1.

Scientific style
1.1Features of the scientific style in English and Ukrainian

A unique way of expressing oneself through writing or speaking is called

style. In Latin, the word "style" (stilus) means a writing tool, a mark or notch
used by the ancients to write on wax or clay tablets. This is the manner in which
something is said or done, unlike its content. In written or printed forms, style
also refers to agreement on capitalization, punctuation, spelling, typography,
and presentation. [1]

In any language, the scientific style is the functional information space of

a scientific text, that is, it is a global information and functional field in which
other genres or subcontents of the scientific language (e.g., the languages of
medicine, chemistry, physics, and biology) are implemented. Science is the
primary field of activity of the scientific style. The scientific style is one of the
bookish styles, since in most cases, it is implemented in writing. However, with
the growing role of media in science, the role of oral communication has also
increased. [3]

Similar to any style, the scientific style has a number of features and
functions [6]:

1. The presentation of scientific material should be consistent and

systematic.
2. The results of the experiment, observation, and analysis must be
reported accurately.
3. Scientific texts reveal the general laws that govern the life of nature
and society.
4. There may be proof of the validity (or invalidity) of a theory, concept,
etc.

Considering the linguistic characteristics of scientific texts, identified by

most authors [6], we can note the following:
 - complexity of syntactic constructions, lexical, syntactic, and
compositional standardization;
- subordination of aesthetic features to pragmatic aims and intentions of
the author;
- regulated nature of the use of emotional capabilities;
- use of syntactic and lexical clichés;
- predominance of neutrality in the presentation, combination of a non-
subjective (non-personal) way of presentation with the expression of
the subjective opinion of the scientist (author);
- wide use of formulaic notations, tables, etc.

The scientific style also includes non-fiction literature, the purpose of

which is to inform readers and listeners about specific events and facts. The
flexibility of the non-fiction style, which covers a wide range of materials –
children's encyclopedias, non-fiction books and periodicals, and "scientific"
media reports – is one of its defining characteristics. This sub-style aims to
make technical, economic, and scientific concepts easier and more
understandable for all social groups by presenting them to the audience in a
simplified form. [5]

In general, the definitions, purposes, and functions of scientific style are

the same in different languages. B. Slepovich [2] highlights some similarities
between this style in the English and Ukrainian languages:

- the audience of the text, i.e. the main recipient or addressee of the
scientific text;
- purpose, organization, coherence and cohesion of the text;
- style of the text, i.e. its correspondence to the scientific style;
- way of linking parts of the text, also known as text flow;
- format in which it is presented.
 Each of these points above can be analyzed. Each is determined by the
features and functions of the scientific style, as previously described.

Considering the audience, the author anticipates the expected reaction of

the recipient. Therefore, the author should also consider the background
knowledge and experience of potential readers.

The correlation between the knowledge of the author and the audience on
a particular topic determines the purpose of the academic work. If the target
audience is less knowledgeable than the author, the text is intended to instruct or
educate; if the target audience is more knowledgeable than the author, the text is
intended to demonstrate the author's degree of competence (e.g., a student term
paper).

Text organization has either a macrostructure or a microstructure.

Macrostructure: splitting text into sections, paragraphs, etc. The microstructure
may consist of two models: "from general to specific" (statement, detail of the
statement, examples, summary) and "from problem to solution" (description of
the situation, formulation of the problem, description of the solution to the
problem, evaluation or analysis of the chosen solution in a particular situation).

Text style is determined by features typical of formal written speech.

The presentation of text requires the use of special linking words that
serve to connect different parts of the text. Among them are:

- words and phrases that serve to provide additional information

(зокрема – in particular; більш того – moreover);
- contrast (тим не менш – nevertheless; однак – however; з іншого
боку – on the other hand);
- reason/result (як результат – as a result; через – due to/because of);
- specification (тобто – that is). [2]
 According to some linguists [2], the term "scientific writing", which
covers a wide range of written works, such as abstracts, essays, reference
materials, articles, theses, dissertations, etc., is closely related to the scientific
style.

In the opinion of B. Gastel [4], the word "scientific writing" describes the
presentation of original research in scientific publications that adhere to
established frameworks, especially in academic journals. In a broader sense,
scientific writing includes other types of journal articles, such as review articles
that compile and summarize previously published research as well as other
forms of communication related to scientific activity. It also includes other
professional communication activities engaged in by scientists such as grant
writing, oral presentations, and poster creation. There are many related practices
such as scientific writing, which is the public distribution of scientific
knowledge.

