSAM, to develop quality coatings on component the powder
feeder, propulsive gas, and the spraying nozzle must work simulta­
neously under careful monitoring. Fig. 23 shows an illustrative repre­
sentation of the typical CSAM manufacturing parameters which is a
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 22. AM parts: (a) cylinder, (b) frustum 15◦ , and (c) frustum 45◦ (Garmeh et al., 2020). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
Fig. 23. The schematic diagram for the various process parameters employed in CSAM.
challenging task in CSAM for the production of quality coatings. Table 3
sums up the as-sprayed CSAM coating properties and their relationships
with the various process parameters. Consideration of the same leads to
the elite CSAM fabricating strategy with quality outcomes.
It is clear from Table 3 that limited studies are available on SD and
nozzle scanning step and they should be given a thought for better
applicability of CSAM in future.
2.5.1. Type of carrier gas
Compressed air, N2, and He are the most common carrier gases used
in CS systems. Despite being the most cost-effective alternative, com­
pressed air has the drawback of not being able to meet the required
particle velocities for some heavier materials. Since N2, and He is rela­
tively inert, they are viable substitutes as they don’t promote oxidation.
Compressed air and N2 are commonly used for cold spraying mono
ductile powders like Al and Cu because they are less expensive than He
while also achieving the minimum gas velocity needed for coating for­
mation. He is commonly used in situations where the gas velocity pro­
vided by compressed air or N2 is inadequate to achieve effective
deposition or high-quality coating.
14
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
2.5.2. Carrier gas pressure and temperature
The carrier gas velocity is directly affected by the carrier gas pres­
sure. This would eventually improve the particle velocity existing the CS
nozzle and, as a result, the coating quality and deposit properties. The
pressure and temperature of the gas are usually between 0.5 and 6.0
MPa and 25 and 1000 ◦ C, respectively.
Some experimental studies show that increasing particle impact ve­
locity increases deposition performance, improves deposit porosity,
deposit strength, and adhesion strength owning to reduced defects and
improved metallic bonding (Binder et al., 2011; Goldbaum et al., 2011).
However, high impact velocities may results in higher residual stresses
due to an increase in the rate of plastic deformation of particles in CSAM
deposits (Shayegan et al., 2014; Luzin et al., 2011). Whereas, owning to
the in-situ annealing effect, a higher gas temperature was observed to
relieve residual stress, implying that raising the gas temperature did not
dramatically increase residual stresses (Petráčková et al., 2017; Eason
et al., 2012).
2.5.3. Powder feed rate (PFR)
The PFR determines how much powder is added into the carrier gas
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Table 3
Effect of various kinematic process parameters on coating properties.
Process parameters Variables Porosity Deposition Bond strength Residual stress Surface roughness Coating References
(%) efficiency (%) (MPa) (MPa) (μm) flatness (%)

Spray angle (◦ ) 90 – 100 34.5 – – – Wang et al. (2015)

75 85 58.6
60 65 82.7
45 41 137.9
90 – – – − 11.18 – – Shayegan et al.
75 − 9.48 (2014)
60 − 4.84
45 − 0.3
90 0.10 >95 – – – – Binder et al. (2011)
70 0.5 89
45 6.5 83
90 0.52 ± – – – 3.5 ± 0.3 – Singh et al. (2017)
0.08
60 1.47 ± 6.7 ± 0.3
0.42
Scanning step (mm) 2 – – – – – 100 Cai et al. (2014)
4 99.82
6 87.95
8 55.38
Nozzle traverse speed 100 0.5 – 2.5 – 8.89 – bib_Tan_et_al_2017
(mm/s) 300 2.7 >60 8.76
500 3.2 >60 7.23
10 – 56 – – – – Kotoban et al. (2017)
20 62.5
40 67
80 70
20 1 23 – – 36 – Seraj et al. (2019)
100 1.8 41 26
300 3 46 25
Propellant Gas 2 11.8 – 37 – – – Xie et al. (2019a)
pressure (Mpa) 2.4 4 42
2.8 1.5 54
2 18 ± 10.1 19 – – – – Goldbaum et al.
3 2.5 ± 0.3 30 (2011)
4 5.9 ± 1.5 49
Gas temperature (◦ C) 300 2.5 ± 0.3 30 – – – – Goldbaum et al.
500 1.4 ± 0.6 83 (2011)
750 0.7 ± 0.1 100
Powder feed rate (g/ 1.7 0.51 83.2 – – – – Ozdemir et al. (2017)
min) 8 0.53 82.5
39.8 0.72 81.7
SD (mm) 20 – 100 – – – – Li et al. (2008b)
65 88
110 76
80 0.92 ± – – – 3.4 ± 0.3 – Singh et al. (2017)
0.19
60 0.45 ± 3.3 ± 0.3
0.10
40 0.75 ± 3.2 ± 0.4
0.27

