Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

San Pablo City Campus

College of Arts and Sciences

COLLEGE
ENTRANCE EXAMINATION
REVIEWER

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY

 Hello, future Psychology students!
This REVIEW material serves as a reference for the entrance examination you will be taking for the
Bachelor of Science in Psychology, a program of the College of Arts and Sciences.
Thank you and good luck.

Please observe that as this material is shared to you, reproduction of its copy is strictly prohibited.
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. It comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning
soul, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Primarily, it offers four main goals including: (a) to describe behavior
means to simply define the behavior of being observed and help to understand the motivation behind as well as
including description whether a particular behavior is considered normal or not; (b) to explain behavior is to
clarify the behavior being observed like encountering questions of why do people do things they do; (c) to
predict behavior allows to make guesses by understanding what happens and why to about when, why, and how
the behavior might happen again, and (d) changing behavior presents the ability to control behavior and makes
it constructive.

Psychologists have also been actively involved in further studying and understanding mental processes, brain
functions, and behavior of individuals. Through this, different branches of psychology were systematized. This
includes: (a) educational psychology, focusing on how people learn, including teaching methods, instructional
processes, and individual differences in learning as well as possible psychological problems that might affect
the well-being of the students; (b) clinical psychology, defined with the application of human science, behavioral
science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the perseverance of understanding, preventing, and relieving
psychologically-based distress and to promote individual well-being and development; (c) experimental
psychology, referring to the incorporation of different experimental methods to psychological study and its
underlying processes, (d) industrial-organizational psychology, describes the application of psychological
theories and principles in an organization including the satisfaction and motivation of employees, (e)
developmental psychology, dealing on the various stages of human development from pre-natal to old age, and
how people grow and change throughout their lives.

The human development strives to optimize the elements that help people live healthy and understand the
various changes individuals and their relationships go through as they continue to learn and grow. There are
nine different stages that individuals go through – prenatal to death and dying stage.

The prenatal period happens when conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal
development: (a) during germinal period, fertilization until its 2 weeks take place, (b) during embryonic period,
it starts from end of 2 weeks to 2 months, and (c) fetal period, happens from the end of 2 months to birth). It is
important to note that all major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary
concern. There are various approaches to labor, delivery (normal spontaneous delivery or via caesarian section),
and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy (like experiencing ectopic pregnancy where fertilized
egg grows outside of the uterus or if carrying twins) as well as risks and complications with newborns. The
influences of nature (genetics) and nurture (nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during
pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident.

It is in the prenatal period where the replication of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), defined as the code of
heredity as well as the determination whether a male or a female child will be born. If the egg receives another
X chromosome from the sperm, the resulting individual is XX, forms ovaries, and is female; if the egg receives
a Y chromosome from the sperm, the individual is XY, forms testes, and is male. The Y chromosome carries a
gene that encodes a testis-determining factor.

The infancy and toddlerhood occur in the first year and a half to two years of life. A newborn, with many
involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler
within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage
feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children.
Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language development. Infants
have their own temperaments and approaches to play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo
changes influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural
issues center around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training,
and whether or not to get vaccinations.

The early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood
and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages two to five or six. As a preschooler, the child is busy
learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence,
and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however,
preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as demonstrating
how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. It is also the time
where children tend to be egocentric, disobedient, and strong-willed as well as the time to develop their concept
of the self.

The middle childhood encompasses the ages of six to eleven years old and much of what children experience at
this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning
and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons
between self and others. Schools participate in this process by comparing students and making these
comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. The brain reaches its adult
size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their
motor skills and capability at this point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond
the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are particularly salient
during this period.

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual
maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new
possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a
sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted
infections that can have lifelong consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand teen risk-
taking and impulsive behavior. A major developmental task during adolescence involves establishing one’s own
identity, typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers become more important, as
teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance and new roles and responsibilities are explored, which may
involve dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics.

The early adulthood starts from twenty to thirty-five years old, a time when we are at our physiological peak
but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future
and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others. Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of life. They are waiting longer to move out of
their parents’ homes, finish their formal education, take on work/careers, get married, and have children. Cohort,
culture, time in history, the economy, and socioeconomic status may be key factors when youth take on adult
roles.

The middle adulthood happens in late thirties through the middle sixty years of age. This is a period in which
physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their
peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to
understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming
more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is
likely. Referred to as the sandwich generation, middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking care of their
children and also taking care of their aging parents. While caring about others and the future, they may also be
questioning their own mortality and commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”

The late adulthood befalls from sixty years old to death. many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate
the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing
optimal aging, normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired
aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age). They
may also encounter some health problems and challenges with daily living activities, the oldest are often frail
and in need of long-term care.