Above we have analyzed the main principles of scientific style in any

language. However, there are some nuances in translating texts in this style.

Looking at the following differences between English and Ukrainian: V. I.

Karaban [7] notes the following:

1. The English language is characterized by two possibilities for

transforming the passive voice of a verb. For example: «The final
decision as to whether shrinkage checks are detrimental to the strength
requirements of any particular design or structural member should be
made by a competent engineer.» / «A competent engineer should make
the final decision as to whether shrinkage checks are detrimental to the
strength requirements of any particular design or structural member.»
The reason for this is the absence of the case of the noun, which
makes the forms of the direct and indirect objects identical and allows
passive verb transformations for both direct and indirect objects. In the
Ukrainian language, the direct object is expressed by a noun or
pronoun in the accusative case, and the transformation of a verb in the
active form into the passive is possible only when the direct object is
transformed into a subject.
2. In English scientific texts, the pronouns "they" and "one" are used
without indicating the performer of the action. In Ukrainian, the
pronoun is absent, and the action is conveyed by an impersonal clause,
which makes the sentence vaguely personal. For instance: «They
proved that it is impossible and dangerous to change the natural
mechanisms of genome stability. » / «Було доведено, що природні
механізми збереження стабільності геному змінити неможливо і
небезпечно. »
3. In English, impersonal and indefinite personal sentences are always
compound, they have special marked forms of the subject, for
example, the indefinite personal pronoun "one" in the function of the
subject. For example: «The hypothesis proposed in the previous
section is more credible than that one. »).
In the scientific style of the Ukrainian language, impersonal sentences
with modal words and infinitives are used, with predicative participles
in -o, with impersonal verbs or personal verbs in the sense of
impersonal ones. For example: «One should point out that…» /
«Варто зазначити, що...»; «It is interesting to note that...» / «Цікаво
помітити, що...»
In addition, the Ukrainian language is characterized by indefinite
personal sentences.
4. The particularity of the English scientific style also lies in the
substitution of determinative subordinate clauses with adjectives in
postposition (e.g., "of the samples sent") and in the use of infinitive
 forms in the function of determination (e.g., "the results to be
received"). It is typical for English scientific writing to use inflections
(e.g., "of low-pressure producers") and the omission of the article
(e.g., "general view", "biological engineering"). Constructions with a
preposition are widely used (e.g., "of the oxidiser", "of liquid oxygen")
and numerous groups of attributes (e.g., "of the pay-as-you-earn
income tax scheme"). There is also more frequent use of linguistic
expressions, especially similes and metaphors. [6]

Thus, as we have determined, there are both universal and specific

features in the use of morphological forms, vocabulary selection, syntactic
structure, and phonetic design of scientific-style speech in the compared
languages.

1.2Elements of scientific style in texts on building design. Translation

peculiarities

One sub-style of the scientific style is the scientific constructive sub-style.

Its structure and principles correspond to most of the norms inherent in the
scientific language style.

Genre variations and modifications of this sub-style depend on the

communicative intention, amount of information expressed, level of background
knowledge of the addressee, etc.

As in the scientific style, scientific constructive texts maintain the

existing tendencies of organizing a scientific text: conciseness, accuracy, and
specificity in expressing thoughts, the use of impersonal sentences, terms,
abstract vocabulary, etc. [8]

The structure of texts and features of the written form of the language of
this sub-style are characterized by the use of and compliance with the norms of
graphics, spelling, and punctuation in accordance with the language of the
original text. There is also the use of scientific symbols, graphic signs, formulas,
diagrams, sophisticated statements (laws, rules, theorems, etc.)

Nevertheless, in some cases, such a sub-style may contain the author's

expressions, imagery, and creative methods. Although, as we have already
found out, the scientific style is generally characterized by pragmatism, logic
and clarity, so the expression of the author's individuality should not affect the
integrity and quality of the presentation of a scientific text.

Building design texts are characterized by the use of appropriate

terminology and a specific grammar and syntax structure. Other features
inherent in all texts of the scientific style include the use of abbreviations and
emotionlessness (however, as we have seen, the author's features may be present
in some cases), and the use of the syntactic technique of combining several
sentences into one, which makes it complex. The main task is to provide a
detailed description of facilities, processes, and technologies. [9]

When translating scientific texts, including building design texts, it is

important to consider that the language used is primarily composed of specific
syntactic constructions. Like other styles of language, construction language has
a clear communicative purpose and, accordingly, has its own system of
interrelated linguistic and stylistic means.

