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FEMINISM AND WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS

Lesson 1
Feminism and Feminist Ideologies

What is Feminism?

Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies aimed at defining,

establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for
women. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in
education and employment. The term is chiefly defined as “the doctrine [and
the political movement] that women should have the same economic, social,
and political rights as men.”

Feminist Ideologies

Feminist ideologies are movement that people, specifically feminist, do

to have equal rights between men and women in all aspects in the society.

Liberal feminism seeks individualistic equality of men and women

through political and legal reform without altering the structure of
society.

Radical feminism considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as

the defining feature of women’s oppression and the total uprooting and
reconstruction of society as necessary.

Conservative feminism rejects the politicization of sexuality, supports

families, gender differentiation, femininity, and mothering, and
deprioritizes opposition to male domination

Libertarian feminism conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as

entitled to freedom from coercive interference. It rejects gender role
stereotypes that limits each gender’s autonomy to be what they choose
to be.

Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships. Instead,

separatist feminists supports on giving alliance towards other women
outside the patriarchy context.

Ecofeminists see men’s control of land as responsible for the oppression

of women and destruction of the natural environment; ecofeminism has

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been criticized for focusing too much on a mystical connection between

women and nature.

Materialist feminism grew out of western Marxist thought and have

inspired a number of different movements, all of which are involved in a
critique of capitalism and are focused on ideology’s relationship to
women.

Marxist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women’s

oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic life and
employment is an effect of capitalist ideologies.

Socialist feminism distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing

that women’s liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the
economic and cultural sources of women’s oppression.

Anarchic-feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the

state require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary
hierarchy.

Black and Postcolonial feminists pose a challenge "to some of the

organizing premises of Western feminist thought." During much of its
history, feminist movements and theoretical developments were led
predominantly by middle- class white women from Western Europe and
North America.

Womanism emerged after early feminist movements were largely white

and middle-class.

Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western

feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive
or voiceless.

Third-world feminism is closely related to postcolonial feminism. These

ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism, motherism,
Stiwanism, femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana womanism

Lipstick feminism is a cultural feminist movement that attempts to

respond to the backlash of second-wave radical feminism of the 1960s
and 1970s by reclaiming symbols of "feminine" identity such as make-up,
suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure as valid and empowering
personal choices.

Main Discourses of Feminism

Feminism’s movement does not solely focuses on fighting to have equal

rights with men. It is also helping in preventing horrific events that could
happen to a woman.

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Sex industry: Opinions on the sex industry are diverse. Feminists are
generally either critical of it seeing it as exploitative, a result of patriarchal
social structures and reinforcing sexual and cultural attitudes that are
complicit in rape and sexual harassment or supportive of at least parts of
it arguing that some forms of it can be a medium of feminist expression and
a means of women taking control of their sexuality.

Pornography: The "Feminist Sex Wars" is a term for the acrimonious

debates within the feminist movement in the late 1970s through the
1980s around the issues of feminism, sexuality, sexual representation,
pornography, sadomasochism, the role of transwomen in the lesbian
community, and other sexual issues. The debate pittedanti-pornography
feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist
movement were deeply divided by these debates.

Prostitution and trafficking: Feminists views on prostitution vary, but

many of these perspectives can be loosely arranged into an overarching
standpoint that is generally either critical or supportive of prostitution
and sex work. Anti-prostitution feminists are strongly opposed to
prostitution, as they see the practice as a form of violence against and
exploitation of women, and a sign of male dominance over women.

Patriarchy: Patriarchy is a social system in which the role of the male as

the primary authority figure is central to social organization, and where
fathers hold authority over women, children, and property.

Sexism: The idea and doctrine that believe women are made just for sex.

Globalization of the feminism: Immediately after the war a new global

dimension was added by the formation of the United Nations. In 1946 the
UN established a Commission on the Status of Women. Originally as the
Section on the Status of Women, Human Rights Division, Department of
Social Affairs, and now part of the Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC).
In 1948 the UN issued its Universal Declaration of Human Rights .which
protects "the equal rights of men and women", and addressed both the
equality and equity issues. Since 1975 the UN has held a series of world
conferences on women’s issues, starting with the World Conference of
the International Womenswear in Mexico City, heralding the United
Nations Decade for Women (1975–1985).

Reactions to feminism

Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men

and women have been among its supporters and critics. Among American
university students, for both men and women, support for feminist ideas is more
common than self-identification as a feminist. The US media tends to portray

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feminism negatively and feminists "are less often associated with day-to-day
work/leisure activities of regular women.

Pro-feminism: Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying

that the supporter is member of the feminist movement. The term is
most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of
feminism. The activities of pro-feminist men’s groups include anti- violence
work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment
workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and
counseling male perpetrators of violence.

