Lesson 2:

The Chemistry of Life

(You thought you were taking a Human
Biology class, didn’t you?)
 Our Bodies: Organic Structures Composed
of Chemical Elements
• Organic: Of, like, or derived from
living organisms
• Chemical Elements: Substances
that can not be broken down into
simpler form by ordinary chemical
means

(Photo from: Tortora & Grabowski, Introduction to the Human Body)

 What Gives “Life” to the
Organic Structure?
“And the spirit and the body are the soul of man” (D&C 88:15).

“Physical death is the separation of the spirit from the mortal body” (True to
the Faith, page 46.)

Therefore, life must be given by the spirit uniting with the body.
And, the Light of Christ “giveth life to all things” (D&C 88:13).
 Chemical Elements

26 of the 112 identified chemical elements are found in our bodies

 Elements in Our Bodies
The most common elements in our bodies include Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
and Nitrogen (~96% of body mass).

Chemical % of Total Body % of Total Significance

Element Mass Atoms in Body
(Symbol)

Oxygen(O) 65.0 25.5 Part of water and many organic (carbon-containing)

molecules; used to generate ATP, a molecule used by
cells to temporarily store chemical energy.
Carbon(C) 18.5 9.5 Forms backbone chains and rings of all organic
molecules; carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, and
nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
Hydrogen (H) 9.5 63.0 Constituent of water and most organic molecules;
ionized form (H+) makes bodily fluids more acidic.
Nitrogen 3.2 1.4 Component of all proteins and nucleic acids.

Adapted from: Tortora & Grabowski, Introduction to the Human Body & Seely, et al., Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
 Elements in Our Bodies
Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P) are the next most common elements (2.5% of
body mass).
Chemical Element % of Total % of Total Significance
(Symbol) Body Mass Atoms in
Body

Calcium (Ca) 1.5 0.3 Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth; ionized form
(Ca++) needed for blood clotting, release of hormones,
contraction of muscle, and many other processes.
Phosphorus (P) 1.0 0.2 Component of nucleic acids and ATP; required for normal
bone and tooth structure.

Adapted from: Tortora & Grabowski, Introduction to the Human Body & Seely , et al., Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
 Elements in Our Bodies
Additional elements present in significant amounts include: Potassium, Sulfur,
Sodium, Chlorine, and Magnesium (1.1% of body mass).
Chemical Element % of Total % of Total Significance
(Symbol) Body Mass Atoms in
Body

Potassium (K) 0.35 0.06 Ionized form (K+) is the most plentiful cation (positively
charged particle) in the fluid inside cells; needed for
nerve and muscle impulses.
Sulfur (S) 0.25 0.05 Component of some vitamins and many proteins.

Sodium (Na) 0.20 0.30 Ionized form (Na+) is most plentiful cation in the fluid
outside of cells; essential for maintaining water balance,
needed for nerve and muscle impulses.
Chlorine (Cl) 0.20 0.03 Ionized form (Cl–) is most plentiful anion (negatively
charged particle) in the fluid outside cells; essential for
maintaining water balance.
Magnesium (Mg) 0.10 ??? Ionized form (Mg++) needed for action of many enzymes,
molecules that alter the rate of chemical reactions in
organisms.
Adapted from: Tortora & Grabowski, Introduction to the Human Body & Seely, et al., Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
 Elements Are Composed of Atoms
• Name: Selenium
• Symbol: Se
• Number: 34
• Mass: 78.96
• Protons: 34
• Neutrons: 45
• Electrons: 34
• Charge: Neutral

My Favorite Atom
 Characteristics of Atoms
• Definition: The smallest unit of matter
that retains the properties and
characteristics of its element.
• Composed of a nucleus (with protons
and neutrons inside) and one or more
electrons.
• Has a name, symbol, number, and
mass, with specific numbers of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Can exist as an isotope (same type of
atom—differs in number of neutrons).
• Some isotopes are radioactive
• Examples: 12C and 14C, 127I and 131I
• Can exist as an ion (charged particle).
Selenium, Se, 34
• Can have overall negative or overall
positive charge.
• Plays a critical role in reactions in
the body.
• Examples: H+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+,
OH-, CL-, HCO3-, HPO42-
 The Inner Workings of the Atom
• Protons have a positive charge (+).
• Neutrons have no charge (0).
• Neutrons and protons exist in the
nucleus.
• Electrons, flow around the nucleus
and possess a negative charge (–).
• Atoms are the basis for bonding.

