Switching Transients

Switching Transients Application Example
DIgSILENT PowerFactory *
Abstract Switching in electrical power systems re-configures

the topology of an electrical network. It involves the
making and breaking of circuits and causes a distur-
This example provides an introduction to switch- bance of the steady state energy flow.
ing transients. The application example contains
various study cases for the investigation of elec- Therefore, transients have to be expected and are ob-
tromagnetic transient (EMT) phenomena such as served in the system during the change from the sit-
transformer energisation, overhead line energisa- uation before to the situation after switching. Tran-
tion, fault and load switching as well as the analy- sients are abnormal patterns of current and voltage
sis of transient recovery voltage in PowerFactory. that have a limited duration. They frequently exceed
The following topics and functionalities are dis- the currents and voltages met during steady-state op-
cussed: Power System Modelling for Electromag- eration. In order to ensure a safe and reliable oper-
netic Transients, Electromagnetic Transients Sim- ation of the power system, electrical equipment has
ulation, Statistical Switching Analysis. to be designed to withstand the stresses caused by
transients.
The network model in Figure 1 is used to demonstrate

1 General Description the use of PowerFactory for the analysis of switching
transients. The network comprises parts of a meshed
400 kV transmission system and an underlying 110 kV
Switching operations in power systems are very com- sub-transmission system.
mon and must not jeopardize the system’s reliability
and safety. Switching in power systems is necessary The transmission system consists of five substations,
for the following reasons and duties: a power plant and two large loads. The power plant is
connected to the substation North via a 400 kV cable
• Taking into or out of service some sections of the
system. The substations are interconnected by single
system, certain loads, or consumers. Typical ex-
and double circuit overhead lines according to Figure
amples are: Energisation and de-energisation of
1.
overhead lines, cables and transformers, switch-
ing of shunt capacitor banks or shunt reactors. The neighbouring network in the West is modelled by
• Transferring the flow of energy from one circuit a voltage source with an equivalent short circuit power
to another, e.g. in a substation from one busbar which acts as slack bus for the system. The transmis-
to another. sion system in the East is modelled by an equivalent
load. Shunt reactors and capacitor banks are used for
• Isolating certain network components because reactive power compensation.
of maintenance or replacement.
The 110 kV sub-transmission system comprises three
• Isolating faulted sections of the network in order
substations which are connected to the Central sub-
to avoid damage and/or system instability. Ex-
station by overhead lines. Furthermore a wind farm
amples are: terminal fault and short line faults.
* DIgSILENT GmbH, Heinrich-Hertz-Str. 9, 72810 Gomaringen, Germany, www.digsilent.de
SWITCHING TRANSIENTS APPLICATION EXAMPLE
is connected to the substation through a high voltage range which may vary from DC to several MHz
cable system.
• Distributed parameter line models
• Non-linear saturation characteristics of induc-
2 Simulation Model tances
• Stray inductances and capacitances
The investigation of electromagnetic transients re- • Electric arcing models for switches and insula-
quires an accurate representation of relevant power tors
system components. Depending on the transient be-
ing analysed the network model should include: The following subsections describe the models of the
power system components of the transmission system
• Valid representation of the model for a frequency shown in Figure 1.
~
Voltage Levels SG SYM
C Bank
8
400 kV
110 kV -2
TRF
33 kV
27 kV Load NE
PP400-1 SS Central
NE-400
PP400-2
CAB-NPP1 CAB-NPP2
SS North
N400-1
Load N
SR CE-1.1
SS West N400-2
0
Load E-1
CE-1.2
E110-1
0
OHL-WN OHL-NC
CE-2.1
TRF1
Load E-2
TRF2
CE-2.2
0
E110-2
Slack
OHL-WC1.1 OHL-WC1.2 OHL-WC1.3
WF-110 WF-33.1
TRF2
5
WTG1
OHL-WC2.1 OHL-WC2.2 OHL-WC2.3

CE-3
5
W400-1 W400-2
WTG2
C400-1 C400-2 C110-1 C110-2 TRF1 WF-33.2
Figure 1: Single line diagram of the power system
Rev.2 2
IS.R0.2
C110-B1-..
Bay01
IS.R0.1 CB.R0
IS4.3
Bay1
IS.R6.3 IS4.2 CB4 IS4.1 CE-1.1
IS.R3.3
Bay02
IS.R6.2 CB.R6 IS.R6.1
Bay07
OHL-NC
IS.R3.1 IS.R3.2 OHL-CN.. IS7.2 CB7 IS7.1 CE-1.2
Bay2
IS7.3
Bay03
OHL-CN..
C400-B2..
IS.R5.3
C110-B2-..
IS.R1.3
IS6.3
Bay04
Bay6
SR
IS.R4.1 IS6.1 CB6
C110-B3-..
C400-3-B8_CB IS.R4.2 IS6.2
Bay08
IS.R4.3 TRF1 IS3.3
C400-B8-SA1
Bay3
C110-B6-SA1
IS3.2 CB3 IS3.1 CE-2.2
CBS1
CBS2
CWC1_comp
C110-B7-SA1
IS.L2.3 IS2.2 CB2 IS2.1 CE-2.1
C400-B5-SA1
C400-1-B9_CB
Bay09
Bay4
IS.L2.1 IS.L2.2 IS2.3
OHL-WC1.3
TRF2
IS5.1 CB5 IS5.2
C110-B4-..
C400-B9..
IS.L3.2 CB.L3 IS.L3.1
Bay7
IS5.3
Bay05
IS.L3.3
C400-B1..
IS1.3
IS.L1.1 C400-B10_CB IS.L1.2

OHL-WC2.3
Bay5
IS1.2 CB1 IS1.1
Bay10
CE-3
IS.L1.3
IS0.2
C110-B5..
CWC-2_comp IS.L0.2
Bay8
CB0 IS0.1
Bay06
IS.L0.1 CB.L0
C110.. C110..
C400-1 C400-2
Figure 2: Detailed substation layout diagram of substation Central
2.1 Transmission Lines
The transmission system contains the following over-

head lines (OHL) and cable systems:
• 400 kV double circuit OHL

• 400 kV single circuit OHL
• 400 kV double circuit cable system
• 110 kV double circuit OHL
• 110 kV single circuit cable system
Both cables and overhead lines are modelled based

on their geometry of the corresponding characteristics
of conductors and insulation layers.
Overhead Lines
Overhead lines can be modelled based on their ge- Figure 3: 400 kV double circuit overhead line structure
ometry and material characteristics of the conductors
and earth return path in PowerFactory.
The Y-values which are entered in PowerFactory cor-
The geometry is entered in PowerFactory using the respond to the average height of the conductor and
X-Y coordinates of the phase conductors and ground ground wire along the line. The average height in-
wires as shown in Figure 3. The graph shows the ge- cludes the sag and is calculated as follows:
ometry of the 400 kV and 110 kV double circuit over-
head line being used in the network model (Figure 1).
Rev.2 3
the mutual sub-matrices between transposed circuits

2 are eliminated.
ℎaverage = ℎtower − · 𝑙sag
3
The 110 kV overhead lines are untransposed in this
Apart from the overhead line geometry the phase con- application example.
ductors and earth wires have to be defined. As input
parameter the geometry of the corresponding conduc- Phase A Phase B Phase C
tor, its DC-resistance and bundling configuration has
to be entered. The 400 kV overhead line is a bundled upper
conductor type configuration and comprises 4 subcon- middle
ductors per phase.
lower
The specific earth resistivity for the earth return path
is assumed with 100 Ωm for all overhead lines which
upper
corresponds to a typical value [1]. Based on the
above input parameters, PowerFactory calculates the middle
impedance and admittance matrix for all phases of the
multiphase overhead line system. lower
The impedance and admittance matrix is then used

Figure 4: Transposition of the 210 km long 400 kV OHL
to calculate the reduced impedance matrix, sequence
WC-1 and WC-2
impedances and corresponding distributed parameter
line models which will be required for the switching
transients studies. High Voltage Cables
Depending on the frequency of the transient being in- The high voltage cables are modelled in a similar way.
vestigated, one of the following models will be used for The geometry of the single core cable and its corre-
the EMT simulation: sponding material characteristics are entered in Pow-
• Lumped parameter model erFactory. The following layers are included in the
model of the single core cable:
• Distributed parameter model with constant pa-
rameters (frequently known as Bergeron model) • Conductor
• Distributed parameter model with frequency de- • Sheath

pendent parameters (frequently known as J. • Insulation
Marti model)
• Oversheath
• Distributed phase domain model with frequency
• Semiconducting layers
dependent parameters (frequently known as
ULM)
Transposition
Due to the geometry of the overhead lines, the

impedances of each phase differ from each other. In
order to mitigate unbalances in the system, overhead
lines are usually transposed.
In this example the transposition is modelled explic-

itly for the lines WC-1 and WC-2 between substation
West and Central. The phasing is entered in the line
coupling (ElmTow). Figure 4 shows the transposition
of OHL WC-1 and WC-2. Figure 5: 400 kV single core cable
The other 400 kV overhead lines are transposed cir-

cuit wise in *.TypTow by selecting the option Trans- The cross-section of the 400 kV single core cable is
position → Circuit Wise. By selecting this option the displayed in Figure 5. The geometry is entered by
positive and zero sequence offdiagonal elements of defining the thickness of each layer. Furthermore the
Rev.2 4
resistivity, relative permittivity and permeability is en- the generator’s 27 kV terminal with the 400 kV terminal
tered in PowerFactory. of the transmission grid.
The cables are layed directly in ground in flat formation Furthermore two YNd5 50 MVA transformers are in-
with a distance of 0.7 m apart. Two cable systems con- stalled in the wind farm and connect the 33 kV substa-
nect the substation North with the Power Plant (see tion of the wind farm with the 110 kV terminal of the
Figure 1). They are laid in parallel. The layout of sub-transmission system.
the complete cable system is shown in Figure 6. The
earth resistivity is assumed to be 100 Ωm. Saturation Model
For simulating non-linear, electromagnetic transients

such as the transformer energisation, the core satu-
ration needs to be included in the model of the trans-
former.
The saturation is defined in the transformer type. In

this simulation model the magnetising branch of the 3-
winding transformer is placed at the start point. The
Figure 6: 400 kV double circuit cable system laid in magnetising branch of the 2 winding transformers is
ground located between the primary and secondary side.
The non-linear flux-current relationship of the 2-