Anti-feminism: Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of

its forms.

Herstory: is history written from a feminist perspective, emphasizing the

role of women, or told from a woman’s point of view.

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Lesson 2

The First Wave of Women’s Movements in the U.S.

First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought, that

occurred within the time period of the 19th and early 20th century throughout the
world. It focused on legal issues, primarily on gaining women’s suffrage (the
right to vote).

first-wave feminism in the U.S. revolved around promoting political rights

of women. By the late 19th century, feminist activism was primarily focused
on the right to vote. American first-wave feminism ended with passage of the 19th
Amendment to the US Constitution in 1919, granting women voting rights.

The Second Wave of Women’s Movements in the U.S.

Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity and thought that first

began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread
throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement
lasted through the early 1980s.

Second- wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues on

civil rights: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto
inequalities, and official legal inequalities. Second-wave feminism also drew
attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape
crisis and battered women’s shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law. Its
major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to
the United States Constitution, in which they were defeated by anti-feminists.
In 1960, the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral
contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961.

Summing-up, the Second-wave feminism of the 1960s-1990s primarily

focused on issues of equality and discrimination in the realm of the civil society.
The second-wave slogan, “The Personal is Political,” identified women’s cultural
and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to
understand how their personal lives reflected sexist power structures.

The Third Wave of Women’s Movements in the U.S.

Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, responding to perceived

failures of the second wave and to the backlash against second-wave initiatives.
This ideology seeks to challenge the definitions of femininity that grew out of
the ideas of the second-wave, arguing that the second-wave over-emphasized
experiences of upper middle-class white women. The third-wave sees women’s
lives as intersectional, demonstrating how race, ethnicity, class, religion,
gender, and nationality are all significant factors when discussing feminism. It
examines issues related to women’s lives on an international basis.

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According to Julia Woods (2014), third wave feminism is generally

characterized by the (a) focus on “intersectionality of oppression”, (b)
engagement in everyday resistance, (c) being media savvy and (d) promotes
“individualism”.

Lesson 3
The Role of Women and Women's
Movements in the Philippines

Filipino Women in Pre-Colonial Philippines

In the pre-colonial Philippine society, the babaylan was the major

representation of the status accorded to women in a balangay or barangay. The
babaylan was mostly concerned with culture, religion, medicine and other
theoretical knowledge crucial to the conduct of pre-colonial Philippine society.

The persona of the babaylan embodied the traditional role of women in pre-
colonial Philippine society: they performed vital functions, and were recognized
for their social and cultural leadership.

Filipino Women in Hispanic Period

While the pre-colonial Filipino woman, the mujer indigena had an

honored position in the family and society, the Spanish colonial era formed a
new ideal Filipina: a person moulded to the image and likeness of the perfect
woman of the Iberian society of her time. She had to follow many rules and
regulations on how to lead the life of a good mujer christiana, which meant lesser
freedom and rights, being submissive, shy and reserved.

With the arrival of the Spaniards, the status of the babaylan was drastically
transformed, as they and their philosophy were seen as anathema to the
colonizers' religious beliefs and therefore had to be eradicated for the sake of
the Christian faith. The Spanish friars demonized them and claimed that the
babaylan were endowed with powers from the black magic. Alongside aggressive
Christian indoctrination, the friars did not just police the religious and spiritual
belief of women, but also took control of their bodies and libido: their sexuality
was suppressed and controlled through practices like the confession. The friars

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took the liberty to widen the scope of the Christian doctrine on prohibitions of
adultery and labeled other sexual activities as sinful, unclean and thus must be
confessed to a priest. These included masturbation, homosexuality, sexual
touching ('foreplay' in colloquial terms), among others.

War Period: Women as Part of the “Revolution”

Women's participation in affairs dominated by men can be traced back to

the Philippine Revolution against Spain (1896-1898) and the Filipino-American War
in the years that followed.

One of the most notable but often unnoticed contributions of women in the
revolution can be found in the realm of literature. They published poems in
revolutionary publications like El Heraldo de la Revolucion and La
Independencia. This implies that the contribution of women in the revolution
was not only logistical (i.e. as nurses to wounded soldiers. Aside from this, women
also led troops into battles themselves. Women who actually fought in the
battlefield during the Filipino-American war hailed from various parts of the
country like Aguada Kahabagan of Laguna, Trinidad Tecson of Bulacan, and Teresa
Magbanua of Iloilo.

During the Japanese occupation, armed resistancein response to cases of

“comfort women” were fought by the infamous Huk Amazons, composed of women
soldiers who committed ambushes and guerilla warfare against the Japanese
enemies. Felipa Culala a.k.a. Dayangdayang is known to have led the huk amazons
during this war period.