The death and dying stage are seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. There is a certain discomfort
in thinking about death, but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance that can come from studying death
and dying. Factors such as age, religion, and culture play important roles in attitudes and approaches to death
and dying. There are different types of death: physiological, psychological, and social. The most common causes
of death vary with age, gender, race, culture, and time in history. There are interesting examples of cultural
variations in death rituals, mourning, and grief. The concept of a “good death” is described as including personal
choices and the involvement of loved ones throughout the process. Palliative care is an approach to maintain
dying individuals’ comfort level, and hospice is a movement and practice that involves professional and
volunteer care and loved ones.
As this development progresses, personality is taking an important process as well. Personality refers to the
long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways,
it comes from the Latin word “persona”, a “mask”, to represent or project a specific personality trait of a
character. It is what makes us unique individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-
term characteristics and a manner in which they interact with other individuals and the world around them. Our
personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed.

One of the assumptions of Sigmund Freud, a known theorist responsible for the Psychosexual Stages of
Development is that childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults – people
develop via series of stages where each must pass through these and if we do not have the proper nurturing and
parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults.

In the oral stage that happens from birth to one year of life, the pleasure is focused on the mouth. Eating and the
pleasure derived from sucking (nipples, pacifiers, and thumbs) play a large part in a baby’s first year of life. At
around 1 year of age, babies are weaned from the bottle or breast, and this process can create conflict if not
handled properly by caregivers. An adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral
stage of her psychosexual development; may have been weaned too early or too late, resulting in these fixation
tendencies, all of which seek to ease anxiety.

After passing through the oral stage, children enter the anal stage happening from one to three years old. In this
stage, children make sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training. Success at this stage depended
on how parents handled toilet training. Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become so
fearful of soiling that they over-control and become fixated at the anal stage, leading to the development of an
anal-retentive personality (stubborn, compulsive need for order and neatness). If parents are too lenient in toilet
training, the child may fail to develop sufficient self-control, become fixated at this stage, and develop an anal-
expulsive personality (careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts).

The third stage of psychosexual development is the phallic stage that happens from three to six years old. It
corresponds to the age when children become aware of their bodies and recognize the differences between boys
and girls. The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the
opposite-sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent.

It is then followed by the latency period, happening from six to puberty. This period is not considered a stage,
because sexual feelings are dormant as children focus on other pursuits, such as school, friendships, hobbies,
and sports. Children generally engage in activities with peers of the same sex, which serves to consolidate a
child’s gender-role identity.

The final stage is the genital stage where it happens from puberty to old age. In this stage, there is a sexual
reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface. The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially
acceptable partners (who often resemble the other-sex parent). People in this stage have mature sexual interests,
which meant a strong desire for the opposite sex. Individuals who successfully completed the previous stages,
reaching the genital stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults.

Additionally, Erik Erikson has proposed the Psychosocial Stages of Development where it suggests that the
personality of people develops throughout the lifespan – a departure from the view of Sigmund Freud that
personality is fixed in early life. In this theory, it was emphasized that social relationships are important at each
stage of personality development.

The first stage occurs between birth to one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an
infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
The child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love,
warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel
that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life. If a child successfully develops trust, the child will
feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and
a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
The second stage takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control. Children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic
actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices
and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. Children who struggle
and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this
stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

The third stage takes place during the preschool years. Children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable
and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack
of initiative. The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children
who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

The fourth stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages five to eleven. Through
social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children
need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure
results in feelings of inferiority. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop
a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

The fifth stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest
of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay
true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

The sixth stage is where young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of
early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. It was vital that people develop close,
committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.

The seventh stage is where adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children
or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue to
build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they
are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

The eight stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. People look back on the events
of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or
didn't do. Success leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. Those who
look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense
of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should have.

While for another theory of personality, the Five Factor Model as proposed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa
is referred to as the Big Five Personality Factors. The five factors are openness to experience, conscientiousness,
extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).

In the Five Factor Model, each person has each factor, but they occur along a spectrum. Openness to experience
is characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. Conscientiousness is characterized by competence,
self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior). People who score high on
this factor are hardworking and dependable. Extroversion is characterized by sociability, assertiveness,
excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. The agreeableness, which is the tendency to be pleasant,
cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. The neuroticism, which is the tendency to experience negative
emotions.
 Figure 1. The five factors, each scored on a continuum from high to low.

Furthermore, motivation acts as a catalyst for personal growth and development. It propels individuals to seek
continuous improvement, pushing boundaries, and expanding their horizons. It describes the wants or needs that
direct behavior toward a goal. It can be intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external
factors). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they
bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.

One of the known theories of motivation is the Hierarchy of Needs, proposed by Abraham Maslow, spanning
the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social.