Figure from: Shier et al., Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology
 Bonding: The Result of Attraction
• Cathy and Roy 1st dated on November
4 (dated 5 times before engagement)
• Engaged: November 26
• Married: February 18 (3.5 months
after 1st date)
• Children: Jed, Jack, Matt
 Chemical Bonding
• Occurs because of attraction.
• Results in:
• Molecules: Atoms of the same kind bond
• Compounds: Atoms of different kinds bond
• Definition: Forces that bind the atoms of molecules and compounds
together.
• Types:
• Ionic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
• Hydrogen Bonding
 Ionic Bonding
• Ionic bonding results from the
complete transfer of electrons
between two atoms.
• Individual atoms become charged
positively charged (+, cation) or
negatively (-, anion).

(From Tortora & Grabowski, Introduction to the Human Body)

 Ionic Bonding Example
Common table salt, made up of
sodium chloride, is an example of an
ionic bond.

Each sodium atom is surrounded by 6

chlorine atoms and each chlorine atom
is surrounded by 6 sodium atoms.

They naturally form square crystals.

 Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are bonds formed by atoms that share electrons.

From: Tortora & Grabowski, Introduction to the Human Body & Seely, et al., Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
 Covalent Bonding

Oxygen gas and nitrogen gas, examples of

molecules formed by atoms covalently
bound together, are present in the air we
breathe.

Oxygen gas O=O

In nitrogen gas, the nitrogen atoms are

held together with a triple bond. How
many electrons do they share?

Nitrogen gas
 Hydrogen Bonding
Occurs only between two molecules that
both have hydrogen. Water is a great
example of hydrogen bonding.

The oxygen (red) is more

electronegative, causing the electrons to
orbit more frequently around it. The
hydrogen (white) develops a slightly
positive charge due to the lack of
electrons surrounding it. Therefore, the
hydrogen atoms of one molecule attract
the oxygen of another molecule.
 pH Scale
• pH measures how acidic or basic something is.
• It is the concentration of [H+] in a solution.

Acids Bases
HCl, Stomach acid, lemon juice, Oven cleaner, bicarbonate of
tomatoes, vinegar, cola drinks soda, the Great Salt Lake
 Monomers and Polymers

Small molecules link together ╔ Monomers ╗

to form large molecules.
▲ ▼
Large molecules are broken +H2O Hydrolysis -H20 Dehydration
down into small molecules. ▲ ▼
╚ Polymers ╝
 Biomolecules
• Biomolecules are molecules within living organisms.
• We acquire the atoms (in the form of molecules) that form our bodies
from the environment.
• Our bodies modify and use those molecules to construct, maintain,
breakdown, and eliminate.
 Major Categories of Organic
Molecules in the Body
Category Percent of Predominant Subclass Subunits
Body Weight Atoms
Carbohydrates 1 C, H, O Polysaccharides (and Monosaccharides
disaccharides)
Lipids 15 C, H Triglycerides 3 fatty acids + glycerol

Phospholipids 2 fatty acids + glycerol +

phosphate + small charged
nitrogen molecule
Proteins 17 C, H, O, N Peptides and Amino acids
polypeptides
Nucleic acids 2 C, H, O, N DNA Nucleotides containing bases
adenine, cytosine, guanine,
thymine, the sugar deoxyribose,
and phosphate

RNA Nucleotides containing bases

adenine, cytosine, guanine,
uracil, the sugar ribose, and
phosphate

From Widmaier et al., 2008. Vander’s Human Physiology, 11th ed., page 27.
 Important Classes of Biomolecules
Type Example Uses