jet for deposition of the coating. The properties of CSAM deposits were
influenced by PFR in three ways. Firstly, increased PFR increases
porosity levels, decreases hardness, deposition efficiency and tensile
strength of deposits due to a decrease in particle velocity as a result of
strong gas-particle interaction (Ozdemir et al., 2017; Meyer et al., 2016).
Secondly, if all other considerations remain constant, a faster PFR nor­
mally results in a thicker coating per pass and sharp track profiles (Sova
et al., 2013; Pattison et al., 2007). Third, high PFR will result in high
residual stress between the deposits and the substrate which should be
avoided during CSAM (Ozdemir et al., 2017). Hence for good quality
CSAM deposits, all these three factors must be taken into consideration
and PFR used in CSAM are usually much lower than 100 g/s, with rates
ranging from 10 g/s to 30 g/s being common.
2.5.4. Nozzle transverse speed
During the CS, the nozzle transverse speed has a direct effect on the
coating deposition quality. In general, the high transverse speed of the
nozzle leads to higher porosity, lower deposition rates since fewer par­
ticles are hitting a single region of the substrate. On the other hand low
transverse speed results in dense deposits (single layer) and sharp
coating profiles. But low speeds results in a decrease of mechanical
properties also like elastic modulus, deposit strength, and adhesion
strength (Tan et al., 2017; Rech et al., 2014).
The low adhesion strength and high residual stress are not appro­
priate for the practical applicability of CSAM for the restoration/repair
of damaged parts (Ozdemir et al., 2017). Therefore, it is not suggested to
use a low nozzle traverse speed for CSAM.
2.5.5. Spraying angle
The CSAM coating properties strongly depends upon the spraying
angle, as the impact direction of molten and semi-molten spraying
particles onto the surface of the substrate followed by proper embed­
ment of these spray particles on the metal surface is controlled by
maintaining a proper spraying angle. The angle measures 90◦ ideally
when the spray particle impacts the component surface straight up and
transfer greater momentum and thermal energy to the component sur­
face. Nevertheless, for coating complex shaped geometries and due to
the limited mobility of a robot system, it is impossible to maintain a

15
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Table 4
The effect of various kinematic process parameters on coating properties in a generalized way.
Process parameters Condition Porosity Deposition efficiency Adhesion strength Residual stress Surface roughness Coating flatness

Spray angle

Scanning step

Nozzle traverse speed

Propellant Gas pressure

Gas temperature

Powder feed rate

Molecular weight of ga S

SD

Designations
Increase Decrease No data No common view

microstructure of coating (Kang et al., 2006) as, the impacting particles

do not possess the required energy to cover-up the entire surface of
substrate effectively, giving rise to more porous coatings and should be
avoided in CSAM. The effect of various kinematic process parameters on
coating properties in a generalized way is presented in Table 4.

2.5.6. Scanning step

Fig. 24. Schematic set-up of scanning step definition.
consistent spray angle of 90◦ and it needs to be reduced. This change in
impact angle can cause undesirable variations in the deposition rate or
final coating properties. Different studies in the literature (Ilavsky et al.,
1997; Friis et al., 2001) had already discussed that coating porosity in­
creases with reduced spray angles. The feedstock powder particles
sprayed at reduced angles indicate a decreased-normal velocity
component. As the final deformation of the impacting particles strongly
bet on the normal velocity component, it can be considered that reduced
spray angles in thermal spraying affect the deposition efficiency and
The scanning step means the interval among the two consecutive
(Fig. 24) scanning tracks when a coating is sprayed by a multi-track
trajectory. It is one of the important considerations when focusing on
the thickness and flatness of sprayed coatings.
The optimal value of the scanning step is under 4 mm can lead to a
uniform thickness of the coating (Cai et al., 2014). The surface rough­
ness of the as-deposited coating becomes too low if the scanning step is
too small and vice-versa. If it is large then the flatness of coating de­
creases and the thickness distribution of sprayed coating becomes un­
even. The variation in scanning steps results in the various track-to-track
profile distributions. Finally, influencing the pore and residual stress
distribution in CSAM developed coatings (Yang et al., 2018). The
detailed in-depth studies on the influence of varying the scanning step
are limited. The influence of changing the scanning step onto the
deposited coating properties is not acknowledged.
2.5.7. Stand-off distance
Studies on SD are still very limited with CSAM manufactured parts.
Inside a supersonic jet flow, jet core intensity reduces gradually along
the central axis of the jet owning to the exchange of momentum among