Figure 2. The Hierarchy of Needs

At the base of the pyramid are all of the (a) physiological needs that are necessary for survival. These are
followed by (b) security and safety needs, (c) the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and (d) the
need to have self-worth and confidence, (e) the self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to
achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met. To
Maslow and humanistic theorists, self-actualization reflects the humanistic emphasis on positive aspects of
human nature. Maslow suggested that this is an ongoing, life-long process and that only a small percentage of
people actually achieve a self-actualized state.
The self-efficacy, as postulated by Albert Bandura, plays a pivotal role in motivating behavior. It was argued
that motivation derives from expectations that we have about the consequences of our behaviors, and ultimately,
it is the appreciation of our capacity to engage in a given behavior that will determine what we do and the future
goals that we set for ourselves.

While it is also important to note that emotions are important as it help people to deal with stressful events and
come up with reasonable solutions. Emotions result from the combination of subjective experience, expression,
cognitive appraisal, and physiological responses. The words emotion and mood are sometimes used
interchangeably. Typically, the word emotion indicates a subjective, affective state that is relatively intense and
that occurs in response to something we experience. Emotions are often thought to be consciously experienced
and intentional. Mood, on the other hand, refers to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur
in response to something we experience.

From the view of William James and Carl Lange or as the theory is called James – Lange Theory of Emotions
assert that emotions arise from physiological arousal. One would only experience a feeling of fear after this
physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore, different arousal patterns would be associated with different
feelings. However, it was doubted that the physiological arousal that occurs with different types of emotions is
distinct enough to result in the wide variety of emotions that we experience. Thus, the Cannon-Bard theory of
emotions was developed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard where the physiological arousal and emotional
experience occur simultaneously, yet independently. This emotional reaction would be separate and independent
of the physiological arousal, even though they co-occur.

The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions seems to be universal regardless of cultural
background. However, there are cultural display rules which influence how often and under what circumstances
various emotions can be expressed. Tone of voice and body language also serve as a means by which we
communicate information about our emotional states.

Psychology has also its linkage to the nervous system. It plays an important role in the overall health and mental
well-being. It leads daily activities such as running, similarly to some automatic activities like breathing, and
complex processes such as thinking, use of language, and feeling of emotions.

The nervous system can be thought of as the communication network of the body. It is divided in two major
divisions: (a) central nervous system (CNS), comprising of the brain and spinal cord and (b) peripheral nervous
system (PNS), made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the
central nervous system and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body.

Figure 3. The two major divisions of the nervous system.

The peripheral nervous system has two major subdivisions: (a) somatic nervous system, associated with
activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory and motor
information to and from the CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons and (b) autonomic
nervous system, controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of
voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into: (a) sympathetic division, it is involved in preparing the body
for stress-related activities and (b) parasympathetic division, associated with returning the body to routine, day-
to-day operations. These two offers complementary functions to maintain the balance stated of the body, as
referred to homeostasis.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated when we are faced with stressful or high-arousal situations. The
activity of this system was adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of survival. Imagine, for example,
that one of our early ancestors, out hunting small game, suddenly disturbs a large bear with her cubs. At that
moment, the hunter's body undergoes a series of changes – a direct function of sympathetic activation –
preparing them to face the threat. The pupils dilate, the heart rate and blood pressure increase, the bladder
relaxes, and the liver releases glucose; adrenaline surges into the bloodstream. This constellation of
physiological changes, known as the fight or flight response, allows the body access to energy reserves and
heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety.

Figure 4. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system have the opposite effects on various systems.

Neurotransmitters are part of the nervous system which are known as the chemical messengers of the body.
Their role is to transmit signals from the cells to target cells where these helps control bodily functions. At the
end of each neuron is a tiny gap called a synapse, and to communicate with the next cell, the signal needs to be
able to cross this small space. This occurs through a process known as neurotransmission.

In most cases, a neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal after an action potential has reached the
synapse, a place where neurons can transmit signals to each other. When an electrical signal reaches the end of
a neuron, it triggers the release of small sacs called vesicles containing neurotransmitters. These sacs spill their
contents into the synapse, where the neurotransmitters then move across the gap toward the neighboring cells.
These cells contain receptors where the neurotransmitters can bind and trigger changes in the cells. After release,
the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic gap and attaches to the receptor site on the other neuron, either exciting
or inhibiting the receiving neuron, depending on the neurotransmitter.

For instance, dopamine is a neurotransmitter that functions as a “reward center” and including movement,
motivation, and attention. An individual may encounter a high or low dopamine levels that could be associated
with Parkinson’s disease and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). On the other hand, serotonin is
involved in emotions and it works with melatonin to help control when someone sleep or wake up, as well as when
someone is in pain. Thus, lack of enough serotonin is thought to play a role such as in depression and anxiety.

With regards to intelligence, it explains the ability to learn or deal with new situations. It was suggested that it is a
single, general ability but it may also encompass a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents.

