Blast Loading and its Effects on Structures: An Overview

Rishabh Joshi1, Mohd Zain2

1,2
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Barabanki, Uttar

Pradesh, India. E-mail Id: rishabhjoshi.ce@srmu.ac.in; Mobile: +91-9264969163

Abstract

The increase in the number of terrorist attacks has shown that the effect of blast loading on

structures is a serious matter that should be taken into consideration in the design process.

The blast pressure on the structure due to nearby explosion is of very high magnitude and

very short duration. Such impulsive loads require dynamic time-history analysis. The

objective of this study is to review the work already done till now on the effect of blast

loading on structures. This paper also presents the explanation of nature of explosions,

mechanism of blast waves in the free air and dynamic pressure developed on the nearby

structure in lieu of explosion. The paper also sheds light on the architectural aspect of blast

resistant building design. The main aim of this study is to elucidate the steps required for

determining the load history of blast loads on front, roof, side and rear surface of the

building for different explosives.

Keywords: Blast pressure; impulsive loads; time-history analysis; explosions; load history; blast

resistant buildings; scaled distance; dynamic loads; blast waves

1. Introduction

Blast loading is the phenomenon of rapid and abrupt release of energy due to explosions.

Explosives are widely used for demolition purposes in military applications, construction works,

demolitions, etc. It is also a very common terrorist weapon as it is readily available, easy to
produce, compact and with a great power to cause structural damage and injuries. Explosives

may be in condensed, liquid or solid form and on detonation they disintegrate emitting the heat

and producing gas.

The terrorist activities have become a growing problem all over the world and protection

of the citizens against such terrorist acts needs prevention and mitigation of such events which

may be achieved by structural resistance and physical integrity. Explosive devices have become

smaller in size and more powerful leading to increased mobility of the explosive material and

large range effects. The casualties resulting from such a detonation may lead to instant fatalities

as a consequence of direct release of energy and the failure of structures that could result in

extensive life loss. Famous examples of such cases are the bombing attacks at the World Trade

Centre in 1993 where the structural failures lead to far more victims and injuries than the blast

wave itself. The civilian and government buildings as well as the buildings with high people

concentration are becoming the potential bombing targets of terrorist groups.

The main objective of this paper is to list the steps required for determining the load

history of blast loads on the front, roof, side and rear surface of the building as a record of

pressure-time history for different explosives. Further, the structure can be analysed to determine

the response of various structural components subjected to such loads. These types of loads are

not dealt within the Euro codes, and the engineers have no guidelines on how to analyze or

design the structures for the blast phenomenon. Due to accidental or terrorist activities, the

behavior of structural components subjected to blast loading has been the topic of research in

recent years. Most of the information in the field is made available through publication of Army

Corps of Engineers, Department of Defense and various government offices.

 2. Literature Review

In the past decades several works have been conducted to predict the response of structures

subjected to blast loads of which few of them are presented below.

Esper (2004) studied the behavior of structural components after 4 major bombing

incidents took place in Mainland, UK and found that the ductility and natural period of vibration

governs the response to an explosion. It was also concluded that the ductile elements such as

steel and reinforced concrete can absorb significant amount of strain energy, whereas brittle

elements such as timber, masonry and monolithic glass fail abruptly. Kadid (2008) investigated

the behavior of stiffened plates subjected to uniform blast loading, considering the effect of time

duration of blast pressure on parameters such as strain rate. It was observed that the inclusion of

strain rate effect results in much stiffer response for larger values of time interval, resulting in

lower mid-point displacement. Goyal (2008) discussed through an overview to quantify blast

loads as high pressure, short duration shock loading for the building as a whole and on each

structural component. He suggested that it is difficult to numerically predict the exact blast

induced pressure field and highly non-linear response due to modeling limitations and

uncertainties associated with the blast loads.