Fig. 25. Deposition efficiency: function of SD: (a) (Pattison et al., 2008) and (b) (Li et al., 2008b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

16
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 26. Etched microstructures of deposits: (a) A1, (b) A2, and (c) A3 (Fan et al., 2020).
atmosphere and jet (Yin et al., 2014). The particles inside the jet core
experience positive drag forces and accelerate rapidly. After reaching a
short distance as soon as high-velocity gas leaves from a divergent sec­
tion of the nozzle, its speed gets slower in comparison to the velocity of
the particles inside the jet. The velocity of the particles also reduces
owning to the resultant negative drag forces. Hence, the impact velocity
of particles and deposition efficiencies rise as the SD increases from zero,
but declines after an optimal distance (Pattison et al., 2008). This phe­
nomenon has already been confirmed experimentally in CSAM Al, Cu
and Ti deposits as shown in Fig. 25. However, a much smaller optimal
SD was reported by (Li et al., 2008b) and also a sharp decline in depo­
sition efficiency particularly for Al and Ti deposits as the SD increases
from 10 mm to 110 mm. There are also various other studies concen­
trating on the effect of SD (Singh et al., 2017; Won et al., 2014), but
unfortunately, the mostly evaluated parameters result were not consis­
tent on the influence of nozzle SD in CSAM deposits due to a limited
number of available CSAM studies. The optimal SD for generalized
manufacturing works lies in a range of 10–40 mm. More studies are
required to clarify the influence of SD on CSAM fabricated coatings in
near future.
2.6. Cost reduction
The greatest hindrance to CSAM adoption may lie in the investment
required to put CSAM on the industry production floor. It is not only
associated with buying the CSAM equipment but also investing towards
the ecosystem of CSAM, which comprises software’s, materials, on hand
Fig. 27. Influence of nozzle exit diameter on particle velocity (Li and Li, 2005).
Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
17
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
training of workers, post-processing equipment, certifications and
finally the establishment of a facility needed to adapt all this. The
expenditure and resources needed to put this whole puzzle together are
sometimes so huge that organization is not willing or unable to invest in
CSAM. The equipment cost required to cut down to unlock CSAM
technology for wider markets. The quick wins may attract the attention
of the manufacturing world and can create a feeling of momentum for
developing the resources. But right now, CSAM has been a costly process
that hinders its widespread commercialization in the industry.
2.6.1. Cost associated with a carrier gas and feedstock preparation
For instance, to deposit harder materials high pressure of carrier gas
is the primary requirement and expensive N2 or He gases are also
required to be employed as propellants (Fan et al., 2020). The usage of
compressed air as carrier gas can appreciably cut down cost, but the
process efficiency and performance remains on lower site in comparison
to the He. As compressed air does not produce the desired impact ve­
locity needed for deposition owning to its higher molecular weight.
The coating powder preparation for CSAM is also expensive as
spraying powder should be developed according to the requirements
such as the size and shape of the component. The concerns about the
powder loss during coating deposition by using air or N2 as driving gas is
one of the challenges. Due to low impact velocity, coating powders may
rebound after hitting the component surface. By using affordable gases
like air and N2, ideal process deposition efficiency may reach up-to
around 85%–90% (meaning 10%–15% powders loss), which high­
lighted the CS more inviting and eco-friendly option. But in the ongoing
circumstances, it is <50%, specifically for LPCS, despite different pro­
spective enhancements based on the metal powders features and usage
of laser assistance technology to promote metallurgical bonding (Ogawa
et al., 2008; Lagerbom et al., 2007). However, component heating
combining with fine metal powders enables enhancing the efficiency of
up to 80% (Fukumoto et al., 2007). There exist a key challenge in front
of CSAM engineer and researchers to optimize the deposition efficiency
of CS by using air and nitrogen as driving gas rather than Helium for the
better practical commercial use of CSAM in future industry.
Recently (Fan et al., 2020), have proposed a novel manufacturing
strategy for high-performance CSAM deposits without using costly and
un-sustainable He gas. It was concluded from their study that the com­
bination of low process parameters and wider powder particle size will
trigger the successful implementation of this novel approach. The
deposition behaviour of particle under varying impact velocities the
etched microstructures of Al deposits are shown in Fig. 26. After the
etching operation, the inter-particle boundaries present within the de­
posits were noticed clearly and it was seen that particles within the A1
deposit undergone a remarkably higher degree of plastic deformation in
contrast with the other two cases (A2 and A3). A mutual interlocking
behaviour as indicated by the yellow arrows has enhanced the me­
chanical properties of A1. This observation concludes that the A1 de­
posit developed under the lower particle impact velocity have
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 28. CSAM tube machined into a finished part: (a) Al alloy tube, (b) Al alloy flange, and (c) Cu cuboid (Yin et al., 2018b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
experienced the most extreme plastic deformation.
2.7. Nozzle clogging
For lower melting point metals like Al and Mg-alloys, thermal soft­
ening of these materials can easily take place and attaches to the wall of