According to philologists [9], when translating such texts, one should

consider the following:

- Formality of the text presented. In general, due to the main function

of informing about how and what process is taking place, the technical
language in both English and Ukrainian is formal. Most often, it is
written, except when used orally, for example, during public speech. Here
are two examples:
  In instances where a structural engineer is engaged to oversee the
quality of concrete, it is imperative that he explicitly states the
requirement for the concrete to attain a strength of 3000 psi with a
slump ranging between three and five inches. (У випадках, коли
інженер-будівельник відповідає за якість бетону, необхідно,
щоб він чітко вказав вимогу, що бетон повинен мати міцність
3000 фунтів на квадратний дюйм з просіданням від трьох до
п'яти дюймів.) (formal style);
 Therefore, when the architect is responsible for the concrete
quality, he is going to ensure that it is at 3000 psi with a three to
five-inch slump. (Отже, коли архітектор відповідає за якість
бетону, він повинен переконатися, що його міцність становить
3000 фунтів на квадратний дюйм з просіданням від трьох до
п'яти дюймів.) (less formal style).

The two examples have a similar idea, but the formal coloring is slightly
different. These sentences are used in different situations: the first one is used in
a written report on construction, and the second one is used in spoken language
(it has more neutral coloring).

- Grammatical features (considered to be less significant than lexical

features, but also have specific features depending on the language). One
of the most common features of such texts is the widespread use of
sentences with predicate verbs in the passive voice, i.e. the use of passive
constructions. This is due to the fact that scientific and technical texts
often describe processes or facts, and therefore the author wants to focus
the reader's attention specifically on them. Such constructions are typical
in English but not so common in Ukrainian. For example:
 The foundation of the new structure is currently being inspected by
the construction team to ensure compliance with safety standards.
 This sentence can be translated into Ukrainian as follows:

1. Фундамент нової споруди наразі перевіряється будівельною

бригадою на відповідність стандартам безпеки. Passive voice is
also allowed in this sentence. Or
2. Будівельна бригада наразі перевіряє фундамент нової споруди
на відповідність стандартам безпеки. This variant, using the
active voice of the verb, is more acceptable for the Ukrainian
language.
- Complexity of complex sentences with subordinate and coordinate
clauses. For example:
 The architects, who specialize in sustainable design, collaborated
on the project, and their innovative solutions, including energy-
efficient materials and passive heating systems, significantly
contributed to the overall success of the construction. (Над
проектом працювали архітектори, які спеціалізуються на
сталому дизайні, а їхні інноваційні рішення, включаючи
енергоефективні матеріали та системи пасивного опалення,
значною мірою сприяли загальному успіху будівництва.)

Translating such sentences requires the ability to understand the

grammatical structure and good knowledge of service words that simplify the
link between complex sentences or their constituent parts.

- The use of a large number of participial, adverbial, and infinitive

clauses, which is typical for both languages. For instance:
 The engineer surveying the construction site identified potential
challenges in the foundation.

This sentence uses an adverbial clause that can be translated as follows:

 1. Оглядаючи будівельний майданчик, інженер виявив потенційні
проблеми у фундаменті. The same clause is used here. Or
2. Інженер виявив потенційні проблеми у фундаменті при огляді
будівельного майданчику. In this sentence, a temporal qualifier is
used.

To summarize, scientific and technical literature differs from other types

of texts in certain lexical, grammatical, and stylistic features. The defining
features of construction texts are their content, consistency, accuracy,
objectivity, and comprehensibility. The language of such texts has no
connotative meanings or synonyms, and is always translated into full and
absolute equivalents.

2. Features of terminology in the field of construction

2.1Terminology in the English-language literature in the field of
architectural design.

Terms form a significant part of the vocabulary of any language. For

centuries, the term existed only as a sub-branch of other sciences, such as
zoology, chemistry and engineering. However, many people have no idea what
it is, and some associate it with the "science of terminology" when looking for
an explanation. There is no clear definition yet.

Many linguists [10] consider terminology as:

- The system of terms;

- A sub-system of commonly used vocabulary;
- A branch of science that studies issues of social need, often related to
the political and commercial spheres.