Draganic and Sigmund (2012) considered the effect of spherical charge of TNT of various

masses on the multi-storey building. It was found that conventional reinforcement provides

sufficient ductility for elements exposed to distant explosions while additional reinforcement is

required for close range explosions. Priyanka and Munirudrappa (2012) analyzed a series of

square RC slabs against blast loads and concluded that slabs require retrofitting on both sides in

order to make them resistant to blast loads. Subin (2013) analysed the RCC and masonry

building subjected to blast load using finite element package ANSYS 12 and transient non-linear
analysis was performed for blast loads. He concluded that the surfaces of structures subjected to

direct blast pressures should be designed using high grade concrete and shear wall should be

provided in the building to effectively take up blast load.

Wakchaure and Borole (2013) compared the maximum stress distribution of long and short

side of column subjected to blast load using ANSYS software. It was suggested that the effect of

blast load was more critical in case of columns with low transverse reinforcement ratio. Kashif

and Varma (2014) studied the effect of blast on G+4 RCC frame structure and found that

variation of displacement along the height of building is non-uniform and different from

earthquake and wind loads. He also stated that building does not behave as cantilever structure

under blast load. Cheng et al. (2014) studied the dynamic response of concrete framed structure

under different explosive quantities and blasting distances It was suggested that structural design

should pay special attention to the weak parts and strengthen the roof and parapet design since

the vibration response of concrete frame structure is maximum at the top under blasting vibration

wave. Jamakhandi and Vanakudre (2015) studied the effect of blast loads on structures and

concluded that regular frame structure is the most optimum model which shows the lowest value

of storey drift and good lateral stability against blast loads.

3. Explosion and Blast waves

3.1. Nature of Explosion

An explosion is a very fast chemical reaction during which a rapid release of hot gases and

energy takes place. The phenomenon lasts only some milliseconds and it leads to the production

of very high temperatures and pressures. During detonation the hot gases are produced that

expand in order to occupy the available space, leading to wave type propagation that is
transmitted spherically through an unbounded surrounded medium. Along with the produced

gases, the air around the blast also expands and its molecules pile up resulting in blast wave and

shock front. The blast wave contains a large part of energy that was released during the

detonation and moves faster than the speed of sound. The idealized pressure-time profile for the

case of a free air blast wave is as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Ideal blast wave’s pressure-time history

The pressure surrounding the element is initially equal to the ambient pressure , and it

undergoes a sudden increase to peak pressure at the arrival time , when the blast wave

reaches that point. The time needed for the pressure to reach its peak value is very small and for

design purposes it is assumed to be equal to zero. After its peak value, the pressure decreases

with an exponential rate until it reaches the ambient pressure at , being called the

positive phase duration. During the negative phase, the pressure becomes smaller than the

ambient value, and finally returns to it. The negative phase is longer duration than the positive
one (Ngo et al. 2007), its minimum pressure value is denoted as and its duration as .

During this phase the structures are subjected to suction forces.

The negative phase of the explosion wave is usually not taken into account for design

purposes since the main structural damage is connected to the positive phase. Moreover, the

pressures that are produced during the negative phase of the blast wave are relatively small

compared to those of the positive phase and also in the opposite direction; therefore it is safe to

assume that they do not have a big impact on the structural integrity of buildings. However, the

negative phase of the blast wave should be taken into account to predict the response of

structures subjected to blast loads. The blast loading pattern can be expressed by the exponential

function as:

(1)

Where = peak overpressure

= positive phase duration

b = decay coefficient of waveform

t = time elapsed, measured from the instant of blast arrival

3.2. Scaled Distance

 To obtain the values of peak overpressures and the maximum reflected overpressure, scaled

distance is computed which is the function of the maximum distance between the centre of

spherical charge and the source target and the weight of the explosive expressed as an equivalent

mass of TNT.

