UNIT

1
Solutions
Types of Solutions
Asolution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances whose composition can be varied within certain limits.
Depending upon the number of components present in solution, there may be binary, ternary or quaternary solution.
Depending upon the physical states of solute and the solvent., there are nine types of solutions. Among them, three
solutions namely solid in liquid, liquid in liquid and gas in solid are common.
METHODs OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
1. Percentage by Mass (w/w):
Mass of solute
Mass percentage of solute = Mass of solution-x100
2. Percentage by Volume :
) Percentage by volume ofa component for a solid dissolved in a liquid (w/v)
Mass of the component in the solution
x 100
Total volume of the solution
(i) Percentage by volume of acomponent for aliquid dissolved in another liquid (u/u)
Volume of the component x100
Total volume of the solution
3. Molarity (M) :
Number of moles of the solute
Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in litres

M
Weight in gram of solute 1000
or,
Molecular weight of solute Volume of solution (m)
Molarity of solution changes with temperature.
4. Formality (F): It is used for ionic compounds.
Number of gram formula mass of the solute
Formality (F) =
Volume of solution in litre
It also changes with temperature.
5. Molality (m) :
Number of moles of solute
Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent in kg
It does not change with temperature.
6. Normality (N) :
Number of gram equivalents of solute
Normality (N) Volume of solution in litres
wt. of solute in grams 1000
N=
Equivalent mass of solute Volume of solution (ml)
It changes with temperature.
 2 VATSAL ISC HANDBOOK of CHEMISTRY Class XII
Relationship between Molarity and Normality :
Normality = Molarity x Basicity of acid or Acidity of base
For oxidising and reducing agents:
Normality = Molarity x Change in oxidation number.
7. Mole fraction (z):
Number of moles of solute (n4)
Mole fraction of solute (XA) Total number of moles in the solution (n,+ng)
Number of moles of solute (n)
Mole fraction of solvent (X) = Total number of moles in the solution (n + ng)

Again xA+XB=1
Mole fraction is independent of temperature.
Relationship between Mole Fraction of Solute and Molality (m):
K x1000
m
(1-xA)x molecular weight of solvent (M)
Relationship between Mole Fraction and Molarity (M) of Solute :
M= 1000dXA
KgM +XAM2
where d= density of solution in g cm
M= Molecular mass of solvent
M, = Molecular mass of solute
Relationship between Molarity and Molality :
Mx 1000
m =
(1000d) -(mxM)
The density of the solution (d) is in g/cm.

Intensive and Extensive Properties

The properties independent of the quantity of matter present in the system are known as intensive properties. For
example, Temperature, density, specific heat, viscosity, concentration, surface tension etc.
The properties which depend upon the quantity of matter present in the system are known as extensive properties. For
example, Mass, volume, entropy, free energy etc.
Vapour Pressure and Raoult's Law
The pressure exerted by the vapour molecules at the surface of the liquid at equilibrium (rate of evaporation is equal to
the rate of condensation) at a particular temperature is called the vapour pressure of that particular liquid. The vapour
pressure ofa liquid depends upon the nature of theliquid and temperature.
On addition of a non-volatile solute to avolatile solvent, the vapour pressure of the solution gets lowered. The diference
in the vapour pressure of pure solvent (P) and the solution (P) is called lowering ofvapour pressure (AP), ie., AP =PP -P.
Raoult's Law for Solutions Containing
(A) Volatile Liquids (or Solutes) : For a solution of volatile liquids, the vapour pressure of a component at a given
temperature is equalto the product of mole fraction (x), of that component in the solution and the vapour pressure (P")
of that component in the pure state.
i.e, p=Px
If the solution consists of two volatile components Aand B, the vapour pressure of the resulting solution will be the sum
of their partial pressures.
Ps=PA+ PB
 Solutions
Non-ideal Salutions Ideal
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 Solutions
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HANDBOOK
components. acetone of v acid B showing
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SOLUTIONS
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of the like th e expressed water. This pressure 78°C wil
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maximum
having a non-ideal
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in than small gases
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 6 VATSAL JSC HANDBOOK of CHEMISTRY Class XIl
Limitations of Henry's Law
This law is valid only if :
() Pressure of the gas is not too high.
(ii) The gas is only sparingly soluble.
(ii) The temperature is not too high.
(iv) Gas does not react chemically with the solvent.
(V) Gas does not dissociate or associate in the solvent.

Applications of Henry's Law

1. To increase the solubility of CO, in soft drinks, soda water etc., the bottles are sealed under high pressure . When the
bottle is opened in air, the pressure inside the bottle decreases and the CO, comes out with a fizz sound.
2. Decompression sickness called "bends' is related to this law. When a sea-diver comes to the surface too quickBy,
nitrogen and oxygen that have dissolved in his/her blood at high pressure are suddenly released in the forn of bubbles
in the blood vessels causing extreme pain. To avoid this, the tanks used by divers are filled with air diluted with helium
(11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen, 32.1% oxygen) because helium is less soluble than nitrogen in blood. Morer Tver because
of small size of helium atoms (unlike nitrogen molecules), they can pass through cell walls without damagi ng them. The
excess oxygen dissolved in the blood is used in metabolism and the condition of bends does not arise.
3. At high altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen is less than at the ground level. As aresult, there is alow concentration
of oxygen in the blood and tissues of the people living there. As a result, they feelweak and are unable t Tthink known
as 'anoxia'.

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
The properties of very dilute solutions which depend upon the number of particles of solute in solution t vut not upon the
nature of solute particles in solution, are called colligative properties.
There are four colligative properties:
) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(i1) Elevation in boiling point
(ii) Depression in freezing point
(iv) Osmotic pressure
(6) Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
We know that the vapour pressure of a volatile solvent gets lowered after addition of non-volatile sol ute to it. If P° is the
vapour pressure of pure solvent and P, represents the vapour pressure of the solution, we have, lowe ring of V.P. =po- Ps
p°- Ps
and relative lowering of V.P. po
According to Raoult's law,
p°- Ps = Xsolute
po
Determination of molecular mass of solute from lowering of vapour pressure :
As we know, po- P; = Xsolute or,
po po

where n, = number of moles of solute and n, = number of moles of solvent

p°- Ps
Or, po W1 + W2
MË M2
If the solution is very dilute, i.e., less than 5%, the approximate formula is used. In such cases
p° - Ps
nË+ n n1 or,