As for overhead lines, internal routines calculate thewinding transformers is modelled based on the no
impedance and admittance matrix of the cable system load measurements / open circuit measurement data
and all required parameters for steady state, dynamic and saturated reactance. The open circuit RMS cur-
and electromagnetic transient analysis. rent / voltage measurements are entered as RMS val-
ues in the transformer element. PowerFactory con-
The cable systems are ideally transposed in the simu- verts them internally to current-flux peak values to
lation model. model the saturation characteristic properly.
Line Compensation The saturated reactance is either provided by the ven-
dor or has to be calculated based on the geometry of
Shunt reactors are used for the compensation of the
the transformer.
charging current of the 400 kV cable system and the
200 km single circuit and 210 km long double circuit Alternatively, the saturation can also be modelled
overhead line connecting substation West and Cen- using a polynomial approximation for the saturation
tral. curve. As an example for a saturation curve in Fig-
ure 8 shows the polynomial approach.
They are connected directly to the line at its sending
and receiving end and are designed to compensate
approximately 70% of the charging current.
2.2 Transformers
The network model comprises two-winding and three-

winding transformers [7], [8].
Transformer Types
3-winding transformers (TR_C1 and TR_C2) are in-

stalled in substation Central connecting the 110 kV
sub-transmission system to the 400 kV transmission
system. The transformers have a rated power of
275 MVA. The vector group is YN0yn0d11.
Figure 7: Saturation characteristic of transformer
The substation PP-400 in the North of the network in-
cludes a YNd5 1600 MVA transformer which connects
Rev.2 5
The residual flux of the transformer is taken into con- • Substation Central
sideration by defining the initial flux in the transformer
element. The residual flux is defined in the phase do- • Substation Power Plant
main. • Substation Wind Farm
All substations are modelled in detail as shown in Fig-

ure 2 for substation Central. The substation models
include busbars, circuit breakers (CB), disconnector
switches, surge arresters and shunt reactors for reac-
tive power compensation.
Generally busbars, circuit breakers and disconnec-

tor switches are modelled as ideal elements without
impedances and as ideal switches. If required, bus-
bars will be modelled as distributed parameter lines.
Figure 8: Definition of the residual flux in the trans- Relevant stray inductances and capacitances of sub-
former element station equipment (such as instrumental transformers)
will also be considered if necessary.
Furthermore, hysteresis can be included in the trans-

former core model. The hysteresis is defined in the
CAB-N.. CAB-N.. NNPS2_comp
transformer type data. NNPS1_comp
2.3 Generator
N400-1
The synchronous machine of the power plant has a IS2.2 IS4.2
rated power of 1560 MVA and a nominal voltage of

27 kV. Switching transients will not be investigated in N400-B1-CB1 N400-B2-CB1
close vicinity of the generator. Therefore the model is

IS2.1 IS4.1
not further described here.
ISa.2 ISb.2
The wind farm has a rated power of 100 MVA and is
represented by an aggregated wind turbine as shown N400-B1-CB2
N400-B2-CB2
in Figure 1. The wind turbine is a full-scale converter

model. The converter is implemented in PowerFactory N400-B1-SA1 ISa.1 ISb.1 N400-B2-SA1
using a static generator element, which is configured

to operate as a current controlled voltage source. The IS1.1 IS3.1
converter currents are controlled using a classical d-

N400-B1-CB3
q rotating reference system current controller in the N400-B2-CB3
EMT simulation.
IS1.2 IS3.2
N400-2
Bay1 Bay2
2.4 Loads
OH..
OHL-WN
The loads are modelled as constant impedance loads.
Figure 9: Substation North with 1 1/2 breaker method

2.5 Substations
The network model comprises 5 substations: The substation layout includes two-breaker and 1 1/2-
breaker configuration. The two-breaker configuration
• Substation West is shown in Figure 2. In this case the circuit breaker,
branch disconnector and instrumental transformer are
• Substation North
duplicated in each branch. Busbar interchange and
Rev.2 6
isolation of one busbar for maintenance is possible. versus time under the influence of blast pressure,
One branch breaker can be taken out for maintenance arc length and arcing time as evaluated form circuit
at any time without interrupting operation. breaker tests.
The 1 1/2-breaker design is applied in Figure 9. Fewer For Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) studies, the
breakers are needed here for the same flexibility as breaker capability curve is modelled according to
above. Isolation without interruption is possible. All IEC 62271-100 with a 2-parameter or 4-parameter
breakers are normally closed. Uninterrupted supply is curve depending on the voltage level and circuit
thus maintained even if one busbar fails. breaker rating.
2.5.1 Circuit Breakers 2.5.2 Surge Arresters
Circuit breakers (CB) are modelled as ideal switches Surge arresters are used to protect electrical equip-
for most transients. ment in substations, such as transformers, circuit
breakers and bushings, against the effects of over-
For some transients, also the influence of the electri- voltages caused by incoming surges. Such overvolt-
cal arc needs to be considered. In example that is rep- ages can be caused by a direct or nearby lightning
resented in section 4.4, the electrical arc is modelled strike and other electromagnetic transients such as
according to [3] and represented three arms, one for e.g. switching operation in the power supply system.
each phase.
Surge arresters present a nonlinear resistor and are
Each arm is represented by two parallel switches and characterised by a highly non-linear U-I curve. During
a series resistance according to Figure 10. During the normal operating voltages surge arresters have an ex-
switching transient, the switch on the right side is ini- tremely high resistance and a relatively low resistance
tially opened (at execution time). The current is com- during transient overvoltages.
mutated then to the other path of the arm. The electri-
cal arc is represented by the resistance in the parallel Metal oxide arresters (MOA) are usually used for
branch (ElmSind) and the current is interrupted at the surge arresters and in most cases are connected from
next zero-crossing. phase to ground. The charactersitic U-I curve of an
surge arrester which is necessary for an EMT study
is usually provided in the vendor datasheet and is en-
tered in PowerFactory in tabular form.
Figure 10: Detailed circuit breaker arcing model Figure 11: Surge arrester 𝑈 − 𝐼 characteristic
The resistance of the ElmSind is represented by a 2.5.3 Reactive Power Compensation

dynamic model with variable resistance. The arcing
resistance is calculated based on the arcing voltage
For reactive power compensation a shunt reactor is in-
u(i,t) that is a function of the current and time.
stalled in substation Central. The rated reactive power
The arcing voltage is determined by multiplying the of the shunt reactor is 50 Mvar per step. The reactor
voltage-current characteristic ua(i) of the arc with a is switchable and has 4 steps. Thus, the shunt reactor
weighting function c(t), representing the arc behaviour can consume a maximum of 200 Mvar.
Rev.2 7
A capacitor bank is installed at the substation North- When a completely demagnetised transformer is en-
East with a rated reactive power of 50 Mvar per step. ergised the flux Ψ in the iron core is zero at the instant
It is also switchable and has 10 steps. of switching. The instantaneous voltage in Figure 12
is zero at this instance. Due to the 90∘ phase shift
between the flux Ψ and the voltage, the flux ought to
be at its peak in steady state operation. However, due
3 Switching Transients to the initial condition (Ψ equals zero) the flux starts at
zero. As a result the curve of the flux Ψ is shifted by
Switching in electrical power systems re-configures Ψ𝑚 upwards in the first cycle of the transient. Thus,
the network topology for the following purposes: the flux starts at zero and then reaches a maximum of
2Ψ𝑚 in the first cycle as indicated in Figure 12 [1].
• Isolation and Earthing
Taking into account a residual flux of Ψ𝑅 in the iron
• Busbar-Transfer Switching core, the curve is shifted upwards even further as in-
dicated in Figure 12 and reaches a maximum peak
• Load Switching
value of Ψ𝑅 + 2Ψ𝑚 . The magnetization curve is now
• Fault-Clearing operating in the saturated region and the relationship
between the flux Ψ𝑚 and the current 𝑖 are no longer
The following switching transients are analysed in this governed by a linear relationship. This causes high
application example: and distorted inrush currents as shown in the graph.
• Transformer Energisation
ψ ψ, B
• Overhead Line Energisation ψR + 2 ψm
2 ∙ ψm
• Inductive Load Switching
ψR
• Fault-Current Interruption Switching
H, i
The transient phenomena following the above switch-

ing actions will result in abnormal patterns of current u
and voltage during the transient. The root causes of
i
the abnormal currents and voltages are described in
the following section.
3.1 Saturation
For simulating electromagnetic transients such as Figure 12: Saturation and inrush current
transformer inrush currents or ferro-resonance, reac-
tor / transformer core saturation needs to be included
in the model of the transformer. The non-linear be-
haviour of a typical transformer iron core is shown in
3.2 Travelling Waves
Figure 12 [1].
When investigating transient and high-frequency
The solid lines represent the steady state voltage and steady-state phenomena, it is necessary to account
flux and current relationship when no saturation oc- for the distributed-parameter nature of conductors
curs. The dashed lines represent the behaviour dur- such as overhead lines, cables and in the case of high
ing a transient, when the core is being saturated (e.g. frequency transients, even of busbars.
during transformer energisation).
Typically, for low frequency steady-state analysis, lines
The magnetic flux Ψ, representing the time-integral of and cables are modelled using the well-known lumped
the voltage, lags in steady state the sinusoidal wave- parameter equivalent circuit, thus neglecting the dis-
form of the voltage by 90∘ . Being still in the linear tributed nature without loosing too much accuracy in
part of the saturation characteristic, the current is si- the results. In reality, a current in a conductor having
nusoidal as well. Thus, the current is proportional to even a very short length, needs a certain time to travel
the voltage. from its sending end to the remote end [1].
Rev.2 8
When an overhead line or cable is energised from frequency-dependent parameters for overhead lines,
the grid as shown in Figure 13, a voltage and current PowerFactory uses the approach proposed by J.Marti
surge are injected into the line. Before the breaker is [5]. For cable systems the Universal Line Model is
closed, the voltage at both ends of the line is zero. available and offers a high accuracy and a phase-
Upon breaker closing at the sending end of the line, domain formulation [6].
the voltage changes instantaneously from zero to the
supply voltage 𝑢𝑆 .
𝑢𝑆 𝑢𝑅
At the receiving end of the line, the voltage 𝑢𝑅 is still
zero since the surge needs a certain time to travel
from the sending to the receiving end of the line. The 𝑢𝑆 𝑢𝑅
surge propagates with the speed 𝑣 along the line and
arrives at the sending end of the line with a delay equal
with the propagation time 𝜏 .
𝑢𝑆 𝑢𝑅
The propagation speed 𝑣 is a function of the line in-
ductance 𝐿′ and capacitance 𝐶𝐿′′ . For a lossless line
the propagation speed 𝑣 is calculated by the following
equation [1]: Figure 13: Voltage surge line energisation
1
𝑣=√ During the transient, the surge is travelling back and
𝐿′ · 𝐶 ′ forward until damping and attenuation will eventually
result in a steady state condition. At each electri-
The propagation time constant 𝜏 is dependent on the cal boundary the surge is reflected and refracted as
propagation speed v and the line length indicated in Figure 13. Electrical boundaries arise
when the surge impedance of the network compo-
𝑙 √︀ nents change, e.g. at an overhead line - cable tran-
𝜏 = = 𝑙 · 𝐿′ · 𝐶 ′ sition or at the open end of a line.
𝑣
Figure 13 shows the voltage surge during the line en-