The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, proposed by Howard Gardner where it suggests that there are not one, but
nine domains of intelligence. The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests: (a) logical-mathematical,
it is the ability to solve mathematical problems, (b) linguistic, the ability to maximize vocabulary, reading
comprehension, and functions of language, and (c) spatial, focusing on visual accuracy, ability to read maps,
and understand space and distance. The next six represent skills that are not measured in standard IQ tests but
are talents or abilities that can also be important for success in a variety of fields: (a) musical: ability to
understand patterns in music, hear pitches, recognize rhythms and melodies, (b) bodily-kinesthetic: motor
coordination, grace of movement, agility, strength, (c) naturalistic: knowledge of plants, animals, minerals,
climate, and weather, (d) interpersonal: understand the emotion, mood, and to communicate effectively; (e)
intrapersonal: understanding of the self, temperament, realistic knowledge of strengths and weaknesses, (f)
existential: concern about and understanding the meaning of life.

The Triarchic Theory of Intelligences, proposed by Robert Sternberg offers three types of intelligences: (a)
componential (academic), includes the ability to solve problems, (b) experiential (creative), the ability to apply
newly found skills to novel situations, and (c) contextual (practical), the ability to use common sense. For
instance, students who have high academic abilities may still not have what is required to be a successful
graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a graduate student, a person needs to be creative.
More so, a potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still be lacking
in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good judgment in a variety of situations.
While a person knows when problems need to be solved. A person knows how to act and what to wear for job
interviews, when to get out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to
make changes to reduce stress.

In the facet of learning, it is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from
experiences of a person. There are different types of learning and to name some, this includes (a) associative
learning, occurs when one makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment,
(b) observational learning, the process of learning by watching the behavior of others, and (c) direct observation,
is when an individual watch interaction as they naturally occur.
There are also known as laws of learning including (a) law of readiness, states that learning can only take place
when a person is ready to learn, (b) law of exercise, describes that the more a person practices something, the
better he or she is able to retain that knowledge, and (c) law of effect, reflects that learning is strengthened when
associated with a pleasant or satisfying feeling; learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling, becoming less likely for learning to occur again in the future; and learning occurs when it results in
satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
For memory, it is known as the system that stores what we learn for future use. It has the three faculty: (a)
encoding, the process of getting information, (b) storing, describes the creation of permanent record of
information and (c)retrieving, the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious
awareness.

Figure 5. The process of Memory

The way information can be encoded dictates to an automatic processing where it is usually done without any
conscious awareness or when one is required to put attention in a task in order to encode the information, it is
known as the effortful processing. There are also types of encoding, namely: (a) semantic encoding, the
encoding of words and their meaning, (b) visual encoding, the encoding of images, and (c) acoustic encoding,
the encoding of sounds and words.

The stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory, known as the storage of brief sensory
events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. Followed by the short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage
system that processes incoming sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in
long-term memory. A rehearsal moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory. Active
rehearsal is a way of attending to information to move it from short-term to long-term memory. The long-term
memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory storage
capacity is believed to be unlimited. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than
just a few minutes ago. The two types of long-term memory: (a) explicit memory, are those people consciously
try to remember while (b) implicit memory, are unconscious way of retrieving information.

Many scientists believe that the entire brain is involved with memory. However, other scientists have been able
to look more closely at the brain and memory. They have argued that memory is located in specific parts of the
brain, and specific neurons can be recognized for their involvement in forming memories. The main parts of the
brain involved with memory are the (a) amygdala, plays a part in how memories are stored and in regulating
emotions, (b) the hippocampus, involved in memory, specifically normal recognition memory as well as spatial
memory (when the memory tasks are like recall tests), (c) the cerebellum, it plays role in implicit memories,
and (d) prefrontal cortex, also coordinates in encoding, updating, and maintaining internal representations of
task context in working memory.

All of us at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and even embarrassed when our memories have failed us. Our
memory is flexible and prone to many errors, which is why eyewitness testimony has been found to be largely
unreliable. There are several reasons why forgetting occurs. In cases of brain trauma or disease, forgetting may
be due to amnesia. Another reason we forget is due to encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we
never stored it in our memory in the first place. However, there are many ways to combat the inevitable failures
of our memory system. Some common strategies that can be used in everyday situations include mnemonic
devices, rehearsal, self-referencing, and adequate sleep. These same strategies also can help you to study more
effectively.

References
Biswas-Diener, R. (2024). The Brain and Nervous System. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba
Textbook Series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/4hzf8xv6

Cherry, K. (2010). Everything Psychology Book: An Introductory Guide to the Science of Human Behavior.
Adams Media, Avon, Mass.

Lang, D. L., Cone, N. (2022). Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being. Iowa State
University. https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/individualfamilydevelopment/