(2)

where, R is the distance from the detonation source to the point of interest (in m)

W is the weight of explosive (in kg)

3.3. Explosives Type and Weight

Several types of explosives are available nowadays, which could be used for conducting an

attack against a structure. In the majority of the cases, solid explosives are used because they are

easy to transport and manufacture. The wide variety of explosives has led to the adoption of a

universal quantity, which could be used for computation of various blast parameters. TNT

(Trinitrotoluene) was chosen as its blast characteristics resemble with most of the solid

explosives. Weight of an explosive can be calculated as an equivalent weight of TNT by using

the following equation:

(3)
where, is the TNT equivalent weight (kg)

is the weight of the actual explosive (kg)

is the heat of detonation of actual explosive (MJ/kg)

is the heat of detonation of TNT (MJ/kg)

Table 1: Indicative values of the Heat of

Detonation of Common Explosives

Heat of
Name of Explosive Detonation
(MJ/kg)
TNT 4.10-4.55
C4 5.86
RDX 5.13-6.19
PETN 6.69
PENTOLITE 50/50 5.86
NITROGLYCERIN 6.30
NITROMETHANE 6.40
NITROCELLULOSE 10.60
AMON. /NIT. (AN) 1.59

Table 2: Indicative TNT equivalent mass

TNT equivalent mass factor

Name of
Peak Impulse
Explosive
Pressure
TNT 1.00 1.00
C3 1.08 1.01
C4 1.37 1.19
CYCLOTOL 1.14 1.09
OCTOL 75/25 1.06 1.06
TETRYL 1.07 1.05
HMX 1.02 1.03
AMATOL 0.99 0.98
RDX 1.14 1.09
PETN 1.27 1.11
 4. Blast Pressure and Parameters of Blast

There were various proposals for calculation of peak incident overpressure of blast:

Brode (1955) presented a formulation for determining the peak overpressure for blasts:

, for > 10 bar (4a)

, for 0.1< <10 bar (4b)

where, Z is the scaled distance in

Another formulation, that is widely used for computing peak overpressure values for ground

surface blast was proposed by Newmark and Hansen (1961)

(5)

where, is in bars

W is the charge mass expressed in kilograms of TNT and

R is the distance of the surface from the center of a spherical explosive in m.

 Mills (1987) also introduced an expression for determining peak overpressure in kPa, in

which W is expressed in kg of TNT and the scaled distance Z is in

(6)

The values of peak overpressure may get amplified due to reflections from various surfaces

and its effect has to be considered for the blast resistant design of structures. The peak reflected

overpressure in case of reflections at zero angle is given by:

(7)

q0
Explosion wave front speed equation ( ) and the maximum peak dynamic pressure ( ), is

given as:

(8)

(9)
where, = peak static wave front overpressure, bar

= ambient air pressure (atmospheric pressure), bar

= speed of sound in air, m/s

Fig. 2: Variation of peak dynamic pressure versus peak incident pressure (Karlos and
Solomos 2015)
Fig. 3: Parameters of positive phase of shock spherical wave of TNT charges from free air bursts
(Karlos and Solomos 2015)
Fig. 4: Parameters of positive phase of shock hemispherical wave of TNT charges from surface
bursts (Karlos and Solomos 2015)

where, U = shock wave speed (m/ms)

= blast wavelength (m)

= maximum incident overpressure (kPa)

= maximum reflected overpressure (kPa)

= impulse corresponding to maximum reflected overpressure (kPa-ms)

 = impulse corresponding to maximum incident overpressure (kPa-ms)

= arrival time of the blast (ms)

= duration of positive phase of the blast (ms)

Fig. 5a: Parameters of negative phase of Fig. 5b: Parameters of negative phase of
shock wave of TNT charges from shock wave of TNT charges from semi-
spherical air bursts spherical surface bursts

5. Pressure Loads on Building Surfaces

5.1. Average Pressure on the front surface

The variation of pressure on the front surface of the rectangular building with sides

parallel to the wave front above the ground is given as:

