POPULATION
A population encompasses all individuals
belonging to the same species inhabiting a defined
geographical area.
Key Characteristics Reproduction occurs within
populations, leading to the production of viable
offspring.
COMMUNITIES
Communities refer to collections of populations of
various species coexisting within the same
ecosystem or habitat.
Key Characteristics Interactions between
populations within communities shape their
dynamics and structure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION
Uniform Distribution
Uniform distribution occurs when individuals within
a population are evenly spaced throughout their
habitat.
It often arises due to intense competition for vital
resources like food, water, and space.
Random Distribution
Random distribution occurs when individuals within
a population are arranged without a specific
pattern.
This pattern is rare in nature and is typically found
in environments with uniform conditions.
POPULATION DENSITY
Population density quantifies the number of
individuals of a species present per unit area within
a habitat.
It provides crucial insights into the abundance and
distribution of organisms within ecosystems.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social organization refers to the structured
relationships and interactions observed within
populations, particularly in social animals.
It often involves hierarchical structures, where
certain individuals hold higher ranks and influence
group dynamics.
COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP
Community relationship describes the interactions
and interdependencies among different species
within a shared habitat.
Each organism occupies a specific ecological
niche, contributing to the overall balance and
function of the ecosystem.
TYPES OF SPECIES INTERACTIONS
Mutualistic Relationship
Mutualistic relationships involve interactions where
both symbiotic partners benefit from their
association.
Acacia galls providing homes to stinging ants,
which defend the acacia from other insects; Birds
and mammals eating berries and fruits, dispersing
seeds for plant reproduction.
Commensalistic Relationship
Commensalistic relationships occur when one
symbiont benefits from the association while the
other remains unaffected.
Cattle stirring up insects while grazing, providing
food for egrets; Clownfish finding protection in sea
anemone without affecting the anemone.
Parasitic Relationship
Parasitic relationships involve one symbiont
benefiting at the expense of the other, often
causing harm or detriment.
Ticks and fleas feeding on host animal's blood;
Mistletoe extracting moisture and nutrients from
host plants.
Neutralism Relationship
Neutralism describes a relationship where
symbiotic organisms coexist without affecting each
other.
Rabbits, deer, and frogs living in a grassland
without interacting with each other.
Predation Relationship
Predation relationships involve one organism
(predator) hunting and consuming another (prey)
for sustenance.
 Canadian lynx preying on snowshoe hares in a
classic predator-prey dynamic.
Competition Relationship
Competition relationships occur when organisms
vie for shared resources within an ecosystem.
Hyenas and vultures competing for remains of
dead animals; Plants competing for light, space,
and nutrients in densely populated habitats.
SPECIES DIVERSITY
The number and variety of life forms present in a
biological community.
Species Diversity
A group of living organisms consisting of similar
individuals capable of exchanging genes or
interbreeding.
Species Evenness
The abundance of the individual members within a
particular species.
Species Richness
The number of different species in a particular
area.
It incorporates the number of species in a
community and the evenness of species’
abundances.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE
Each species plays a specific ecological role called
a niche. It includes everything that affects its
survival and reproduction, such as water and
sunlight needs, space requirements, diet, and
environmental tolerances.
A species' niche should not be confused with its
habitat, which is the place or type of ecosystem in
which it lives and obtains what it needs to survive.
TYPES OF SPECIES BASED ON ECOLOGICAL
NICHE
Generalist Species
Species with a broad way of life, able to live in
various environments, consume different foods,
and tolerate a wide range of environmental
conditions.
Specialist Species
Species that live in a narrow niche, typically
confined to one habitat, specific food sources, and
sensitive to environmental changes.
Pandas, which eat specific bamboo in China.
Native Species
Species that are endemic or local, found in one
place and nowhere else.
Kagwang (Cynocephalus volans)
Tamaraw/Philippine Tamaraw (Bubalus
mindorensis)
Rafflesia/Corpse Lily (Rafflesia lagascae)
Non-Native Species
Species that are exotic, invasive, or alien,
introduced into new ecosystems either accidentally
or deliberately.
Golden Kuhol or Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea
canaliculata)
Tilapia (Redbelly Tilapia) (Tilapia zilli)
Indicator Species
Species that provide early warnings of
environmental change in communities or
ecosystems.
Palakang kanal/Palakang bato (Kaloula walteri)
indicating declines in amphibian populations due to
climate change.
Keystone Species
Species that exist in limited numbers but have a
significant effect on other species in an ecosystem.
Pollinators (Bees, Butterflies, etc.), Top Predators
(Sharks, Wolves, etc.).
FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIES DIVERSITY
Speciation
The evolutionary process by which new biological
species arise.
Causes Geographic Isolation, Reduction of Gene
Flow
Extinction
The reduction of species to such low abundance
that it no longer interacts significantly with other
species.
Causes Taking for Profit, Overharvesting,
Introduced Species, Destruction of Habitat,
Pollution
Diversity Pattern in Time and Space
Ecosystems must have diverse species or many
kinds of species for stability and resilience.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Natural, gradual changes in the types of species
that live in an area; can be primary or secondary.
The gradual replacement of one plant community
by another through natural processes over time.
TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Primary Succession
The process of creating life in an area where no life
previously existed.
Begins in areas without soil, such as new lava or
rock formations.
Starts with pioneer species like lichens, gradually
leading to the development of soil and the
establishment of simple plants like mosses.
Over time, more complex vegetation, including
shrubs and trees, colonize the area, ultimately
forming a stable ecosystem known as a climax
community.
Secondary Succession
The process of restabilization that follows a
disturbance in an area where life has formed an
ecosystem.
Occurs in areas where soil is already present but
has been disturbed or cleared, such as abandoned
agricultural land.
Begins with the growth of weeds, grasses, and
shrubs, followed by the establishment of fast-
growing trees and, eventually, slower-growing
hardwood trees.
Faster than primary succession due to the
presence of soil and existing seeds.
CLIMAX COMMUNITY
A mature, stable community that represents the
final stage of ecological succession.
Conditions remain suitable for all members of the
community.
Composed of climax species, which are plants best
adapted to the area and persist after succession
until another disturbance occurs.
THREATS TO CLIMAX COMMUNITIES
Forest Fires, Human Activities like urbanization and
deforestation, Natural Disasters such as flooding
and volcanic eruptions, Agricultural Practices
clearing communities for farming.
DISEASES AND INVASIVE SPECIES
Forest pests and diseases like Dutch elm disease
and beech bark disease have harmed forests and
economies.
Invasive species disrupt ecosystems, reduce
biodiversity, and degrade the health of forests,
wetlands, and other habitats.