ergisation of an ideal single phase conductor for three 𝑍1 𝑍2
time steps of the transient:
𝑖1 𝑖2
• 1: Breaker is closed at the sending end
𝑢1
• 2: Surge propagates from sending to receiving 𝑢2
end 𝑍2 > 𝑍1 : 𝑢𝑟
• 3: Reflected surge travels back to sending end
𝑢𝑟
Transient voltage and current surges are thus a func- 𝑢2
𝑢1
tion of time and location along the line. Distributed pa-
rameter line models are therefore required to analyse
such phenomena. Depending on the transient being
investigated, line models with constant or frequency
𝑖1
dependent parameters are used in simulation models. 𝑖1 𝑖2
The constant distributed parameter model in Power- 𝑖𝑟
Factory is based on Bergeron’s method, which calcu-
lates the voltages and currents at one end of the line
based on the voltage and current at the other end de-
layed in time. For further information refer to the tech- Figure 14: Travelling voltages and currents at surge
nical reference of the line models [5]. impedance jump location
With the exception of lossless and distortion-less

lines, the characteristic impedance 𝑍𝐶 and the propa- The reflected and refracted voltage and current surge
gation constant 𝛾 are frequency dependent. To handle are a function of the incoming voltage and current
Rev.2 9
waveform and the surge impedance on both sides of Breaker state

the boundary. For an ideal surge with a very steep
rise / very short rise time, the reflected and refracted
surges are calculated according to the following equa-
tions:
𝑢2 2 · 𝑍2
=
𝑢1 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
Switching Contacts start Arc extinction in last pole Contacts fully
command to separate  Current interruption separated
𝑍 − 𝑍1
𝑢𝑟 = 2 arcing time
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 Total break time
𝑖1 2 · 𝑍1
=
𝑖2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 Figure 15: Circuit breaker operation switching off
𝑍 − 𝑍2
𝑖𝑟 = 1
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 Upon contact separation, an arc is formed in the in-
terruption chamber of each pole. The actual current
Typical surge impedances for common power system interruption must wait for the zero crossing of the cur-
components are: rent. Depending on the type of circuit-breaker, the de-
vice may not be ready to interrupt at the first occurring
• Overhead lines: 200 Ω to 500 Ω current zero after contact separation.
• Cable systems: 40 Ω to 70 Ω
For SF6 circuit breakers, it takes a certain minimum
• Transformers: 1 kΩ to 10 kΩ arcing time before the electric arc extinguishes in the
circuit breaker because sufficient cooling pressure of
the extinction medium must be available and sufficient
3.3 Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) contact distance must be reached. For vacuum circuit
breakers sufficient contact distance has to be reached
in order to extinguish the electric arc [2].
Transient recovery voltages (TRV) arise both at fault
interruption and load switching. In both cases a circuit
𝐿𝑆
breaker is switching off. The circuit breaker opening
procedure is explained in Figure 15. The switching
command is usually initiated automatically by a relay
𝐶𝑆 𝑢𝑆 𝑢𝐿 𝐶𝐿
that detects a fault in the system or a switching com- 𝐿𝐿
mand from the control center to trigger a change in the
operation scenario of the network.
The tripping command activates the operating mech-

anism and through its kinematic chain separates the Figure 16: Frequency spectrum of load side oscillation
contacts in the circuit-breaker. After a certain opening
time, the circuit-breaker arcing contacts will open in all
three poles.
Fault currents and inductive load currents (e.g. discon-
nection of shunt reactors) lag the voltage by around
90∘ . Thus, the instantaneous voltage at both sides of
the breaker pole is at its peak when the current is in-
terrupted at the current zero-crossing.
Immediately after current interruption a transient volt-

age will oscillate on the load side and source side.
Figure 16 shows the equivalent circuit of the load and
source side after the switching action.
The source side voltage is composed of two compo-

nents, the power frequency voltage (e.g. 50 Hz) and
the transient voltage oscillating between 𝐿𝑆 and 𝐶𝑆 .
Rev.2 10
The frequency of the transient part of the voltage is shunt reactor switching, terminal fault, short line fault
calculated by the following formula: interruption) the TRV contains multiple oscillation fre-
quencies which superimpose.
1 1 The exemplary TRV for a single phase circuit is shown
𝑓𝑆 = · √︀
2𝜋 𝐿𝑆 · 𝐶𝑆 in Figure 17 assuming the following values:
The oscillation frequency of the voltage on the load

side is defined by 𝐿𝐿 and 𝐶𝐿 and is a single frequency 𝐿S = 17 mH; 𝐶S = 273 𝜇F
oscillation in case of linear inductive load. 𝐿L = 1000 mH; 𝐶L = 2 𝜇F
1 1 The plot shows that the TRV starts from zero at current
𝑓𝑅 = · √︀
2𝜋 𝐿𝐿 · 𝐶𝐿 zero, makes an excursion to the momentary power-
frequency voltage, overshoots in a damped oscillatory
The Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) is the voltage manner and continues to oscillate until a steady-state
across the open circuit-breaker contacts which arises condition is reached. The frequency of the load side
immediately after current interruption. It is the differ- oscillation is 𝑓𝐿 = 3558.8 Hz and of the source side
ence between the voltage-to-earth at the source side 𝑓𝑆 = 73.9 Hz. Important parameters in a TRV study
𝑢𝑆 and load side 𝑢𝐿 : are the maximum transient recovery voltage 𝑈𝐶 and
the rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV). Both pa-
rameters are required for circuit breaker design stud-
𝑢TRV = 𝑢𝑆 − 𝑢𝐿 ies.
The TRV always consists of at least two oscillatory Current chopping may need be considered as well in
components, the source-side and load-side frequency the TRV study for some types of circuit breakers or
component. Depending on the switching action (e.g. switching transients.
200,00
100,00
0,00
-100,00
-200,00
-300,00
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 [ms] 10,00
Source: Phase Voltage SP in kV
200,00
100,00
0,00
-100,00
-200,00
-300,00
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 [ms] 10,00
Load: Phase Voltage SP in kV
200,00 40,00
100,00 30,00
0,00 20,00
-100,00 10,00
-200,00 0,00
-300,00 -10,00
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 [ms] 10,00
Circuit Breaker: Voltage Difference in kV Circuit Breaker: Phase Current/Terminal i in A
Source: Power Frequency Voltage
Figure 17: Source side, load side and transient recovery voltage (TRV)
Rev.2 11
4 Study Cases • “Overhead Line Energisation III”:

Investigation of slow front overvoltages (SFO)
during re-energisation of a single circuit over-
The application example contains several study cases, head line after fault clearing. Surge arrester are
each of them being discussed further below: in service to reduce the overvoltages. (see sec-
tion 4.10);
• “Steady State Load Flow Analysis”: Intro-
duction to the network model and components. • “Overhead Line Energisation IV”:
Load flow calculation and analysis (see section Statistical analysis of the of slow front overvolt-
4.1); ages (SFO) during re-energisation. Evaluation
of the overvoltages as a function of the circuit
• “Short Circuit 1ph”: breaker closing time. (see section 4.11);
Simulation of a single phase to ground fault.
Analysis of the transient currents and voltages • “Cable Energisation I”:
during the fault. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of Investigation of slow front overvoltages (SFO)
the time domain signals. 4.2); during energisation transients of a high voltage
cable system. (see section 4.12);
• “Short Circuit 3ph”:
Simulation of a three phase to ground fault. • “Cable Energisation II”:
Analysis of the transient currents and voltages Investigation the zero-missing phenomena dur-
during the fault. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). ing the energisation of a high voltage cable sys-
(see section 4.3); tem together with a shunt reactor. (see section
4.13);
• “Transformer Energisation I”:
Simulation of the transformer energisation with- • “TRV Analysis Terminal Fault”:
out consideration of residual flux in the iron core. Modelling of a high voltage circuit breaker, inves-
Analysis of the inrush currents, harmonic current tigation of the transient recovery voltage (TRV)
distortion, RMS voltage dip and magnetic flux in after interruption of the terminal fault short circuit
the iron core. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). (see current. Circuit breaker capability curve. (see
section 4.4); section 4.14);
• “Transformer Energisation II”: • “TRV Shunt Reactor Switching I”:

Simulation of the transformer energisation with Modelling of a high voltage circuit breaker, inves-
the consideration of residual flux in the iron core. tigation of the transient recovery voltage (TRV)
The residual flux is defined in the transformer el- after interruption of small inductive currents.
ement. (see section 4.5); (see section 4.15);
• “Transformer Energisation III”: • “TRV Shunt Reactor Switching II”:

Simulation of parallel transformer energisation. Modelling of a high voltage circuit breaker, inves-
Analysis of sympathetic inrush currents 4.6); tigation of the transient recovery voltage (TRV)
after interruption of small inductive currents.
• “Transformer Energisation IV”: Consideration of current chopping (see section
Statistical analysis of the transformer energisa- 4.16);
tion. Evaluation of the peak inrush currents and
RMS voltage drop as a function of the circuit • “Short Circuit 3ph CB SF6 Arcing Model”:
breaker closing time. (see section 4.7); Simulation of a three phase to ground fault. De-
tailed model of the SF6 circuit breaker transient
• “Overhead Line Energisation I”: behaviour of the electric arc. Analysis of the cur-
Investigation of slow front overvoltages (SFO) rents and voltages during the fault 4.17);
during energisation of a double circuit overhead
line. Travelling wave effects. Surge arresters are
out of service. (see section 4.8);
• “Overhead Line Energisation II”:
Investigation of slow front overvoltages (SFO)
during re-energisation of a single circuit over-
head line after fault clearing. Surge arresters are
out of service. (see section 4.9);
Rev.2 12
4.1 Steady State Load Flow The external grid serves as slack and is supplying
Analysis 1900 MW for active power balancing and a reactive
power of 60 Mvar. The voltages of all busbars in
the transmission system and sub-transmission sys-
The load flow calculation is based on algorithms for
tem, are in the range of 0.99 to 1.03 p.u. in the steady
the unbalanced load flow taking into account unbal-
state load flow calculation. The loading of lines and
ances resulting from non-perfect line transposition of
transformers varies between 14% and 50%.
the multi-phase network and unsymmetrical loads and
generation. The active power control in the load flow The steady state load flow calculation results are the
calculation is based on the dispatch of generators and basis for the calculation of the initial conditions and
loads. The difference between load and generation is thus the starting point of the EMT simulation.
balanced by the reference machine.
Figure 19 shows the steady state EMT simulation re-
The external grid connected to substation West rep- sults. The plots contain the instantaneous voltage of
resents the transmission system in the West is used phase A, B and C at the substation Central, West and
as reference machine (slack). It controls the voltage North, as well as the RMS voltage of phase A. The
to 1 p.u. at substation West. The power plant con- RMS voltage is derived from the time domain signal
nected to substation North is set to dispatch 750 MW. using a DSL model.
A station controller is used to regulate the voltage at
the HV-side of the Power Plant to 1.02 p.u. The wind
farm connected to the 110 kV sub-transmission sys-
[deg]
tem is set to dispatch 30 MW at a power factor of 0.95
overexcited. 6,00
5,00
Large loads are connected to substation North and 4,00
North-East, each with a consumption of 1200 MW and 3,00
a power factor of 0.9 and 0.98 respectively. For reac- 2,00
tive power compensation the capacitor bank at sub-
1,00
station North-East is supplying 400 Mvar (tap 8). The
shunt reactor at substation Central is tapped to zero -240, -210, -180, -150, -120, -90,0 -60,0 -30,0 30,0 60,0 90,0 120, 150, 180, [kV]
-1,00
and thus not consuming any active power.
-2,00
-3,00
The load flow calculation is configured with automatic
-4,00
tap adjustment of transformers at substation Central
-5,00
and at the wind farm. The load flow calculation will
-6,00
determine the active and reactive power flows for all
-7,00
branches, and the voltage magnitude and phase for
-8,00
all nodes. Executing the load flow results in the phase
West 1: Line-Ground Voltage
voltages displayed in Figure 18. The voltage at sub- North 1: Line-Ground Voltage
C4_1.1: Line-Ground Voltage
North-East: Line-Ground Voltage
station West is the reference voltage with an angle of
∘ ∘
0 and a symmetrical phase shift of 120 for each
phase respectively. Figure 18: Phase voltages of the transmission system
Rev.2 13
600 600
[kV] [kV]
400 400
200 200
0 0
-200 -200
-400 -400
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
W400-1: Phase Voltage A W400-1: Phase Voltage B
N400-1: Phase Voltage A N400-1: Phase Voltage B
C400-3: Phase Voltage A C400-3: Phase Voltage B
250 600
[-] [kV]
200 400
150 200
100 0
50 -200
0 -400
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
C400-3_RMS-Voltage: UA W400-1: Phase Voltage C
N400-1_RMS-Voltage: UA N400-1: Phase Voltage C
W400-1_RMS-Voltage: UA C400-3: Phase Voltage C
Figure 19: Instantaneous and RMS phase voltages in the transmission system at steady state
Rev.2 14
4.2 Short Circuit 1ph with the highest share coming from the overhead line.
The voltage at the fault terminal and the overall short