According to French linguist Alan Ray [11], the definition of terminology

is based on certain criteria. Among them are the following:
 - brevity of verbal expression;
- consistency of content;
- unambiguity within the terminology system;
- correspondence between context and form;
- stylistic neutrality.

Other well-known linguists consider terminology to be an

interdisciplinary field of science related to linguistics and ontology, which is
characterised by precision, consistency and internationalism.

Term is one of the most important concepts in terminology. Many

scholars [10] have tried to give it an adequate definition or characterisation. The
traditional approach of terminology theory considers terms as language units.
Some linguists distinguish between two different views of the notion of term:

1. A term is a cognitive unit (a sign that conveys not only information but
also certain knowledge about a situation).
2. A term is a linguistic unit that aims to find a clear definition of a term
as a special element of the lexicon.

A term occupies a special place in the system of concepts because it is an

important part of the language system. Accordingly, a set of terms forms a
terminological system. In cases when a term is separated from the system, its
meaning becomes vague.

In today's world of globalisation, terminology is more widely used in

different languages, which contributes to the rapid development of international
science. This is how international terms come about. [10]

Terms can appear in different discourses as nouns, verbs, adjectives,

adverbs or noun, verb, adjective or adverbial constructions and belong to one of
the wide semantic categories: objects, events, properties or relations.
 Linguists divide terms into two groups: general and special. General
terms are used in various fields of science and belong to the scientific style of
speech. For example, equivalent – еквівалент, adaptation – адаптація,
experiment – експеримент. Special terms are assigned to specific scientific
disciplines, industries, and technologies. [13]

Examples of such terms in the construction and design industry include:

Mineral pigment – a pigment which is produced by physical processing of

materials mined directly from the earth.

Electrode – 1. In arc welding, the component in a welding circuit through

which an electric current is conducted between the electrode holder and the arc.
2. In resistance welding, the component through which the electric current in the
welding machine passes (usually accompanied by pressure) directly to the work.

Reservoir – a receptacle or enclosed space for the collection or retention

of water, which is supplied to it by natural springs, drainage, or artificial means,
is commonly referred to as a "reservoir." [12]

The analysis of the material in Cyril M. Harris's Dictionary of

Architecture and Construction [12] revealed that the terms of this field can be
divided into two groups:

- one that is directly related to the field of art as a professional scientific

field;
- one related to scientific and technical aspects.
Depending on which lexeme is in the first place in the name of a
dictionary, we can understand which of the groups the authors focus on more.
For example, in the above dictionary, the author puts the lexeme "architecture"
in the first place. Thus, one can see that his vocabulary is dominated by terms
related to architectural styles, architectural history, and various types of art,
sculpture, decoration, etc.
 Analysing the distribution of terms in the field of design and construction
by semantic criterion, the following can be distinguished:

- Terms of construction materials and methods. They make up

approximately 50% of the total design and construction terminology.
For example, welded wire mesh, paving blocks, chicken wire.
- Terms of technical aspects of construction. They make up 25% of the
total. For example, axonometry, parallel projection; absolute humidity.
- The terms of patterns and ornaments make up approximately 15%. For
example, random paving, fan pattern, fantail pattern.
- The terms of architectural styles make up about 5% of the total. For
example, Tudor architecture, Empire style; Eclecticism. [14]

Also, considering the terms of this area, it can be concluded that they are
formed from:

- Simple word terms:

 Derivatives: Architectonic, Interiorism, Structural.
 Non-derivatives: Facade, Ergonomics, Blueprint.
- Complex word terms: Xeroriparian, Wayfinding, User-Centered
Design.
- Abbreviations: CAD – Computer-Aided Design, FF&E – Furniture,
Fixtures, and Equipment, SIPs – Structural Insulated Panels.
- Compound terms (they have the following structures: Adj + N, N + N,
V -ed + N, N of N, N + V -ing): Sustainable Design, Building
Materials, Renovated Spaces, Foundation of Architecture, Urban
Planning.
- Three-component terms (they have the following structures N + V -ing
+ N, Adj + Adj + V -ing): Roofing Installation Process, Innovative and
Cost-effective Construction.
 In conclusion, terminology is an important branch of linguistics and
ontology. Terms, being the systemic units, form terminological systems, and
their use in the construction industry by different semantic criteria indicates a
wide range of their application. Globalisation promotes the worldwide use of
terminology, creating international terms. All these aspects define terminology
as a key tool in scientific and technical communication, defined by its accuracy,
consistency and internationality.