the nozzle and ultimately reduce the spraying efficiency. The issues
associated with nozzle clogging can be work out with dynamic models to
increase its capacity and effectiveness in terms of improved process ef­
ficiency and homogenous coatings. Moreover, a better nozzle design also
influences particle velocity. Novel materials must be explored to in­
crease powder flowability through the nozzle by using high-temperature
materials like nano-Al2O3. In addition to this nozzle design optimization
is also required to reduce gas flow through it (Karthikeyan, 2007).
investigated optimized nozzle design by using tungsten carbide for the
coating of GRCop-84 special alloy (Champagne et al., 2008; Champagne,
2008). designed a thermoplastic nozzle to deposit Al powder to reduce
the nozzle clogging. (Li and Li, 2005), have used ‘N’ gas to accelerate
powder particles at pressure 2 MPa and temperature 300 ◦ C with
different nozzle exit diameters.
It can be seen that there present an optimal value (ie., 5 mm) to get
the maximum velocity of particles as shown in Fig. 27 (Li et al., 2005).
also designed a special spray gun and fix 6.25 as expansion ratio and 30
mm as SD for a divergent nozzle 40 mm in length. He and ‘N’ was used as
a propellant gas to achieve a dense coating deposit.
2.8. Lack of standard design benchmark
It would be favourable to all consumers and stakeholders if the CSAM
had better standards universally, that is understood and accepted
clearly. With set standards, industries may compare apples to apples and
can make smart decisions that may be executed within a global
ecosystem of manufacturers, suppliers, and consumers. In the
manufacturing world, standards are vital as they sketch out the major
parameters that must be met for delivering a quality product. In the
CSAM process the materials, equipment, operators, engineers, distrib­
utors and more importantly manufacturing process themselves, all
required standards and a suitable mechanism for certifying against those
set standards to produce parts with better quality. Even-though 3D
printing technology begins 30 years ago, the manufacturing world
around the globe began to acknowledge it as a method for production in
recent years. For this cause, the industry has just started to develop
products and industry-related standards. The absence of standards for
3D printing remains one of the important bottlenecks braking down its
large scale adoption. Some of the wide known standard developing or­
ganizations, such as ASTM & ISO International, have established dedi­
cated committees in the development of AM standards. One such
example is a collaboration between Oerlikon, Switzerland and Boeing,
18
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
USA. Focusing AM usage in the aviation and defence sector, the part­
nership is centred on standardizing materials and techniques for metal
3D printing of the structural Ti parts. Perhaps the utmost strong
collaboration involves the initiation of AM CoE to fill important gaps in
the designing, feedstock, methods, and post-processing. In 2016, both
ASTM and ISO announced a framework for standards of 3D printing
known as the AM Standards Structure. The framework highlights the
different categories that need standardization, which widely covers:
• Feedstock Materials
• Processes and equipment
• HT of finished parts
There is no such standard available for the design of CSAM equip­
ment that can be easily adopted by the manufacturers and it is a major
drawback for its industrial application in future industry. For instance,
as the dimension and nozzle material of CSAM may be very different
among various manufacturers, the process repeatability of the experi­
ment is poor. The development of CSAM standards is a time-consuming
process but once defined it can yield outcomes, licensing manufacturers
to produce and implement applications of CSAM more comfortably. A
standard design of CS equipment may be set for producing desirable
CSAM deposit properties.
2.9. Need for machining
The reality of CSAM is that all the components coming out needs
some post-processing and machining operations to enhance its me­
chanical properties, dimensional accuracy and aesthetics look. This is
not a considerable issue when employing CSAM for prototyping work
out. As the CSAM technology is transforming to an end-product
manufacturing method, support removal and surface finishing opera­
tions have become the main bottlenecks in establishing CSAM produc­
tion lines. But all these operations can increase lead times and may add
to the cost of the product indirectly. In specific, CSAM and CS restoration
technologies are hard to encounter the challenges of large-scale pro­
duction if these operations were performed manually. Currently, com­
panies are still working on robotic solutions after the CSAM process to
minimize machining and support removal operations manually.
Limited research has been undertaken in the area of machinability of
CSAM deposits (Sova et al., 2013; Pattison et al., 2007). In specific,
CSAM manufactured products are appropriate for only conventional
machining operations. For instance, Fig. 28 Shows the CSAM products
machined into finished products employing conventional machining
operations. The Al alloy tube as shown in Fig. 28a was machined by
turning. The Al alloy flange is shown in Fig. 28b was machined using
turning and drilling and the Cu cuboid is shown in Fig. 28c machined by
milling demonstrating the suitability and reliability of conventional
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 29. Comparison among the mechanisms of chip formation: (a) Fully dense bulk Al, (b) Annealed CSAM deposited Al, and (c) without annealing (Aldwell et al.,
2017). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
Fig. 30. Surface roughness images of Turned Al deposits at: (a) without HT, (b), HT, (c) without HT, and (d) HT (Aldwell et al., 2017). Reproduced with permission