A single phase to ground fault in substation North is
circuit current are shown in Figure 21. The high fre-
investigated in this study case.
quency oscillations at the beginning of the phenomena
Initially, the system is in steady state. All overhead cause transient overvoltages in the healthy phases of
lines and cable systems are modelled with distributed the system. After approximately 20 ms a new steady
parameter line models in order to account for travelling state conditions is reached and after 50 ms the fault
wave effects. is cleared. The peak voltage during the transient is
430 kV which corresponds to 1.3 p.u.
During the simulation, a single phase to ground fault is
applied in substation North at the incomer of overhead The simulation sequence is as follows:
line OHL-NC. It is assumed that the fault is cleared • 𝑡 = −20𝑚𝑠:
by three-phase circuit breaker action by isolating the start simulation
faulted part of the network.
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
The simulation results are shown in Figure 20 for Single Phase to ground Fault in substation North
the branches connected to the faulted terminal. The at Bay 1
fault current is supplied by the two circuit breakers
N400-B1-CB2 and N400-B1-CB3 and the overhead • 𝑡 = 50𝑚𝑠:
line OHL-NC. The peak short circuit current is 27 kA Fault clearing
12
[kA]
8
OHL-WN: Phase Current A/Terminal i

4
OHL-WN: Phase Current B/Terminal i
OHL-WN: Phase Current C/Terminal i
0
-4
-8
0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 [ms] 100,0
10
[kA]
5
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current A/Terminal i

0
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current B/Terminal i
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current C/Terminal i
-5
-10
-15
0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 [ms] 100,0
20
[kA]
10
N400-B1-CB3: Phase Current A/Terminal i

0
N400-B1-CB3: Phase Current B/Terminal i
N400-B1-CB3: Phase Current C/Terminal i
-10
-20
-30
0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 [ms] 100,0
Figure 20: Phase currents in circuit breaker N400-B1-CB2, N400-B1-CB3 and overhead line OHL-WN during
single phase to ground fault
Rev.2 15
500
[kV]
250
0 N-400-1: Phase Voltage A

N-400-1: Phase Voltage B
N-400-1: Phase Voltage C
-250
-500
-750
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
60
[kA]
40
20 N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current A

N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current B
N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current C
0
-20
-40
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
Figure 21: Phase voltage and short circuit current at terminal N-400_T1 during single phase to ground fault
Rev.2 16
4.3 Short Circuit 3ph line OHL-NC. The peak short circuit current is 27 kA
with the highest share coming from the overhead line.
A three phase fault in substation North is investigated
The voltage at the fault terminal and the overall short
in this study case.
circuit current are shown in Figure 23. After approxi-
Initially, the system is in steady state. All overhead mately 40 ms a new steady state conditions is reached
lines and cable systems are modelled with distributed and after 50 ms the fault is cleared. The peak voltage
parameter line models in order to account for travelling during the transient is 411 kV which corresponds to
wave effects. 1.25 p.u.
During the simulation, a three phase fault is applied in The simulation sequence is as follows:
substation North at the incomer of overhead line OHL- • 𝑡 = −20𝑚𝑠:
NC. It is assumed that the fault is cleared by three- start simulation
phase circuit breaker action by isolating the faulted
part of the network. • 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
Single Phase to ground Fault in substation North
The simulation results are shown in Figure 22 for at Bay 1
the branches connected to the faulted terminal. The
fault current is supplied by the two circuit breakers • 𝑡 = 50𝑚𝑠:
N400-B1-CB2 and N400-B1-CB3 and the overhead Fault clearing
30
20
10
-10
-20
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
OHL-WN: Phase Current A/Terminal i in kA
OHL-WN: Phase Current B/Terminal i in kA
OHL-WN: Phase Current C/Terminal i in kA
-4
-8
-12
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current A/Terminal i in kA
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current B/Terminal i in kA
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current C/Terminal i in kA
-4
-8
-12
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
Figure 22: Phase currents in circuit breaker N400-B1-CB2, N400-B1-CB3 and overhead line OHL-WN during
single phase to ground fault
Rev.2 17
500
[kV]
250
-250
-500
-750
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
N-400-1: Phase Voltage A
N-400-1: Phase Voltage B
N-400-1: Phase Voltage C
40
[kA]
20
-20
-40
-60
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current A
N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current B
N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current C
Figure 23: Phase voltage and short circuit current at terminal N-400_T1 during three phase fault
Rev.2 18
4.4 Transformer Energisation I shift.
During the energisation, the fluxes in all three phases

Energisation without Residual Flux
exceed 1 p.u. and drive the transformer into satura-
tion. The current-flux relationship is no longer linear
This study case investigates the energisation of the
and results in high inrush currents which contain har-
wind farm transformer TRF1. Intially, the system is in
monic distortion as described in section 3.1. The non-
steady state and the complete wind farm is discon-
linear flux-current relationship can also be plotted in
nected from the system and de-energised.
PowerFactory and is shown in Figure 24. The peak in-
The 110 kV HV cable that connects the wind farm to rush current on the HV side of the transformer arises
the point of common coupling (PCC) at substation in phase A and is approximately 1070 A. This is ap-
Central is connected to the system and is in steady proximately 3 times the rated current of 370.4 A peak.
state. The wind farm transformer TRF1 is then ener-
A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is used to investigate
gised by closing the circuit breaker CB4 in Bay 2 of
the inrush currents in order to quantify their harmonic
busbar WF-110.
content. The FFT is carried out with a 20 ms win-
The residual flux in the transformer core is assumed to dow and 64 samples, resulting in a sampling rate of
be zero at the time when the transformer is energised, 3200 Hz. Figure 25 shows the FFT of the inrush cur-
thus: rents in the same plot. As can be seen, phase C con-
tains a significant DC-component.
• 𝜓𝐴 (𝑡0 ) = 0 𝑝.𝑢.
The energisation of the wind farm transformer causes
• 𝜓𝐵 (𝑡0 ) = 0 𝑝.𝑢. a voltage drop at the grid connection point (Central
• 𝜓𝐶 (𝑡0 ) = 0 𝑝.𝑢. substation). The RMS voltage during the energisation
process is shown in Figure 25.
Lumped parameter line models are used for the anal-
ysis of the transformer energisation. Ahead of energisation the RMS voltage in all three
phases is approximately 1.02 p.u. The minimum RMS
The EMT simulation is initialised at 𝑡 = −100 ms and voltage during the energisation occurs in phase A and
the integration step size is set to 𝑡 = 100 𝜇s . The is 0.97 p.u. which corresponds to a voltage dip of
circuit breaker CB4 is closed at 𝑡 = 0 s. approximately 5%. Usually grid code requirements
limit the maximum allowable RMS voltage dip to 2.0%.
The simulation results are documented in Figure 24 Thus, countermeasures such as point on wave switch-
and Figure 25. Following the switch event, the flux in ing (𝑃 𝑜𝑊 ) would have to be considered for the specific
all three phases rises proportional to the source volt- case.
age at the HV side of the transformer with a 90∘ phase
Rev.2 19
3 3 3
[p.u.] [p.u.] [p.u.]
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
WF-110: Phase Voltage A WF-110: Phase Voltage B WF-110: Phase Voltage C
TRF1: Magnetising Flux A TRF1: Magnetising Flux B TRF1: Mag. Flux c C
2 800 3,00
[p.u.] [A]
[p.u.]
0 400
2,00
-2 0
1,00
-4 -400
0,00
-6 -800
-1,00
-8 -1200
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
TRF1: Magnetising Current, Phase a TRF1: Phase Current A/HV-Side -2,00
TRF1: Magnetising Current, Phase b TRF1: Phase Current B/HV-Side -6 -4 -2 0 2 [p.u.] 4
TRF1: Magnetising Current, Phase c TRF1: Phase Current C/HV-Side
Figure 24: Transformer HV side voltage, magnetic flux in the core, magnetising current
1,04
[-]
1,02
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: UA
1,00
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: UB
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: UC
0,98
0,96
0,94
0 200 400 600 800 [ms] 1000
800
[A]
400
TRF1: Phase A
0
TRF1: Phase B
TRF1: Phase C
-400
-800
-1200
0 200 400 600 800 [ms] 1000
400
300
TRF1: Phase A
200
TRF1: Phase B
TRF1: Phase C
100
-100
0,00 50,0 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500,
Figure 25: RMS voltage dip at PCC, inrush currents and their harmonic distortion (FFT)
Rev.2 20
4.5 Transformer Energisation II at 𝑡 = 0 s.
During the energisation, the fluxes in all three phases