2.2Terminology adaptation when translating into Ukrainian.

Indeed, translation plays an integral role in the development of languages.

Accordingly, translation increases the terminological vocabulary, contributing to
the emergence and spread of equivalent lexical items. Thus, in cases where there
is no equivalent in the target language, the translator can introduce a new term
(i.e., a neologism).

The practical importance of translation has grown due to the rapid

development of technology and the increase in general technical data.
Translation is an integral part of linguistics and technology. It follows that the
most important step in translating design and construction terminology is to find
out the exact meaning of a term. Therefore, a translator must be an expert in
both the aspects of architecture and construction and their technical details.

The translator must also adhere to the following requirements:

- A term must be directly related to the concept of a specific subject

area;
- A term must comply with language norms. [9]

The topic of translation transformation has attracted the attention of both

domestic and foreign translators, but there is still no consensus among scholars
on what translation transformation is.
 Domestic translation studies focus on translation transformations (or
methods), while foreign translation studies focus on translation techniques.

There are six main techniques for translating architectural terms: lexical
equivalence, explication, transcoding (transliteration, transcription), calque,
concretization, and generalization. Let us analyze each of them in detail.

An equivalent is a stable lexical correspondence that completely

coincides with the meaning of a foreign (source) language word or term. Terms
that have direct equivalents in the target language play an important role and
make the translation process much easier. However, their absence can cause
difficulties in translation process. In such cases, interpreters must carefully
choose from the available options, taking into account linguistic and extra-
linguistic factors [15]. It is also necessary to pay special attention to ambiguous
words, as their meaning may vary depending on the area of use. For example,
“draft” – 1. A preliminary sketch or plan (design and construction – креслення);
2. A current of air in a confined space (other contexts – протяг) or “elevation” –
1. A drawing or view of a building seen from the side (design and construction –
елевація); 2. The action of raising or lifting something (other contexts –
підйом).

Explication (descriptive translation) is used when there is no equivalent in

the target language. The point of this technique is to convey the meaning of a
lexical item in the source language by a word or phrase in the target language
[16]. For instance, “curtain wall” – скляна несуча стіна or “brise soleil” –
горизонтальний сонцезахисний пристрій.

Researchers [10] identify the following basic requirements for descriptive

translation:

- Translation should convey the exact meaning;

 - Use of this method of translation only in cases where there is no
equivalent in the target language;
- Description of the term should not be too detailed;
- Use a simple syntactic structure.

According to V. Karaban [7], transcoding is a translation technique that

uses an morphemes of the target language to convey the sound or graphic form
of a word. For example, “abacus” – абак, абака; “laser” – лазер. In turn,
transcoding is divided into transliteration and transcription.

Transliteration is the process of converting text or individual words, in

our case terms written in one graphic or written system, into another graphic
system based on phonetic similarity [17]. For example, “fronton” – фронтон;
“facade” – фасад.

Transcription is the reproduction of the sound form of a word in the

source language using the phonemes of the target language [10]. For example,
“merlon” – мерлон.

V. Karaban [7] defines calquing (literal translation) as a method of

translating new words when the first corresponding word in a dictionary is
usually chosen as the equivalent of a simple or complex word of the source
language in the target language. This technique is often used when translating
complex terms formed with common colloquialisms. For example, “panel
construction” – панельне будівництво; “fine sand” – дрібний пісок.

Concretization is a translation technique in which a unit of broad meaning

is translated into a unit of more specific meaning [18]. For example, “fibrous
plaster” – гіпсоволокнистий розчин.

The generalization technique is used in cases where the level of

information organization of the source unit in the source language is higher than
the level of its equivalent in the target language. [18]
 So, to summarize all of the above, we can say that the most important
step in translating terms in the field of design and construction is to find out the
exact meaning of the term. The translator must have the appropriate knowledge.
Accurate translation of architectural terms requires an understanding of the
conceptual organization of architectural terminology systems in both the source
and target languages. In addition, a profound knowledge of architectural
terminology in both languages is required to ensure translation accuracy.

3. Interpreter’s background knowledge

3.1The role of background knowledge in understanding context and
translation accuracy.

English is considered to be an international language and it is one of the

most important languages in the world. More than 100 countries use it as an
official language, and in many others it is taught as an additional second
language. As it is the most widely spoken language in the world, many people
wish to translate some of their achievements from English into Ukrainian, or
any other language, and vice versa, to promote cultural exchange between
countries. However, some difficulties may arise due to a lack of vocabulary or
background knowledge.