from Springer Nature.
machining operations in CSAM.
2.9.1. Pre-heat treatment of deposits
Before the machining process, proper annealing or other HT may be
necessary to achieve the required ductility in CSAM deposits otherwise
machining can lead to a surface similar to the cast or porous material. As
CSAM manufactured products comprise individual powder particles,
there may be density variations and work hardening levels within the
CSAM deposit (Yin et al., 2012). This can result in variations in thermal
and mechanical loads experienced by cutting tool. CSAM deposits are
more difficult to machine in comparison with bulk materials. Fig. 29
shows a comparison among the mechanisms of chip formation for bulk
Al and CSAM deposited Al with and without HT (Aldwell et al., 2017).
Fully dense bulk Al results in the formation of the continuous chip
during the machining process as shown in Fig. 29a. Annealed CSAM
deposited Al has better ductility and has discontinuous chips, but ma­
chines identical to the bulk Al material (Fig. 29b). However, during
machining of CSAM deposited Al without annealing (Fig. 29c), no chips
formed owning to limited plastic deformation. Poor inter-particle
bonding leads to the breaking of inter-particle bonds. Hence, the
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Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
machinability of a manufactured CSAM part relies upon the ductility,
inter-particle bonding and density of the deposit.
By increasing the impact velocity of particles or using an HT process
before machining, the surface roughness of the machined CSAM deposits
can be reduced significantly because of enhanced inter-particle bonding
as shown in Fig. 30 (Aldwell et al., 2017).
2.9.2. Tool wear
Another challenge associated with surface finishing or machining of
CSAM products is tool wear. Due to the discontinuous nature of the
machining, tool wear may be higher than that noticed when bulk ma­
terials were machined. The employability of harder materials in the
CSAM process like Al may lead to higher tool wear during the machining
(Ramulu et al., 2002). Further research-oriented activities are urgently
needed to explore the mechanism of tool wear in CSAM materials.
2.9.3. Selection of machining parameters
The selection of suitable machining parameters is also a challenging
task to achieve quality finished parts. The milling operation is a choice
to machine a non-symmetrical component. During the milling of brittle
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 31. CSAM benefits for sustainable manufacturing.
CSAM parts, large cutting forces tends to break the part. Improper
milling parameters results in fracture and cracks in the CSAM deposited
part (Sova et al., 2017; MacDonald et al., 2017). Currently, studies on
the mechanical properties and microstructures of CSAM deposited parts
after machining are very limited. Hence, more investigations on this
issue are required shortly to clarify the impact of different machining
methods and associated machining parameters on the microstructural
features and mechanical properties of the CSAM deposited parts.
2.10. Combining CSAM with CAD/CAM (software challenge)
Design and preparation of data are still an issue in this sector while
the focus is put on the high productivity hardware systems and the smart
software solutions are being ruled out from this equation. At first look, it
may seem that 3D printing is as easy as pressing a button. Industrial 3D
printing needs complex design preparation to develop a model set for
printing. The design workflow may include multiple steps. In a typical
fashion, a designer would generate a solid model by using CAD, then
reduce weight by optimizing structure, add necessary supports and then
perform simulation analysis. As a whole, all these will need different
programs and distinct software environments with multiple file formats.
Imagine that while performing a simulation run, the outcomes
indicated a build failure and needs to change the orientation of
component or support structures to prevent failure. As a result, the
designer has to go back to alter some of the parameters to make the
desired printable model. This requires time and more importantly
probability of an error-prone design process in transforming AM design
data via multiple software solutions. The industry is sorting the way outs
of 3D model development via multiple means. Popular software com­
panies, such as PTC, Dassault Systems, and Autodesk are melding
particular 3D print functionality option into their CAD programs. For
instance, PTC is giving software Creo 6.0 to perform both preparations of
design and print in one environment. To eliminate or reducing the
requirement for multiple transfers of data and conversions; software
companies such as Stratasys developed GrabCAD while 3D Systems
developed 3DXpert. Even-though huge advancements are being done in
the field of AM print preparation and its design but there is still space for
development. Giving freedom to the designers to alter 3D models within
a CAD environment without multiple conversions is very important in
20
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
making the challenge of design preparations a thing of the past.
3. CSAM sustainability implications
CSAM is a perfect “green” technology. It does not produce any
dangerous emissions and therefore has no substantial environmental
effect. CSAM is a strong tool for sustainability over a broad range of
modern manufacturing sector by restoring rather than replacing the
whole component. Moreover, CSAM technology can also be utilized to
replace lesser environmentally friendly techniques such as chrome
plating which produces hexavalent chrome discharge. CSAM can even
perform on-site industrial repairs on parts coating with other thermal
spraying methods which would generally have to be entirely removed
and re-coated again to repair a defected area. The benefits of CSAM for