Energisation with Residual Flux
exceed 1 p.u. and drive the transformer into satura-
tion. In comparison to the previous simulation, the
Transformers usually have residual flux in the core
fluxes start at the instance of energisation with the
that may have a significant impact on the energisation
magnitude that is defined in the transformer element
transient. In the following study case, the transformer
and not with zero.
TRF1 is energised assuming a residual flux for the
different phases as follows: The simulation results in the core of the transformer
• 𝜓𝐴 (𝑡0 ) = 0.8 𝑝.𝑢. are shown in Figure 26. As can be seen, the magnetic
flux in the phases, especially phase A, significantly in-
• 𝜓𝐵 (𝑡0 ) = −0.4 𝑝.𝑢. creases, as well as the phase currents.
• 𝜓𝐶 (𝑡0 ) = −0.4 𝑝.𝑢.
Figure 27 documents the inrush currents and RMS
Lumped parameter line models are used for the anal- voltage drop when the transformer is energised with
ysis of the transformer energisation. residual flux. The inrush current is significantly in-
creased now with an amplitude of approximately
The EMT simulation is initialised at 𝑡 = −100 ms and 2080 A which corresponds to more than 5 time the
the integration step size is set to 𝑡 = 100 𝜇s . The cir- rated peak current. In additions, the RMS voltage drop
cuit breaker CB4 in Bay 2 of busbar WF-110 is closed in phase A reaches now approximately 10%.
3 3 3
[p.u.] [p.u.] [p.u.]
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
WF-110: Phase Voltage A WF-110: Phase Voltage B WF-110: Phase Voltage C
TRF1: Magnetising Flux A TRF1: Magnetising Flux B TRF1: Mag. Flux c C
6 3000 4,00
[p.u.] [A]
[p.u.]
3 2000
2,00
0 1000
0,00
-3 0
-2,00
-6 -1000
-4,00
-9 -2000
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
TRF1: Magnetising Current, Phase a TRF1: Phase Current A/HV-Side -6,00
TRF1: Magnetising Current, Phase b TRF1: Phase Current B/HV-Side -5,0 -2,5 0,0 2,5 5,0 [p.u.] 7,5
TRF1: Magnetising Current, Phase c TRF1: Phase Current C/HV-Side
Figure 26: Transformer HV side voltage, magnetic flux in the core, magnetising current
Rev.2 21
1,04
[-]
1,00
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: UA
0,96
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: UB
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: UC
0,92
0,88
0,84
0 200 400 600 800 [ms] 1000
4000
[A]
3000
TRF1: Phase A
2000
TRF1: Phase B
TRF1: Phase C
1000
-1000
0 200 400 600 800 [ms] 1000
1000
750
TRF1: Phase A
500
TRF1: Phase B
TRF1: Phase C
250
-250
0,00 50,0 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500,
Figure 27: RMS voltage dip at PCC, inrush currents and their harmonic distortion (FFT)
Rev.2 22
4.6 Transformer Energisation III The analysis of the sympathetic inrush phenomena is
evaluated in this section and shown in Figure 28.
Parallel Transformer Energisation with
The simulation sequence is as follows:
Sympathetic Inrush
• 𝑡 = −50𝑚𝑠:
Start simulation. Transformer TRF2 is already
The energisation of a transformer that is connected to energised and operated under no load condition
one or several parallel transformers that are already
energised and operated under no load condition may • 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
give rise to a phenomena that is called sympathetic Energisation of transformer TRF1 by closing
inrush. The inrush currents associated with this tran- switch CB4 in Bay2 of substation WindFarm.
sient have a relatively long duration and may pose a
threat to the reliability and security of the system. The simulations plots show the transformer inrush cur-
rents in TRF1 and the the sympathetic inrush currents
During the energisation of parallel transformers, the in transformer TRF2 as well as the source currents
transformer that is already energised may experience supplying the windfarm.
an unexpected saturation during the inrush transient
of the other transformer. This saturation is a result of The inrush current in TRF2 is caused due to the sat-
an asymmetrical voltage drop across the system resis- uration of the corresponding transformer. The satura-
tance caused by the inrush current of the transformer tion is due to the an offset of the magnetising currents
which is being energised and results in an offset of the in this transformer that results from the asymmetrical
magnetising currents in the already energised trans- voltage drop of the inrush currents from TRF1.
former.
3000
[A]
2000
TRF1: Phase A
1000
TRF1: Phase B
TRF1: Phase C
0
-1000
-2000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 [ms] 5000
1200
[A]
800
TRF2: Phase A
400
TRF2: Phase B
TRF2: Phase C
0
-400
-800
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 [ms] 5000
3000
[A]
2000
CE-3: Phase Current A/Terminal i

1000
CE-3: Phase Current B/Terminal i
CE-3: Phase Current C/Terminal i
0
-1000
-2000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 [ms] 5000
Figure 28: Inrush currents of transformer TRF 1 and sympathetic inrush current of transformer TRF2 was
already energised
Rev.2 23
4.7 Transformer Energisation IV scripts library of this project. In each simulation, the
circuit breaker closing time and optionally (depending
Statistical Analysis: on settings) the pole scatter between the phases is
changed according to the configuration in the script.
The inrush currents and voltage dips during the trans-
For the following analysis, the residual flux in the trans-
former energisation transient depends on the circuit
former core is assumed to be zero at the time when
breaker closing time.
the transformer is energised.
The circuit breaker closing time is of random nature in
The simulation results for the transformer energisation
reality and therefore all points on the wave (PoW) are
are shown in Figure 29 when pole scatter between the
possible during the switching transient (unless con-
phases is neglected. As can be seen, the inrush peak
trolled switching is applied).
current and RMS voltage drop are a function of the
In order to account for all potential circuit breaker clos- circuit breaker closing time.
ing times, statistical switching studies are required. In
Figure 30 shows the maximum inrush peak current
this study case, a Python script is used to run more
and minimum RMS voltage for the transformer ener-
than 100 EMT simulations (depending on the configu-
gisation when a pole scatter is considered. The pole
ration of closing events and pole scatter).
scatter is considered with a normal distribution. The
The script for the statistical analysis is stored in the standard deviation 𝜇 is assumed to be 0.5.
66
[pu]
65
64
63
62
61
0 4 8 12 16 20
x-Axis: WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Switch time in ms
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Min. RMS voltage phase A
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Min. RMS voltage phase B
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Min. RMS voltage phase C
1200
[A]
900
600
300
-300
1 5 9 13 17 21
x-Axis: TRF1: Switch time in ms
TRF1: Peak Current Phase A
TRF1: Peak Current Phase B
TRF1: Peak Current Phase C
Figure 29: Statistical analysis of transformer energisation without the consideration of pole scatter.
Rev.2 24
65
[pu]
64
63
62
61
60
0 4 8 12 16 20
x-Axis: WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Switch time in ms
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Min. RMS voltage phase A
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Min. RMS voltage phase B
WF_PCC_RMS-Voltage: Min. RMS voltage phase C
1600
[A]
1200
800
400
-400
0 4 8 12 16 20
x-Axis: TRF1: Switch time in ms
TRF1: Peak Current Phase A
TRF1: Peak Current Phase B
TRF1: Peak Current Phase C
Figure 30: Statistical analysis of transformer energisation with the consideration of pole scatter.
Rev.2 25
4.8 Overhead Line Energisation I line models is based on the corresponding energisa-
tion frequency for each line and ranges from 350 Hz to
Energisation without Surge Arresters 3000 Hz.
The frequency for travel time estimation / modal trans-

The energisation of high voltage overhead lines and
formation can be calculated based on the following
cable systems may cause considerable overvoltages.
equation:
With increasing operating voltages of transmission
systems, switching surge overvoltages determine the
insulation design rather than lightning overvoltages. 𝑣 1
𝑓𝜏 = =
4·𝑙 4·𝜏
Transient overvoltages caused by internal line events
such as line switching are one of the main problems in More advanced distributed parameter line models are
EHV and UHV systems with regard to insulation coor- available in PowerFactory. Further information is avail-
dination and are discussed in this study case. These able in the technical reference [5].
transients typically have durations ranging from a few
tens to several thousands of µs and belong to the Figure 31 shows the transient voltage at the sending
category of slow front transients. They usually have and receiving end of overhead line WC-1 during the
complex waveforms with frequencies in the range of energisation. The voltage surges are injected at the
100 Hz to several kHz superimposed on the power fre- sending end of the overhead line and then duplicated
quency. and reflected at the receiving end (substation West).
Then the surges travel back to substation Central. Due
The following study cases investigates the energisa- to attenuation, the magnitude of the wave decreases
tion of the overhead line WC-1 which is part of the dou- and the waveform is distorted, as it propagates along
ble circuit overhead line going from substation West to the line. The current and voltage wave shapes be-
Central. Initially, the circuit WC-1 is disconnected and come dissimilar, though they were the same initially.
isolated from the system. However, it is electromag-
netically coupled to WC-1. The line will be energised Figure 32 shows the current surge along the line. In
from the substation Central while the other end of the phase A a current surge of approximately 1 kA is in-
line remains disconnected. jected into the line. The propagation time of the first
line segment is approximately 234 µs. Thus the in-
All overhead lines and cable systems are modelled jected current surge arrives at the first point of trans-
with distributed parameter line models in order to ac- position only after 234 µs which can be observed in
count for travelling wave effects. Figure 32. The surge arrives at SS West (open end
of overhead line WC-1) approximately 712 µs after the
The constant frequency / Bergeron line model is used circuit breaker is closed.
in this study case. The modal transformation of the
Rev.2 26
750
Max. =575,898 kV
500
250
-250
-500
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C-400_Bay09: Phase Voltage A in kV
W400-2_Bay01: Phase Voltage A in kV
500
250
-250
-500 Min. =-441,791 kV
-750
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C-400_Bay09: Phase Voltage B in kV
W400-2_Bay01: Phase Voltage B in kV
500
250
-250
Min. =-365,616 kV
-500
-750
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C-400_Bay09: Phase Voltage C in kV
W400-2_Bay01: Phase Voltage C in kV
Figure 31: Transient phase-to-ground voltages at the sending and receiving end during the energisation of
OHL WC-1
Energisation
1200
[A]
800
OHL-WC1.3: Phase Current A/Terminal j

400
0
-400
-800
0 300 600 900 1200 [us] 1500
Energisation
1200
[A]
800
OHL-WC1.3: Phase Current B/Terminal j

400
0
-400
-800
0 300 600 900 1200 [us] 1500
Energisation
300
[A]
0
OHL-WC1.3: Phase Current C/Terminal j