Women’s Movement during the Dictatorship

Women’s movement during the period of dictatorship is primarily rooted

in the so-called First Quarter Storm (FQS) of 1970 — a period of ferment
characterized by massive protests marches and violent confrontation with the
police, and propelled largely by a radicalized student movement whose agenda
called for drastic changes in societal structures by means of raising the
collective consciousness of the Filipino people with respect to the 'three evils'
supposedly plaguing the exploited masses, namely, 'imperialism, feudalism and
bureaucrat capitalism'. Various nationalist organizations were established
precisely to rally around the cause and to call for genuine sovereignty and
democracy.

Along with the rise of the students, workers, peasants and other social
movements, the women's movement gained new momentum as it started to
develop along Marxist-inspired lines. The following feminist groups were formed:

MAKIBAKA: Malayang Kilusan ng Bagong Kababaihan (1970 FQS); a

women’s liberation in the context of national liberation; offshoot of
Kabataang Makabayan (1964).

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KABAPA: Katipunan ng Bagong Pilipina (1975); offshoot of HUKBALAHAP;

main cause is ‘third world feminism’ addressing national, class and
gender issues under its goals of EQUALITY, development, peace, freedom
and the happiness of children.

PILIPINA: Kilusang Kababaihang Pilipina (1981)

KALAYAAN: Katipunan ng Kalayaan para sa Kababaihan (1983) that gave
birth to today’s well-known women’s progressive group Gabriela.
o GABRIELA (1984): General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms,
Integrity, Equality, Leadership and Action

Post-dictatorship Years up to present…

With the toppling of the dictator Marcos in 1986 and the subsequent
restoration of democracy under the Corazon “Cory” Aquino administration, civil
society organizations and non-traditional political parties blossomed. Political
activists decided to set-up non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or social
development agencies as an extension of their commitment to democratic this
time in the arena of development work. At the policy level, the post-
dictatorship years was marked by significant achievements as well. The 1987
Philippine Constitution for instance has various mandates that recognizes the
role of women in national building, and statutes that ensure the fundamental
equality before the law of women and men, etc.

In the contemporary period, various national policies have been instituted

including the passage of Anti-Violence Against Women (VAWC), formation of the
National Women’s Commission and even the establishment of Gender and
Development desk in government agencies. All of which are manifestations of

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the continued effort of the government to forward the long march of Filipino
women towards ‘equality’.

Lesson 4
Gender ‘Equality’ and ‘Equity

Gender Equality: Non-discrimination and Women’s Rights

The concept gender equality is since long established as the preferred

wording for equal rights, life prospects, opportunities and power for women and
men, girls and boys. It is used in all key international agreements, from the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) in 1979 to the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015.

Gender equality is a concept with transformative connotations, covering

women’s empowerment, non-discrimination and equal rights regardless of gender.
It embraces a multi-dimensional and intersectional view on inequalities between
women and men, girls and boys. It points towards change of gender- based power
relations in all sectors of society, private as well as public.

Gender Equity: Fairness and Justice regarding benefits and needs

Gender equity puts the focus on fairness and justice regarding benefits
and needs for women and men, girls and boys. While gender equality is simply
focused on providing men and women with the same equal opportunities (like
making it legal for women to own land, or even attend school), gender equity
works to correct the historical wrongs that have left women behind (such as

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societal restrictions on employment). Gender equity also means giving

women the tools to succeed, like programs that offer conditional cash
transfers to women. A focus on equity bridges the gaps in equality through
laws and policies and gender-focused programs that don’t just level the
playing field, but also work to change the culture to be more supportive of
women.

GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUITY

The state or condition that affords women
and men equal enjoyment of human rights,
socially valued goods, opportunities and
resources, allowing both sexes the same
opportunities and potential to contribute to
and benefit from all spheres of society
(economic, political, social and cultural).
Justice and fairness in the treatment of
women and men in order to eventually
achieve gender equality, often requesting
differential treatment of women and men
(or specific measures) in order to
compensate for the historical and social
disadvantages that prevent women and
men from sharing a level playing field.

Example: A family has limited funds, and
both daughter and son need new pair of
shoes for the new school year, but only one
can get new shoes this year. If the family
decides (and who in the family decides?)
which child will get new shoes based on the
child’s NEED, and not on the child’s sex, this
is an example of gender equality.
Example: Provision of leadership training
for women or establishing quotas for
women in decision-making positions in
order to achieve the state of gender
equality.

IMPORTANT POINT! Equity leads to equality! Equity means that there is a need to continue
taking differential actions to address historical inequality among men and women and
achieve gender equality!