 Fig. 6: The load on the front surface of the structure

The peak overpressure on the front surface at the time of the explosion’s arrival will be

the peak refracted overpressure , which is the function of initial pressure. This pressure then

decreases due to the passage of waves above and around the structure to less than . The

overpressure on the front surface of the structure continues to decrease until the pressure

becomes equal to the pressure of the surrounding air. Clearing time , needed that the

refracted pressure drops to the level of initial pressure can be expressed as:

(10)

where,

S = length of the clearing, is equal to the height of the structure (H) or a half-width of the

structure (W/2), whichever is less

R = ratio S/G, where G is the height of the structure, H or half-width of the structure, W/2,

whichever is more.

= speed of the sound in refracted area

 Fig. 7: Sound velocity in reflected overpressure region

Pressure that acts on the front surface after the time is the algebraic sum of the initial

pressure and drag dependent pressure, q:

(11)

where, is the incident pressure.

is the drag coefficient, taken equal to 1 for the front wall

is the dynamic pressure

The fictitious length of the refracted wave front is calculated using the formula:
 (12)

The fictitious time for the positive phase of the blast is given as:

(13)

A similar procedure can be adopted for the negative phase of the blast wave, thus defining a

fictitious time by using the corresponding impulse and peak pressure values.

5.2. Average Pressure on Roof and Side Walls

When the wave encloses the structure, the pressure on the top and sides of the structure

becomes equal to the initial pressure and it further decreases to a negative pressure due to drag

force.

Fig. 8: Load on the roof and side surfaces of the structure

The equivalent uniform pressure increases linearly from the wave arrival time to the time

when the wave reaches the peak value. The equivalent uniform pressure is further reduced to

zero.
 (14)

where, = the incident pressure at point F of the front edge of the roof

= the equivalent load factor

= the drag coefficient

= the dynamic pressure corresponding to

The value of the negative pressure that acts on the roof surface ( ) is equal to

where is the negative value of the equivalent load factor.

Table 3: Drag coefficient C D

values for roof and side walls

Peak dynamic Drag

pressure (kPa) coefficient
0-170 -0.40
170-350 -0.30
350-900 -0.20
Fig. 9: Equivalent load factors for positive and negative phase of blast loading for the roof and
side walls of the structure
Fig. 10: Scaled rise time of positive and negative phase pressure loading for roof and side
walls of the structure
 Fig. 11: Scaled duration of positive and negative phase pressure loading for roof and side walls
of structure

5.3. Average Pressure on the Rear Surface

For determining the load history of rear surfaces, the procedure same as that of the rear

and side surfaces should be used. The pressure-time history is determined using the peak

pressure on the extreme edge of the roof surface and the dynamic drag pressure

corresponds to the pressure .

 Fig. 12: Load on the rear surface of the structure

6. Procedure for Calculation of Blast Loads

For calculation of blast loading on the structural surfaces the following steps are necessary:

Step 1: Determine the equivalent weight of charge as an equivalent mass of TNT ( ), charge

distance of the structure (R), charge height (H) and structural dimensions.

Step 2: Determination of pressure time history for the front surface.

a) Determine the scaled charge distance

b) Determine the explosion’s parameters using Fig. 3 or Fig. 4 for the calculated scaled

distance

 Peak initial positive overpressure

 Peak reflected pressure

 Wave front speed U

  Scaled initial positive impulse

 Positive reflected impulse

 Scaled length of the positive phase

 Scaled value of the wave arrival

 Scaled value of the wavelength

c) Determine the positive phase of the load on the front surface:

 Determine the speed of sound in the area of refracted overpressure from Fig. 7 for

the peak overpressure

 Calculate the clearing time

 Calculate the fictitious length of positive phase

 Determine the peak dynamic pressure for from Fig. 2.