-300
-600
-900
-1200
0 300 600 900 1200 [us] 1500
Figure 32: Transient phase currents during the energisation of OHL WC-1
Rev.2 27
4.9 Overhead Line Energisation II re-energisation sequence are shown in Figure 33. Ini-
tially, the system is in steady state and the load current
Re-Energisation without Surge Arresters is below 1 kA. During the fault, the currents reach sev-
eral kAs and become zero after fault clearing.
In this study case, re-energisation transients are in-
The transient voltages during the re-energisation are
vestigated. Initially, the system is in steady state. All
shown in Figure 34. Initially, the system represents a
overhead lines and cable systems are modelled with
balanced system with a voltage in the range of 1 p.u.
distributed parameter line models in order to account
After fault clearing, the voltage in the faulted phase is
for travelling wave effects.
zero while in the healthy phases, the trapped charge
The constant frequency / Bergeron line model is used sustains. During the re-energisation, overvoltages
in this study case. The modal transformation of the with very high magnitudes occur in the in the system.
line models is based on the corresponding energisa- The peak line-to-earth voltage is 850 kV.
In this study case, the surge arresters are set out of
3000 Hz.
service. The simulation sequence is as follows:
The frequency for travel time estimation / modal trans- • 𝑡 = − 150𝑚𝑠:
formation can be calculated based on the following start simulation
equation:
• 𝑡 = −50 𝑚𝑠:
Single Phase to ground Fault at terminal N400-
𝑣 1 B2-3
𝑓𝜏 = =
4·𝑙 4·𝜏
• 𝑡 = − 0𝑚𝑠:
More advanced distributed parameter line models are Line tripping → opening of circuit breakers
available in PowerFactory. Further information is avail- N400-B2-CB3, N400-B2-CB2 and C400-B2-
able in the technical reference [5]. CB1. The current is interrupted in the next zero-
crossing of each phase.
During the simulation, a single phase to ground fault is
applied in substation North at the incomer of overhead • 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
line OHL-NC. It is assumed that the fault is cleared by Fault clearing → removing the fault at terminal
three-phase auto-reclosure. First, the faulted line is N400-B2-3
tripped by opening the corresponding circuit breakers. • 𝑡 = 197 𝑚𝑠:
Re-energisation → closing the circuit breaker
As a result of the circuit breaker action, the voltage in
N400-B2-CB3
the healthy phases is trapped (trapped charge) while
the voltage in the faulted phase is zero. The trapped • 𝑡 = 203 𝑚𝑠: Re-energisation → closing the cir-
charge significantly impacts the transient overvoltages cuit breaker N400-B2-CB2
during the re-energisation.
• 𝑡 = 205 𝑚𝑠: Re-energisation → closing the cir-
The currents through the circuit breakers during the cuit breaker C400-B2-CB1
Rev.2 28
20
10
-10
-20
-30
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-B2-CB1: Phase Current A/Terminal i in kA
-2
-4
-6
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-B2-CB1: Phase Current B/Terminal i in kA
-2
-4
-6
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-B2-CB1: Phase Current C/Terminal i in kA
Figure 33: Phase currents during the re-energisation transient
1000 600
Max. =850,942 kV
[kV] [kV]
500 300
0 0
-500 -300
-1000 -600
-1500 -900
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500 0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-3-B2-1: Phase Voltage A N400-2: Phase Voltage A
C400-3-B2-1: Phase Voltage B N400-2: Phase Voltage B
C400-3-B2-1: Phase Voltage C N400-2: Phase Voltage C
Figure 34: Phase-to-ground voltages during the re-energisation transient
Rev.2 29
4.10 Overhead Line Energisation III The currents through the circuit breakers during the
re-energisation sequence are shown in Figure 35. Ini-
Re-Energisation with Surge Arresters tially, the system is in steady state and the load current
is below 1 kA. During the fault, the currents reach sev-
In this study case, re-energisation transients are in- eral kAs and become zero after fault clearing.
vestigated. Initially, the system is in steady state. All
During the re-energisation, the overvoltages are lim-
overhead lines and cable systems are modelled with
ited by the surge arrester that are connected in substa-
distributed parameter line models in order to account
tion North and Central. The peak line-to-earth voltage
for travelling wave effects.
is 700 kV. The currents absorbed currents and energy
The constant frequency / Bergeron line model is used of the surge arrester in substation Central are shown
in this study case. The modal transformation of the in Figure 36.
line models is based on the corresponding energisa-
3000 Hz. • 𝑡 = − 150𝑚𝑠:
start simulation
The frequency for travel time estimation / modal trans-
formation can be calculated based on the following • 𝑡 = −50 𝑚𝑠:
equation: Single Phase to ground Fault at terminal N400-
B2-3
𝑣 1 • 𝑡 = − 0𝑚𝑠:
𝑓𝜏 = =
4·𝑙 4·𝜏 Line tripping → opening of circuit breakers
N400-B2-CB3, N400-B2-CB2 and C400-B2-
More advanced distributed parameter line models are CB1. The current is interrupted in the next zero-
available in PowerFactory. Further information is avail- crossing of each phase.
able in the technical reference [5].
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
During the simulation, a single phase to ground fault is Fault clearing → removing the fault at terminal
applied in substation North at the incomer of overhead N400-B2-3
line OHL-NC. It is assumed that the fault is cleared by
three-phase auto-reclosure. First, the faulted line is • 𝑡 = 197 𝑚𝑠:
tripped by opening the corresponding circuit breakers. Re-energisation → closing the circuit breaker
N400-B2-CB3
As a result of the circuit breaker action, the voltage in
the healthy phases is trapped (trapped charge) while
cuit breaker N400-B2-CB2
the voltage in the faulted phase is zero. The trapped
charge significantly impacts the transient overvoltages • 𝑡 = 205 𝑚𝑠: Re-energisation → closing the cir-
during the re-energisation. cuit breaker C400-B2-CB1
Rev.2 30
20
10
-10
-20
-30
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-B2-CB1: Phase Current A/Terminal i in kA
-2
-4
-6
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-B2-CB1: Phase Current B/Terminal i in kA
-2
-4
-6
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-B2-CB1: Phase Current C/Terminal i in kA
Figure 35: Phase currents during the re-energisation transient
1000 600
[kV] Max. =696,533 kV [kV]
500 300
0 0
-500 -300
-1000 -600
-1500 -900
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500 0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
C400-3-B2-1: Phase Voltage A N400-2: Phase Voltage A
C400-3-B2-1: Phase Voltage B N400-2: Phase Voltage B
C400-3-B2-1: Phase Voltage C N400-2: Phase Voltage C
Figure 36: Phase-to-ground voltages during the re-energisation transient
Rev.2 31
0,500 0,08
[kA] [MWs]
0,375 0,06
0,250 0,04
0,125 0,02
0,000 -0,00
-0,125 -0,02
200 210 220 230 240 [ms] 250 200 210 220 230 240 [ms] 250
C400-B2-SA1: MO Current A C400-B2-SA1: MO absorbed Energy
C400-B2-SA1: MO Current B C400-B2-SA1: MO absorbed Energy
C400-B2-SA1: MO Current C C400-B2-SA1: MO absorbed Energy
Figure 37: Surge arrester absorbed currents and energy
Rev.2 32
4.11 Overhead Line Energisation IV at the sending end of the line. The magnitude of the
injected surge depends mainly upon the voltage in-
Re-Energisation Statistical Analysis stantaneous value (point on the waveform) at which
the circuit-breaker contacts close electrically. Since
In this study case, re-energisation transients are in- the point on the waveform of the voltage depends on
vestigated. Initially, the system is in steady state. All the circuit breaker closing instant, statistical studies
overhead lines and cable systems are modelled with should usually be performed. As the circuit breaker
distributed parameter line models in order to account closing time is of random nature in reality, all potential
for travelling wave effects. breaker closing times and thus overvoltages should be
evaluated.
The constant frequency / Bergeron line model is used
in this study case. The modal transformation of the The randomness of the circuit breaker closing time
line models is based on the corresponding energisa- is modelled in PowerFactory by means of statistical
tion frequency for each line and ranges from 350 Hz to analysis. The statistical analysis tool in PowerFac-
3000 Hz. tory runs multiple simulations. In each simulation the
breaker closing time is varied randomly within a de-
The frequency for travel time estimation / modal trans- fined range. Additionally, breaker pole scattering can
formation can be calculated based on the following be included in the statistical analysis in order to ac-
equation: count for deviations in the closing time between the
three phases.
𝑣 1 An example of a statistical switching analysis is pro-
𝑓𝜏 = =
4·𝑙 4·𝜏 vided in this section. Figure 38 shows the maximum
overvoltages for the 𝑛 = 200 EMT simulations exe-
More advanced distributed parameter line models are cuted automatically by the statistical tool in PowerFac-
available in PowerFactory. Further information is avail- tory.
Multipe Run Set-up:
In this study case, the surge arresters are set out of
service. The simulation sequence is as follows: • Execution of DPL script Stochastic Switching
• 𝑡 = − 150𝑚𝑠: • Total number of EMT simulation: 200

start simulation
• Variation of the circuit breaker closing time (clos-
• 𝑡 = −50 𝑚𝑠: ing time is fixed) in a range of ± 10 ms.
Single Phase to ground Fault at terminal N400-
B2-3 • Additionally to the closing time, the (mechanical)
delay between the phases (scatter) time is var-
• 𝑡 = − 0𝑚𝑠: ied in a range of ± 10 ms.
Line tripping → opening of circuit breakers
N400-B2-CB3, N400-B2-CB2 and C400-B2- • Recording of the maximum value for each result
CB1. The current is interrupted in the next zero- variable, e.g. max. phase voltage
crossing of each phase. • Results are stored in a matrix and exported as
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠: CSV
Fault clearing → removing the fault at terminal
• Optional: Post-Processing of results with the
N400-B2-3
Python script Plot Statistical Analysis
• 𝑡 = 197 𝑚𝑠:
Re-energisation → closing the circuit breaker Based on the statistical analysis, the maximum phase-
N400-B2-CB3 to-earth overvoltage is 1336 kV. The statistical results
of the overvoltage distribution are documented in Ta-
• 𝑡 = 203 𝑚𝑠: Re-energisation → closing the cir- ble 1.
cuit breaker N400-B2-CB2
cuit breaker C400-B2-CB1
The overvoltages resulting from line energisation

highly depend on the magnitude of the injected surge
Rev.2 33
Table 1: Results of statistical analysis based on 200

runs. Phase-to-earth voltages in kV
Parameter Phase A Phase B Phase C

Mean Value 668 673 768
Standard Deviation 183 202 229
2% Value 1038 1080 1229
Max. value 1156 1127 1336
1450,00
[kV]
1200,00
950,00
700,00
450,00
200,00
0,00 40,00 80,00 120,00 160,00 200,00
x-Axis: C400-3-B2-1: Simulation case
C400-3-B2-1: Voltage Phase A
Figure 38: Statistical analysis of phase-to-earth overvoltages based on 200 runs
Rev.2 34
4.12 Cable Energisation I The frequency for travel time estimation / modal trans-
formation can be calculated based on the following
Energisation Overvoltages equation:
The energisation of high voltage overhead lines and 𝑣 1