Culture is the background of any human communication. Cultural

influence can also be traced in any style of text, including scientific one. Since
translation is based on understanding, a translator needs knowledge to identify
cultural aspects. To do this, one must have an understanding of the cultural
characteristics of certain linguistic elements in the text. Such elements can be
present at all levels – from the concept and form of words, sentences and text
structure to pragmatics. [20]

All of the above characterizes the definition of the term "background

knowledge". In other words, background knowledge can be characterized as a
part of the knowledge from the cognitive system of communicators that is
activated in the process of communication and is necessary for mutual
understanding, but is not directly related to the conditions of the communication
process. In general, scholars have been interested in this concept since the mid-
20th century, and the topic continues to be unique, as background knowledge is
a key aspect in the development of translation competence. [21]

However, among foreign linguists [22], this concept is more related to

education and teaching methods than to cultural studies. They also use the term
"background knowledge" to refer to thinking and speaking activities, or the
process of speech perception, or reading and literacy.

According to Hirsch [23], cultural literacy enables the independent use of

communication tools and knowledge, encourages acting as a recipient and
transmitter of complex written and oral information in time and space.
Background knowledge is usually viewed as belonging to a nation and should
be transmitted in a particular literary language of that nation. In his work
"Theories of Cultural Literacy," he shows the influence of background
knowledge on the example of reading newspapers, namely understanding their
headlines. A person who is a representative of a certain culture, with a certain
set of background knowledge, adequately perceives both obvious and hidden
information. He or she correlates the text with the background context.

Therefore, in order to correctly understand the text, the speaker and the
listener, in this case the one who creates the text (the author) and the one who
interprets the text (the reader), need a common information base, which is a key
to successful communication.

There are several classifications of background knowledge defined by

linguists.

Types of background knowledge determined by extralinguistic factors:

 1. Social – knowledge known to the participants of the speech act before
the beginning of the message. In other words, this is information that
is available only to representatives of a particular nation or ethnic or
linguistic community.
2. Universal - knowledge that is known to everyone, such as knowledge
about the earth, space, water, etc.
3. Local - knowledge that is known only among a narrow range of
communication participants. They are peculiar to the inhabitants of a
particular area: a city, village, closed society, sect, etc., and contribute
to the emergence of a geographically or socially mediated dialect or
manner of speech.
4. Collective – knowledge known to members of a particular team, for
example, legal, political, medical, architectural knowledge, etc.
5. Individual - knowledge shared by small groups such as family, work
team, classmates, etc. [22]

As mentioned above, there may be elements in any text that cannot be

translated by formal translation and require the use of background knowledge.
Such elements are called non-equivalent vocabulary. Accordingly, background
knowledge can be divided into the following groups: terms, personalities,
nomens, ideologemes, political system, established associations, and nomens for
current events. [21]

Also, these concepts include:

- Proper names that have no equivalent in another language;

- Realia, i.e. phenomena characteristic of a particular nation (history,
life, culture, customs, etc.);
- Lacunae or words that do not have equivalents in the lexicon of the
other language. [24]
 Taking all of the above into account, what should an interpreter do when
encountering this type of vocabulary? In such situations, it is advisable for the
interpreter to put himself or herself in the author's place in order to assess what
background knowledge the author has brought to the act of communication. For
the interpreter as a recipient, it is important to achieve a level of knowledge and
aesthetic sensitivity that would allow them to objectively perceive all the
semantic and emotional content contained in the translated text. They also need
to understand the translated text more deeply than an ordinary reader whose
native language is the source language. [22]

The interpreter is the author of the translated text, so he or she needs to

have a rough idea of the sufficiency or insufficiency of the background
knowledge of the audience that will read the text.

The following difficulties may arise during translation:

- Unpredictable semantics of language units;

- Mismatch of natural language metaphysics;
- Differences in the reality described in source and target texts.

As a result, background knowledge is one of the most important, if not

the most important, part of the communication process. The role of the
translator is to convey the content of the text as accurately and clearly as
possible. Background knowledge is a key to a translator's professional
competence. In some cases, the interpreter is required to match or exceed the
level of intelligence of the average reader, which the author of the original text
expects, and to be able to draw conclusions about the characteristics and
expansion of the recipient's background knowledge.