 Calculate the reduced peak pressure, i.e.,

 Calculate the fictitious length of the refracted pressure

 Determine the pressure time history curve for the positive phase. The real load is

smaller than the impulse pressure due to the refracted pressure.

 d) Determine the negative loading phase on the front surface from Fig. 5:

 Determine the incident negative pressure and the incident reflected pressure

 Determine the scaled value of the incident negative impulse and reflected

negative impulse and reflected negative impulse . Multiply the scaled

value of the negative impulse with in order to obtain an absolute value.

 Calculate the rise time of the negative phase by multiplying with 0.25.

 Define the pressure time history for the negative phase of the load.

Step 3: Determination of pressure time history for roof and side surfaces:

a) Determine the positive loading phase on the roof and side surfaces

 Determine the ratio of the wavelength and range as the ratio of

 Read the values of equivalent load factor ( ), , from Fig. 9, Fig. 10

and Fig. 11 for the peak incident overpressure .

 Compute the dynamic pressure corresponding to incident pressure and then

determine drag coefficient from Table 3.

 The maximum positive roof pressure is calculated as .

 Define the pressure time history for the loading phase on the roof and side surface.

b) Determine the negative loading phase for the roof and side surfaces.

 Determine the values of and for the value of from Fig. 9 and Fig.

11.
  Compute peak negative roof pressure .

 Calculate the rise time of the negative phase by multiplying by 0.25.

 Define the pressure time history for the loading phase.

Step 4: Determination of pressure time history for the rear surface:

a) Determine the positive loading phase on the rear surface

 Determine the scaled charge distance for the rear surface and correspondingly the

peak incident pressure ( ), arrival time ( ), positive duration ( ) and

wavelength ( ) of the blast from Fig. 3 or Fig. 4.

 Determine the equivalent load factor ( ), rise time ( ) and overall duration of the

positive phase ( ) for the ratio of from Fig. 9, Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.

 Compute the dynamic pressure corresponding to incident pressure and then

determine drag coefficient from Table 3.

 Maximum positive rear wall pressure is determined as .

 There is a shift in the origin of pressure time history for the rear surface equal to the

difference in the arrival time of the blast for the front and rear surface.

 Define the pressure time history for the loading case.

b) Determine the negative loading phase on the rear surface.

 Determine the values of and for the value of from Fig. 9 and Fig.

11.

 Compute peak negative roof pressure .

  Calculate the rise time of the negative phase by multiplying by 0.25.

 Define the pressure time history for the loading phase on the rear surface.

7. Architectural Design of Blast Resistant Buildings

Structural form of the building is important factor in considering the blast resistant design.

Arches and domes are the types of structural forms that reduce the effect of blast loads on the

building as compared with a cubicle form. Complex shapes that cause multiple reflections of the

blast wave should be avoided. Projecting floors and unsymmetrical buildings are undesirable for

this reason. It should also be noted that single storey buildings are more blast resistant as

compared to multi-storey buildings if applicable.

The internal layout of the building is another parameter that should be considered in the

blast resistant design of the building. Foyer areas should be protected with reinforced concrete

walls; double-dooring should be used and the doors should be arranged eccentrically to prevent

the blast pressure entering the interior of the building. An underpass beneath or car parking

below should be avoided. A possible fire that occurs within a structure after an explosion may

increase the damage catastrophically. Therefore the internal members of the building should be

designed as fire resistant.

8. Conclusions

It is not economical to design all buildings for blast loading but public buildings, tall

structures and city centers must be designed against terrorist attacks and sudden explosions. It is
recommended that guidelines on such abnormal load cases should be included in the current

Building Regulations and Design Standards. Loading on each surface of structure can be

determined as the record of pressure-time history. Further the structure can be analyzed using

any appropriate software tool for the analysis of time dependent dynamic loads. Deformation

history of particular points of interest can be calculated and critical deformations can be checked

against deformation limits in order to estimate the post blast state of the element. Requirements

on ductility levels can also help to improve the building performance under severe load

conditions.

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