cable systems may cause considerable overvoltages. 𝑓𝜏 = =
4·𝑙 4·𝜏
With increasing operating voltages of transmission
systems, switching surge overvoltages determine the More advanced distributed parameter line models are
insulation design rather than lightning overvoltages. available in PowerFactory. Further information is avail-
The following study cases investigates the energisa-
tion of the cable system NPP-1 when the surge ar- Figure 39 shows the transient voltage at the sending
resters are out of service. The cable is ideally cross- end (N400-2) and receiving end (PP400-B1) of the
bonded. Initially, it is disconnected and isolated from cable system during the energisation. The voltage
the system. surges are injected at the sending end of the cable
and then duplicated and reflected at the receiving end
All overhead lines and cable systems in the network (substation Power Plant).
are modelled with distributed parameter line models
in order to account for travelling wave effects. Then the surges travel back to substation West. Due
to attenuation, the magnitude of the wave decreases
The constant frequency / Bergeron line model is used. and the waveform is distorted, as it propagates along
The modal transformation of the line models is based the line. The current and voltage wave shapes be-
on the corresponding energisation frequency for each come dissimilar, though they were the same initially.
line and ranges from 350 Hz to 3000 Hz.
600 600
[kV] [kV]
300 300
0 0
-300 -300
-600 -600
-900 -900
0 5 10 15 20 [ms] 25 0 5 10 15 20 [ms] 25
N400-2: Phase Voltage A PP400-B1-1: Phase Voltage A
N400-2: Phase Voltage B PP400-B1-1: Phase Voltage B
N400-2: Phase Voltage C PP400-B1-1: Phase Voltage C
Figure 39: Transient phase-to-ground voltages at the sending and receiving end during the energisation of the
cable system NPP-1
Rev.2 35
4.13 Cable Energisation II When the shunt compensation degree exceeds 50%,
meaning that the reactive power of the shunt reactor
Missing Zero-Crossing Phenomena compensates more than 50% of the cable charging
capacitive current, the DC current of the shunt reac-
The simultaneous energisation of a cable and its tor can exceed the combined AC current of the shunt
compensating shunt reactor may cause the so called reactor and cable. Under this circumstance, the zero
"zero-missing" phenomena. During the zero-missing missing phenomena can occur when the cable is en-
phenomena, the current through the circuit breaker ergised together with the shunt reactor.
does not cross zero for several cycles. During the
The zero missing phenomena is demonstrated in the
time of zero-missing it is difficult or impossible to open
following example. For that purpose, it is assumed that
the breaker if a fault occurs in the system. There-
the two 400 kV cables are compensated with shunt
fore, the system is more vulnerable and unprotected
reactors only at the substation and not at the power
against faults.
plant.
The zero-missing phenomenon can be explained with
Furthermore, it is assumed, that the compensating
the cable system with a shunt reactor according to Fig-
shunt reactors have each a reactive power rating of
ure 40. When the cable system and shunt reactor are
100 Mvar and are connected directly to the cable. The
energised together, the current of the reactor has two
reactive power of each HV cable is approximately
components, an AC-component and a decaying DC-
160 Mvar, corresponding to a shunt compensation de-
component.
gree that is approximately 60%.
• 𝑡 = − 20 𝑚𝑠: start simulation

• 𝑡 = 8.2 𝑚𝑠: Energisation of cable system
Figure 40: Circuit breaker operation switching off • 𝑡 = 430 𝑚𝑠: First zero-crossing in phase C
Figure 41 and 42 show the transient response of the

system during the energisation of one 400 kV cable
Assuming the energisation of the system occurs at
from substation North. The simulation plots show the
voltage zero-crossing, the shunt reactor AC and a de-
phase currents in the cable, shunt reactor and circuit
caying DC current 𝑖(𝑡)𝑆𝑅 can be calculated as follows:
breaker currents together with the terminal voltage at
substation North.
𝑅 𝑢 𝑢
𝑖(𝑡)𝑆𝑅 = 𝑒−( 𝐿 )·𝑡 · 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑚𝑎𝑥 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 − 𝜃) The instantaneous voltage in phase C is zero at 𝑡 =
𝑍 𝑍 8.2 𝑚𝑠 and thus, the angle 𝜙 − 𝜃 is 90∘ here. The
DC component of the circuit breaker phase current
Where R, L, and Z are respectively resistance, induc- will therefore exceed the combined AC current of the
tance, and impedance of the reactor. 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the shunt reactor and cable and result in the zero-missing
voltage amplitude, 𝜙 is the initial phase angle of the phenomena.
voltage (point on the voltage waveform at which the
breaker is closed), and 𝜃 is the load angle. The duration of the zero-missing phenomena is ap-
proximately 400 ms. During that time, the circuit
The DC-component is maximum when 𝜙 − 𝜃 is 90∘ breaker of phase C cannot be opened and therefore, a
and is zero when 𝜙 − 𝜃 is zero. The current through potential fault in the system cannot be cleared during
the circuit breaker during energisation is: that time.
The simulations in this study case have been carried

𝑖(𝑡)𝐶𝐵 = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑆𝑅 + 𝑖(𝑡)𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 out with the constant frequency distributed parameter
line model. The frequency dependent phase domain
model is available as well.
𝑖(𝑡)𝐶𝐵 = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑆𝑅,𝐷𝐶 + 𝑖(𝑡)𝑆𝑅,𝐴𝐶 · 𝑖(𝑡)𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
Rev.2 36
1200 3000
[kV] [A]
800 2000
400 1000
0 0
-400 -1000
-800 -2000
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500 0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
N400-2: Phase Voltage A CAB-NPP1: Phase Current A/Terminal i
N400-2: Phase Voltage B CAB-NPP1: Phase Current B/Terminal i
N400-2: Phase Voltage C CAB-NPP1: Phase Current C/Terminal i
500 3000
[A] [A]
250 2000
0 1000
-250 0
-500 -1000
-750 -2000
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500 0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
NNPS1_comp: Phase Current A N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current A/Terminal i
NNPS1_comp: Phase Current B N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current B/Terminal i
NNPS1_comp: Phase Current C N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current C/Terminal i
Figure 41: Energisation of cable system with a shunt reactor. The plots show the terminal voltage at the
sending end of the cable, the cable and shunt reactor current as well as the circuit breaker phase currents.
500 500
[kV] [kV]
250 250
0 0
-250 -250
-500 -500
-750 -750
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50 0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
N400-2: Phase Voltage A N400-2: Phase Voltage A
N400-2: Phase Voltage B
N400-2: Phase Voltage C
Missing zero crossing for 430 ms

3000 1200
[A] [A]
2000 800
1000 400
0 0
-1000 -400
-2000 -800
0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500 0 100 200 300 400 [ms] 500
N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current B/Terminal i N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current C/Terminal i
Figure 42: Energisation at 𝑡 = 8.2 𝑚𝑠 with voltage zero crossing in phase C, resulting in a Transient phase-to-
ground voltages at the sending and receiving end during the energisation of the cable system NPP-1
Rev.2 37
4.14 TRV Terminal Fault elled according to IEC 62271-100 with a 4-parameter
envelope curve. The parameters that define the di-
In this section the transient recovery voltages (TRV) electric strength for the specific circuit breaker are
across the breaker poles of the circuit breaker C400- listed in Table 2.
B9_CB in substation Central is analysed. The circuit
The envelope curve defines the maximum transient
breaker connected the overhead line OHL-WC1.3 to
voltages which are allowed after the fault interruption
the substation.
across the breaker poles and represents the dielectric
Following a terminal fault on the line side of the circuit strength of the breaker.
breaker, the protection relays will trigger the breaker.
The limits in Table 2 correspond to the short-circuit
For the purpose of this analysis C400-B9_CB is mod-
duty tests T100, T60 and T30. The duty test T100 cor-
elled as an ideal switch that is linked to the circuit
responds to a short circuit current equal to the short
breaker capability curve. The capability curve repre-
circuit rating of the CB. In the duty test T60 the short
sents the dielectric strength during the transient ac-
circuit current is only 60% of the short circuit rating of
cording and is in accordance with the IEC 62271-100.
the CB.
All lines are modelled with distributed parameters in Table 2: Parameters of TRV envelope of 420 kV circuit
this example. Lumped models could be used for most breakers; terminal faults (T)
lines as well and would speed up the simulation. How-
ever, for simplification, all lines were modelled with dis-
Curve 𝑢1 /kV 𝑡1 /𝜇s 𝑈𝐶 /kV 𝑡2 /𝜇s
tributed parameter line models.
T100 334 167 624 668
The simulation sequence is as follows: T60 334 11 669 666
• 𝑡 = −20𝑚𝑠: T30 - - 687 137
start simulation
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
Three Phase to ground Fault at the incomer ofFigure 44 shows the short circuit current flowing from
OHL-WC1.3 in substation Central substation Central to the fault location at the beginning
of overhead line (OHL) WC-1.3. Initially the current
• 𝑡 = 40 𝑚𝑠: through the circuit breaker is in steady state. At time
Line tripping → opening of the corresponding 𝑡 = 0 s the fault is initiated with zero fault impedance
circuit breakers CC400-1-B9_CB, W400-1-B2_- (𝑅𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 0 Ω and 𝑋𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 0 Ω).
CB1 and W400-1-B2_CB2.
The current is interrupted in the next zero- The steady state load current changes into a signif-
crossing of each phase. icantly higher short circuit current in an oscillatory
manner as shown in Figure 44. After a few ms the
C400-B8-SA1
short circuit current is nearly in steady state. At time

𝑡 = 50 ms a switch event is applied and the faulted part
CBS1
CBS2
CWC1_comp
of the network is isolated.
IS.L2.3
C400-B5-SA1
C400-1-B9_CB
Bay09
OHL-WC1.3
IS.L2.1 IS.L2.2 During the short circuit transient, the terminal voltage
at substation Central drops from a peak line-to-earth
C400-B9..
IS.L3.2 CB.L3 IS.L3.1 voltage of 328.3 kV to 0 kV and afterwards returns ap-

proximately to its original value. The peak short cir-
Bay05
IS.L3.3
cuit current through circuit breaker CC400-1-B9_CB

C400-B1..
IS.L1.1 C400-B10_CB IS.L1.2

is 16.7 kA.
OHL-WC2.3
Bay10
IS.L1.3 As described in section 3.3 a transient recovery volt-

age arises across the circuit breaker poles after the
CWC-2_comp IS.L0.2 current is interrupted. The plot show the TRV together
with the breaker capability curve of the CB CC400-1-
Figure 43: Fault location of terminal fault B9_CB for each phase.
The maximum peak voltages 𝑢𝑐 and rate of rise of re-

For the evaluation of the TRV, the circuit breakers di- covery voltage 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 during the transient for the dif-
electric strength during the switching transient is mod- ferent phases are as follows :
Rev.2 38
• Phase A: The maximum withstand voltage of the CB for the

𝑢𝑐 = 529 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 0.32 kV/𝜇s T100 duty is 624 kV and the maximum RRRV is
0.32 kV/µs. The transient recovery voltage (TRV)
• Phase B: therefore does not exceed the limits defined in
𝑢𝑐 = 497 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 0.24 kV/𝜇s IEC62271-100. For this particular case a high volt-
• Phase C: age circuit breaker with a fault current ratio of 100%
𝑢𝑐 = 489 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 0.14 kV/𝜇s of its rated short circuit capability is sufficient for the
application.
Short Circuit Switch Event

30
[kA]
20
10
-10
-20
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
IS.L2.3: Phase Current A/Terminal i
IS.L2.3: Phase Current B/Terminal i
IS.L2.3: Phase Current C/Terminal i
Short Circuit Switch Event