3.2Background knowledge as an important aspect of translating

scientific and technical literature.
 Modern linguists distinguish a number of types of translation, including
scientific and technical translation. Dividing this concept into two parts, it can
be noted that technical translation is the translation of documents created by
technical authors ("instruction manuals", "user guides", etc.), i.e. texts of a
technologically relevant field or practical application of scientific and technical
information. At that time, scientific translation meant translating scientific
literature.

Terminology texts have specific scientific concepts that are easier to

understand, for example, by looking up an unknown term in a dictionary, and
translate accordingly. Unlike technical texts, scientific texts are conceptually
more complex and abstract, so they rely more on worldview or background
knowledge.

When translating any technical text, it is necessary to carefully check the

terminology. However, accurate translation cannot be ensured by using
dictionaries and databases with CE, DIN, or ISO markings alone. Such
resources are an exception because they do not demonstrate prevailing cultural
differences. Also, the development of scientific technologies and language is
inseparable due to the constant emergence of new terms and neologisms. [25]

One of these difficulties may arise when translating Eurocodes. This is

due to the differences in worldview that exist in different countries. Here is a
look at the word "construction," which most Europeans understand as the
process of building. For Ukrainians, this term will be similar to the word
"контструкція," which means something else entirely, namely a certain
manufactured product. In Europe, this term is called "structure". Meanwhile, in
the Ukrainian environment, the word "структура" means a system of
organization. In the 2013 edition of the Eurocodes interim dictionary, you can
find the term "construction works", which translates as " будівельні споруди".
At the same time, the first edition of the same dictionary translates this term as "
будівельні роботи." [26]

It is in such cases that the interpreter should use his or her background
knowledge to avoid confusion and significant inconsistencies between the
source and target texts.

Another example where the interpreter's background knowledge will

come in handy is the translation of the term "heat pump". In the United States,
this term refers to an environmentally friendly cooling and heating system for a
home. Its Ukrainian equivalent " тепловий нанос" has a slight difference in
meaning, as this term refers to a system for only heating a house [27]. Тому при
перекладі перекладач має пояснити точне значення цього терміну.

Other examples are provided by Schmitt [20], for example, differences

that may arise from different legislation on production methods, different
measurement methods, specific climates, and semantic models. For example,
the word "hammer," which may have a different name depending on its type and
purpose. "Ball peen hammer" - фігурний молоток, "cross peen hammer" -
молоток каменяра. Obviously, interpreters can solve these issues with the help
of a dictionary, but they need to know all these nuances.

The field of technical and scientific professional translation is very

important, as more than 90% of professional translations are performed by
technical interpreters. Initially, this branch of translation studies focused on the
original language of a scientific or technical text. Today, the focus has changed,
and the emphasis is on the purpose of the translation and the target audience.
This transition can be explained by the fact that only 5-10% of the elements in
technical documents are terms, while 90-95% are words of neutral style in the
source language. [25]
 Then what are the requirements for those who have to perform scientific
and technical translation? According to the London Institute of Linguistics, a
scientific interpreter should have the following characteristics:

1) Extensive and sufficient knowledge of the topic of the source text;

2) The ability to imagine and visualize the process or equipment
being described for clear perception by the audience for which the
translation is being made;
3) The ability to navigate the context in order to choose the
most appropriate equivalent of a term in specialized literature or
dictionaries;
4) The ability to use the native language with clarity,
conciseness and accuracy;
5) Practical experience in translation of similar fields.

As mentioned earlier, even terminology can have a cultural aspect, so the

interpreter needs to use an additional explanation or the correct word for the
term according to the linguistic norms of the target language.

Cultural peculiarities present in the syntax of the source text should be

replaced with appropriate constructions and idioms so as not to disrupt the
presentation of technical communication. If necessary, the text type can be
changed if it has a cultural feature. Such a substitution is typical, and perceived
to be appropriate, for, for example, operating instructions, where social
functionality prevails. However, the structure and type of text should remain
formal and unchanged when translating official documents.

In cases where there is a cultural aspect at the pragmatic level, it is

appropriate to use the so-called transparent translation, which offers an
explanation of the foreign language features. This is needed to ensure that the
transfer of information in technical communication is preserved. [20]
 Thus, the essence of scientific and technical translation is to interpret the
source text accurately and understandably for the target audience, taking into
account cultural aspects or traces in the source text. This process can even take
place on an unconscious level if the interpreter follows the rules and
requirements of such translation.