sustainable manufacturing option may be classified into four major
areas (Fig. 31):
1. No substantial environmental effect of CSAM.
2. Restoration avoids whole component replacement.
3. State-of-the-art performance improving the useful service life of
future industrial components.
4. Optimized product structures and designs
3.1. Environmental concerns
CSAM technology is an industrial technique with minimal environ­
mental influence. The CSAM process does not produce any dangerous
emissions or toxic and harmful fumes. However, some characteristics of
its usage, including the technical skills or spraying experience required
to control and operate the system, make it challenging to implement.
The main risks are associated with handling coating powders, O2
displacement from the propellant gas, loud noise from the spraying
nozzle, and tearing of high-pressure heated hose pipes. These associated
risk factors can be controlled and are normally much lower than risks
connected with other industrial techniques. In general, as with any novel
technique, there is a need to provide technical knowledge to workers
and operators about the risks related to the process.
For example, CSAM uses powders that must be manoeuvred and
transported safely—otherwise, there is a chance of fire hazard, which
can be similar to gasoline-fueled explosions. CSAM powders are explo­
sive when:
• There is a cloud of powder of ample concentration.
• O2 (or an equivalently reducing gas) is present.
• There is a significant source of ignition.
There are also some industrial specifications for the careful
manoeuvring and usage of coating powders that assist both in facility
design and the evolution of SOPs when working with them (NFPA 654,
2017). Standard mitigation guidelines incorporate a Class D fire extin­
guisher for coating powders and state that work areas should be
equipped with a dust collection apparatus and should be clear of any
flammable quantities to avoid explosions. Also, regular housekeeping
should be done periodically so that ample volumes of coating powder do
not stockpile.
Another risk factor is the O2 displacement by the inert gas employed
as the driving gas for the coating powders. However, this risk is low, as
the gas produced is entirely non-toxic and non-polluting. This risk can be
controlled using O2 sensors, alarms, and system controls that can alert
operators if O2 levels dip below a safe value in a working region.
The sound decibel limits produced by the CSAM process are another
primary area of concern and must be managed per the applicable stan­
dards (OSHA Technical Manual (2013)). CSAM nozzles can create
sounds within the 110–120 dB range in the short region of the nozzle (i.
e., less than 1m). CSAM operation is normally done in a sound damping
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 32. Comparison among defected and restore components after CSAM:
mould (Lee et al., 2007). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
ratio, and operators working within this specific enclosure with sus­
tained noise >85 dB must wear proper ear protection.
Finally, CSAM utilizes a high-pressure thermal gas source, and there
are risks associated with the high-temperature and pressurized areas of
Fig. 33. Repair of corrosion damage by CSAM approach using Al or Al alloy: (a) Gearbox sump of S-92 helicopter, (b) oil tube bores (helicopter accessory cover
CH47), c) gearbox sump (UH-60 helicopter), and (d) rotor transmission housing (UH-60) (Yin et al., 2018b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
21
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
the CSAM system, owing to mechanical faults. Operators can suffer
burns and injuries from heated lines if any portion of their body contacts
any un-insulated area of the heated line or from high-temperature gas
exiting either from the spraying nozzle or due to a failure or leakage
along the heated line. The CSAM applicator nozzle should never be put
up against an operator’s body, as extreme injury or even death could
result if the CSAM system is still hot or pressurized.
3.2. Component restoration vs. replacement
The most preferred route in the CSAM technology which can improve
the sustainability of industrial components in the current and future
manufacturing sector is through repairing and restoration rather than a
component replacement (Hodges, 2005). Components can fail to own
mechanical damage, fatigue, or accidental impact. Components restore
by the CSAM approach is presented in Fig. 32. It can be noticed clearly
that CSAM restore the defective components in a state before they
occurring. The final decision to either repair or replace depends upon
both the cost of repair and the frequency of repair (Beichelt, 2001). With
CSAM, there is the freedom to maintain balance among admissible
repair costs and reduced repair frequencies. This can be achieved in two
ways viz. repair with the same material and spot repairing.
3.2.1. Repair with the same material
Numerous repairs are mainly recurring repairs owning to failures of
already repaired materials, for instance in composites and epoxy
patches, which needed to be periodically replaced during maintenance
due to interfacial stresses arising from differences in thermal expansion
or due to accelerated corrosion at interfaces of failed faying surface like
welded, bolted, and riveted joints.
3.2.2. Spot repairing
The CSAM is normally required only in the repairing region. Unlike
the welding method, which generally needed multiple locations to be
restored due to distortions in the component, CSAM can be applied
entirely to the affected region and after that, it is re-machined or
grounded to the exact required dimensions.
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Fig. 34. 3D part manufactured using CSAM and topology optimization technique (Lynch et al., 2013). Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis.