Triglycerides (fats & oils), Energy storage, Insulation,

Lipid
Cholesterol, Phospholipids Cell Membrane, Hormones

Energy nutrient, component

Sugars, Starches, etc. (poly
Carbohydrate of structural elements,
and monosaccharide)
hormones

Structural elements of body,

Enzymes, Antigens,
Protein Defense, Hormones,
Hemoglobin
Catalysts

Nucleic Acids Genetic information, Energy

DNA, RNA, ATP
 Lipids
• Lipids are organic compounds
formed from carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen.
• Fats are lipids.
• A fat molecule is made of a
glycerol molecule and three fatty
acids.
• It is called a triglyceride.
• To be digested, a fat
molecule has to be
emulsified.
• Soap is an emulsifier. Bile
is our body’s emulsifier.
 Phospholipids
• Remember this term; you will see it a lot during this course.
• A phospholipid is made of two fatty acid chains and a phosphate group
bond with a glycerol molecule.
• The phosphate head is hydrophilic and the fatty acids make a
hydrophobic tail.
• These form the cell membrane.
 Steroids
• Steroids are lipids with very different structure.
• All steroids are made from cholesterol.

Steroid Cholesterol
Ring
System

Androgens: a group of
male sex steroids.
Anabolic: synthetic
Estrogens: and
(man-made, not
Progestins, groups of
natural) compounds
female sex steroids.
used to build muscle.
 Carbohydrates (Sugars)
• Carbohydrates are a quick and short-term energy source.
• Examples include glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose.
• The ending “–ose” means it is a carbohydrate.
• A monosaccharide is the smallest unit—it is a monomer.
• A disaccharide is made of two monosaccharide molecules, such as
maltose.
• Polysaccharides are made of several monosaccharide molecules.
• Starch, cellulose, and glycogen are polysaccharides.
• Starch is stored in plants and resembles a chain for the most part.
• Cellulose is found in the cell walls of plants
• Glycogen is the way our bodies store sugar. It has many branches that
split off the main chain.
 Starch comes from
plants, such as
potatoes.

The structure of
starch resembles
a chain.

By Thomas A. Newton, from http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e17/17b.htm

 Glycogen is the
storage form of
glucose in the
liver.

There are many

branches of glucose
chains in glycogen.
 Amino Acids
• Amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins.
• The human body uses 20 different
amino acids to build proteins.
• While we can make 11 in the
quantities that he body needs, there
are 9 we must obtain from our diet
(the essential amino acids).
• Amino acids are made up of an
amine group, an acid group, and an
“R” group.
• Amine group: made of nitrogen
attached to two hydrogen atoms:
NH2.
• Acid group : made of carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen: COOH.
• “R” group: structure varies
depending on the specific amino
acid
 Proteins
• Amino acids bound together by peptide
bonds form proteins.
• Peptide bonds are the basis for proteins.
 Protein Structure

• Primary Structure: The sequence of

amino acids that make up the protein.

• Secondary Structure: The local

structure of the protein’s backbone.
• Two common motifs are beta-pleated
sheet and alpha helix.

• Tertiary Structure: The protein’s

three-dimensional shape.

• Quaternary Structure: The shape the

protein assumes as one or more amino
acid chains (polypeptides, proteins) come
together.
 Nucleic Acids
Check out the 3D molecular models here.

This site includes a cool, rotating 3D model of DNA.

 Nucleic Acids: Made Up of 3 Parts
• Bases:
• Adenine
• Cytosine
• Guanine
• Uracil
• Thymine
• Sugars:
• Ribose
• Deoxyribose
• Phosphate Group
 Nucleic Acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• Double helix • Single strand

• Cytosine-Guanine
• Thymine-Adenine
• Deoxyribose is the sugar that
makes the backbone with
phosphate.
• Cytosine-Guanine
• Uracil-Adenine
• Ribose is the sugar that makes the
backbone with phosphate
ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate

The body’s energy currency!

 Our Bodies Are Walking, Talking
Chemistry Labs
• Quadrillions of reactions happen
per second.
• These reactions govern our mood,
our thoughts, our actions, and our
reaction to stimuli.
• Every reaction assists in
maintaining homeostasis.