22
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
Fig. 35. Manufacturing of pyramidal fin arrays for heat sink application using
CS in a customized mask (Cormier et al., 2016). Reproduced with permission from
Springer Nature.
3.3. Improved service life via advanced sustainable coatings
Another remarkable freedom for CSAM repairs is to enhance the
sustainability of industrial systems by depositing a layer of a higher-
performing material over the base metal in those zones where corro­
sion or wear dominates the failure mechanisms. Limited studies are
available for the deposition of sustainable corrosion-resistant coatings
on corroded components. The major application area of CSAM is in the
aerospace industry owing to the corrosion of parts due to quality of air,
speed of rotation, and exposure of parts to high-speed impact. For
example, parts made of magnesium corrode easily due to their anodic
reaction with materials made up of metals. Such corrosion remarkably
decreases the useful service life of a particular part and associated
maintenance cost and risk of failure also increase. To increase the service
life and to reduce the costs it is of prime importance to restore the
corroded area with sustainable coatings and to bring back the repaired
component to a serviceable operation. One such example is highlighted
in Fig. 33, where corrosion damage occurring on various parts of the
helicopter was carried out using a CSAM approach (Yin et al., 2018b).
After deposition of CSAM coatings, the corrosion and mechanical tests
on the restored components assure that the back-filled Al and Al alloy
materials had better corrosion resistance and adhesive strength. These
repaired parts are now suitable to be back to assist in flying (Champagne
et al., 2008; Security and Program, 2011).
Another material that is being used at a rapid rate in modern industry
Fig. 36. Representing various parts of the battery pack enclosure generated by CAD (Pal et al., 2020).
23
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
is Ni-based superalloy owning to its excellent thermo-mechanical
strength and corrosion resistance properties at elevated temperatures.
Aircraft parts made by Ni alloys have to face the impact of thermal and
mechanical loading during flight resulting in wear and corrosion of
parts. The actuator barrels of aircraft nose wheel steering fabricated
using Ni alloy are located in the front side of the aircraft, which are
continuously exposing these parts to humid air and aggressive envi­
ronments when the aircraft landing gear is extended. It affects the joints
of the component, leading to the corrosive wear of landing gear. By
CSAM approach, deposition of Ni-alloy was done on a corroded B737
actuator barrel of nose wheel steering. It was noticed that after the repair
corroded surface became smooth without any signs of pits and cracks.
3.4. Optimized product structures and designs
The CSAM design has allowed the development of novel material
structures for the future manufacturing world. CSAM integrated with the
technique of topology optimization has emerged as a hotspot in the area
of both mechanical design and fabrication. Topology optimization
grows as an advanced methodology in structural design to achieve novel
lightweight and high-performance components in comparison with
conventional ideas. CSAM builds as-designed structures with layer-by-
layer material joining, developing another pattern for complicated
components (Lynch et al., 2013). develop a prowess by a combination of
the CS deposition with design and topology shape structural optimiza­
tion. They proposed reliable design guidelines that link the design of the
3D structure to the 3D part via the use of topology optimization tech­
nology combined with the control of the nozzle trajectory for different
kind of spray paths. It was observed 60% stress reduction along-with
20% weight reduction (Lynch et al., 2013). Also, they considered the
design of removable 3D support which is very consistent with the cur­
rent 3D printing ideas (Fig. 34). The notion of removable support has
also been employed to manufacture an array of a 3D structure by CSAM
(Cormier et al., 2016). utilized a specially designed mask to obtain a
pyramidal fin array used as a compact heat exchanger solution (Fig. 35).
Using different customized masks with CSAM can prevent the deposition
of unnecessary materials allowing the only deposition of the required
pattern.
(Pal et al., 2020) the optimized enclosure of an automobile battery
pack by using CSAM technology. Initially, the casting method was
conventionally used to produce the battery pack enclosure. Molten Al
alloy is poured and then allowed to solidify in the mould. Defects like
open holes and pinholes during solidification impacts battery pack
enclosure strength. The battery pack life cycle can also be affected by
minor variations in design boundary resulting in damaging or even ex­
plosion of the battery pack. Casting products need post-processing
owning to the less dimensional accuracy of casted products which
directly increases the production costs. To get the required strength and
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev
vibration resistance intelligent design optimization of the battery pack is
considered via the CSAM approach. Firstly by using CAD a model of
battery pack enclosure is developed (Fig. 36) and then model analysis
for optimization was performed with ANSYS under ten different fre­
quencies. The authors recommended that the CS battery pack enclosure
was denser with minor porosity levels resulting in improved strength.
4. Future aspects of CSAM
CASM in future may expand the space of novel manufacturing design
strategies in the field of automobiles. As the automobile industry aims to
minimize CO2 emissions in next-gen vehicles, most of the latest CSAM
development efforts have focused on electric motors. CSAM technology
would allow more lightweight, better performing motors to be designed
for the future and could set the stage for the design of entire motors
using CS technology, offering remarkable merits like cost reduction,
good thermal management and better-complicated geometries and
functionalities.
High-performance magnets employed currently in electric motors
are conventionally made by methods like powder compaction process
for production of sintered magnets and injection moulding technique for
bonded magnets. Magnets initially were manufactured in these pro­
cesses and then formed and assembled into a finished product. CSAM
technology integrates all stages into one step and could result in sig­
nificant cost reductions.
CSAM is capable of transforming the industrial system from a cost-
effective and production viewpoint enabling improvements in con­
sumption and resource efficiency. CSAM can directly contribute towards
sustainability as it is considered to be an alternative for traditional
manufacturing methods as repair/restoration, fabrication, and design
freedom approach via CSAM that can improve product life in the long
term.
5. Summary and perspectives
CSAM has emerged as an innovative manufacturing technique to
fulfil the necessities of the modern industry coupled with customers’
demands for better service and customized products.
This review indicates recent challenges associated with CSAM and
implications regarding its sustainability:
• The challenges related to the deposit properties are the IPBs and
micro-pores in deposits. These can be minimized by increasing the
impact velocity of particles to improve the plastic deformation of
particles or by using PHT.
• Inter-particle bonding in the deposits can be enhanced via the
peening effect and by removing the surficial oxide scale on the sur­
face of the feedstock powder using the acid-pickling method.
• High residual stresses in CSAM deposited coatings can be eliminated
by applying combined knowledge of residual stress development in
deposits and the general principles of stress distribution across 3D
objects.
• Supersonic particle deposition materials’ properties and processing
parameters impact the outcome. Low geometrical control and ac­
curacy can be predicted using different approaches such as artificial
neural network (ANN) and Gaussian modelling approaches.
• The most important process parameters in CSAM are SD and the
nozzle scanning step. These should be considered for improving the
applicability of CSAM in the future. More studies are required to
clarify the influence of SD and the nozzle scanning step on CSAM
fabricated coatings shortly.
• The cost associated with a carrier gas and feedstock preparation
needs attention. There exist a key challenge in front of CSAM engi­
neers and researchers to optimize the deposition efficiency of CS by
using air and nitrogen as driving gas rather than He for the better
practical commercial use of CSAM in future industry.
24
Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
• Nozzle clogging can be resolved by using nano-Al2O3 or elevated
temperature resistance plastic (which is costly). Hence, alternative
materials should be tested to address this issue.
• There is no standard available for designing CSAM equipment that
can be easily adopted by manufacturers, which is a major drawback
regarding its industrial application. A standard design of CS equip­
ment may be set for producing desirable CSAM deposit properties.
• The reality of CSAM is that all components require pre-processing
and machining operations to enhance their mechanical properties,
dimensional accuracy, and aesthetics look. Currently, companies are
still working on robotic solutions that can be implemented after
CSAM processes to minimize machining and the easy removal of
support removal.
• As a growing AM and repairing/restoration technology, CSAM is
often combined with machining to obtain the final dimensions of
parts and flat mating surfaces, which wastes material. Therefore,
combining CSAM with CAD/CAM will enable precise and accurate
robot drives and save material.
• CSAM, as a sustainable fabricating method, offers vast opportunities
to improve manufacturing sustainability. CSAM is a “green” tech­
nology, as parts are refurbished and repaired rather than replaced,
saving both cost and energy while improving the long-range sus­
tainability of high-value industrial assets.
• Sustainable fabricating is achieved in eco-friendly ways and provides
a way to deposit wear-, erosion-, and corrosion-resistant materials
onto parts with better properties. As with any novel industrial
technique, there may be risks involved. Thus, it is vital to design a
CSAM facility installation perfectly to accommodate this technique
and to train the workers engaged in operating the CSAM technology.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financia­
linterestsor personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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