600
[kV]
300
-300
-600
-900
0 20 40 60 80 [ms] 100
C4_1.1: Phase Voltage A
C4_1.1: Phase Voltage B
C4_1.1: Phase Voltage C
Figure 44: Short circuit current through the CB.L2 during the transient and voltage at substation Central
Rev.2 39
800
400
-400
-800
-1200
41 44 47 50 53 [ms] 56
C400-1-B9_CB: Voltage Difference A in kV
C400-1-B09_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_A_neg
C400-1-B09_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_A_pos
800
400
-400
-800
-1200
41 44 47 50 53 [ms] 56
C400-1-B9_CB: Voltage Difference B in kV
C400-1-B09_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_B_neg
C400-1-B09_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_B_pos
800
400
-400
-800
-1200
41 44 47 50 53 [ms] 56
C400-1-B9_CB: Voltage Difference C in kV
C400-1-B09_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_C_neg
C400-1-B09_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_C_pos
Figure 45: Transient recovery voltage (TRV) and dielectric strength of circuit breaker
Rev.2 40
4.15 TRV Shunt Reactor Switching I The simulation results are shown in Figure 46 and
47. The first zero-crossing occurs in phase A after
For reactive power compensation a shunt reactor is the circuit breaker is triggered by a simulation event.
installed at substation Central as shown in Figure 2. At 𝑡 = 0.607 ms the current in phase A is zero and
The shunt reactor is a three-phase five-leg core type the breaker poles are opened in this phase. Then,
with a rated reactive power of 200 Mvar. The reac- 3.404 ms later at 𝑡 = 4.011 ms the current in phase C
tor is switchable and has 4 steps. Thus, it is able goes to zero and the poles are opened in this phase.
to consume 0 Mvar, 50 Mvar, 100 Mvar, 150 Mvar and In phase B the current is interrupted at 𝑡 = 7.314 ms.
200 Mvar. The reactor is connected directly to the
Following the current interruption in each phase, the
400 kV busbar via a 400 kV circuit breaker.
TRV, as described in section 3.3 arises across the
In this study case, the transient recovery voltage breaker poles. The TRV for each phase is depicted
(TRV) is analysed when the shunt reactor in substa- in Figure 47 together with the breaker capability curve
tion Central is switched off. Before disconnecting, the of the CB. According to IEC 62271-100 the TRV en-
shunt reactor is operated at step 2, supplying the grid velope is defined by a two-parameter curve. The input
with 200 Mvar of reactive power. The reactor is then parameters for the TRV envelope are based on the
disconnected by opening the CB. The objective of this maximum peak voltages 𝑢𝑐 and rate of rise of recovery
study case is to analyse the transients following the voltage 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 . In this example the following parame-
reactor drop out. ters are assumed for the breaker capability curve:
• Peak TRV voltage 𝑢𝐶 : 787 kV

In this study case, the variation Central Bay 1 stray ca-
pacitances is activated. The variation contains wind- • Time to 𝑢𝐶 : 112 µs
ing capacitances of the shunt reactor and additional
stray capacitances that are required for this analysis. The maximum peak voltages and RRRV of the TRV
are within the defined limits for all three poles. The
The simulation sequence is as follows: following results are obtained:
• 𝑡 = −20𝑚𝑠: • Phase A: 𝑢𝑐 = 626 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 2.57 kV/𝜇s
start simulation
• Phase B: 𝑢𝑐 = 625 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 2.47 kV/𝜇s
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
Switch event to open circuit breaker C400-3- • Phase C: 𝑢𝑐 = 627 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 2.53 kV/𝜇s
B8_CB in substation Central
Rev.2 41
600
[kV]
400
200
-200
-400
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C-400-XShunt: Phase Voltage A
C-400-XShunt: Phase Voltage B
C-400-XShunt: Phase Voltage C
200
[A]
100
-100
-200
-300
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C400-3-B8_CB: Phase Current A/Terminal i
C400-3-B8_CB: Phase Current B/Terminal i
C400-3-B8_CB: Phase Current C/Terminal i
Figure 46: Shunt reactor side phase voltages and phase currents in the circuit breaker C400-3-B8_CB
1000
500
-500
-1000
-1500
0 3 6 9 12 [ms] 15
C400-2-B08_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_A_neg
C400-2-B08_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_A_pos
1000
500
-500
-1000
-1500
0 3 6 9 12 [ms] 15
C400-2-B08_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_B_neg
C400-2-B08_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_B_pos
1000
500
-500
-1000
-1500
0 3 6 9 12 [ms] 15
C400-2-B08_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_C_neg
C400-2-B08_CB.L2 Capability Curve: TRV_limit_C_pos
Rev.2 42
4.16 TRV Shunt Reactor Switching II Following the current interruption in each phase, the
TRV, as described in section 3.3 arises across the
In this study case, the transient recovery voltage breaker poles. Compared to the previous case, the
(TRV) is analysed when the shunt reactor in substa- TRV is now higher due to the additional energy that is
tion Central is switched off. In comparison to the previ- stored in the inductance (current is not zero at current
ous study case, current chopping will be considered interruption).
for the switching transient.
The TRV for each phase is depicted in Figure 47 to-
The simulation sequence is as follows: gether with the breaker capability curve of the CB. Ac-
cording to IEC 62271-100 the TRV envelope is de-
• 𝑡 = −20𝑚𝑠: fined by a two-parameter curve. The input parame-
start simulation ters for the TRV envelope are based on the maximum
peak voltages 𝑢𝑐 and rate of rise of recovery voltage
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 . In this example the following parameters are
Switch event to open phase A circuit breaker
assumed for the breaker capability curve:
C400-3-B8_CB in substation Central at an mag-
nitude of 5 A • Peak TRV voltage 𝑢𝐶 : 787 kV
• 𝑡 = 4 𝑚𝑠: • Time to 𝑢𝐶 : 112 µs
Switch event to open phase B circuit breaker
C400-3-B8_CB in substation Central at an mag- The TRV exceeds the limits of the circuit breaker. The
nitude of 5 A following results are obtained:
• 𝑡 = 10 𝑚𝑠: • Phase A: 𝑢𝑐 = 626 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 2.57 kV/𝜇s
Switch event to open circuit phase C breaker
C400-3-B8_CB in substation Central at an mag- • Phase B: 𝑢𝑐 = 625 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 2.47 kV/𝜇s
nitude of 5 A
• Phase C: 𝑢𝑐 = 627 kV; 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 2.53 kV/𝜇s
The simulation results are shown in Figure 48 and Fig-
It is therefore expected that re-ignition may occur dur-
ure 49. The first current chopping occurs in phase A
ing the switching transient.
after the circuit breaker is triggered by a simulation
event. The subsequent current chopping events can
be seen in the simulation plot.
Rev.2 43
800
[kV]
400
-400
-800
-1200
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C-400-XShunt: Phase Voltage A
C-400-XShunt: Phase Voltage B
C-400-XShunt: Phase Voltage C
200
[A]
100
-100
-200
-300
0 4 8 12 16 [ms] 20
C400-3-B8_CB: Phase Current A/Terminal i
C400-3-B8_CB: Phase Current B/Terminal i
C400-3-B8_CB: Phase Current C/Terminal i
Figure 48: Shunt reactor side phase voltages and phase currents in the circuit breaker C400-3-B8_CB
1000
500
-500
-1000
-1500
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
C400-3-B8_CB: CB TRV envelope positive A
C400-3-B8_CB: CB TRV envelope negative A
1000
500
-500
-1000
-1500
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
C400-3-B8_CB: CB TRV envelope positive B
C400-3-B8_CB: CB TRV envelope negative B
1000
500
-500
-1000
-1500
0 10 20 30 40 [ms] 50
C400-3-B8_CB: CB TRV envelope positive C
C400-3-B8_CB: CB TRV envelope negative C
Rev.2 44
4.17 Circuit Breaker SF6 Arcing Model Tripping of the generator by opening the follow-
ing circuit breakers:
In this example, the influence of the electrical arc in the CB_Phase-A.1, CB_Phase-B.1, CB_Phase-C.1
circuit breaker is investigated for a near-to-generator and opening CB0 and CB2
short circuit. The simulation plots in Figure 50 show the phase cur-
rents of the synchronous generator and the resistance
Such short circuit currents are characterised by rel-
of the electrical arc during the transients.
atively high DC-components and associated missing
zero crossing phenomena during the first few power Following the short circuit at terminal PP400-1, the cir-
frequency cycles. In order to model such kind of tran- cuit breakers that connect the generator to the fault
sients, the influence of the arc-conditions need to be are triggered to interrupt the current at the next zero
considered. The dynamic behaviour of the arc is mod- crossing (following the reaction time of the relays).
elled according to section 2.5.1 in this example.
Missing zero-crossings occur both in phase B and C
During the simulation, a three phase fault is applied in due to the high DC-component of the currents in these
substation North at the incomer of overhead line OHL- phases. The electrical arc in the circuit breaker damps
NC. The simulation sequence is as follows: the DC-component of the fault currents and thus en-
• 𝑡 = −20𝑚𝑠: ables a successful current interruption after two further
Start simulation power frequency cycles.
• 𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑠: Neglecting the electrical arc would significantly reduce

Three Phase Short Circuit at terminal PP400-1 the damping of the DC-component and thus increase
in substation North. the time duration for the missing zero-crossing phe-
nomena significantly.
• 𝑡 = 50𝑚𝑠:
400
[kA]
200
-200
-400
-600
0 30 60 90 120 [ms] 150
SYM: Phase Current A
SYM: Phase Current B
SYM: Phase Current C
160
[-]
120
80
40
-40
0 30 60 90 120 [ms] 150
Arcing Model Phase A: Rout
Arcing Model Phase B: Rout
Arcing Model Phase C: Rout
Figure 50: Phase currents of the generator and arcing resistance in each phase of the SF6 circuit breaker
Rev.2 45
References [5] DIgSILENT PowerFactory

Technical Reference Documentation “Overhead
Line Models”, PowerFactory 2018, DIgSILENT
[1] Juan A. Martinez-Velasco: “Power System Tran- GmbH, Gomaringen, Germany, 2018
sients: Parameter Determination”, CRC Press,
2009, ISBN 978-1420065299 [6] DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Technical Reference Documentation “Cable Sys-
[2] R. Smeets; L. Sluis; M. Kapetanoviae; D. Peelo; tem”, PowerFactory 2018, DIgSILENT GmbH,
A. Janssen: “Switching in Electrical Transmission Gomaringen, Germany, 2018
and Distribution Systems”, Wiley, 2014,
ISBN 978-1118381359 [7] DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Technical Reference Documentation “Two-
[3] Allan Greenwood: “Guidelines for represen- Winding Transformer”, PowerFactory 2018,
tation of network elements when calculating DIgSILENT GmbH, Gomaringen, Germany,
transients”, Cigre Working Group 33.02, 1990, 2018
[8] DIgSILENT PowerFactory
[4] Allan Greenwood: “Electrical Transients in Power Technical Reference Documentation “Three-
Systems”, Wiley-Interscience, 1991, Winding Transformer”, PowerFactory 2018,
ISBN 978-0471620587 DIgSILENT GmbH, Gomaringen, Germany,
2018

Switching Transients

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Switching Transients

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Switching Transients Application Example

Abstract Switching in electrical power systems re-configures

The network model in Figure 1 is used to demonstrate

OHL-WC2.1 OHL-WC2.2 OHL-WC2.3

C400-1 C400-2 C110-1 C110-2 TRF1 WF-33.2

Figure 1: Single line diagram of the power system

IS.L3.2 CB.L3 IS.L3.1

IS.L1.1 C400-B10_CB IS.L1.2

Figure 2: Detailed substation layout diagram of substation Central

2.1 Transmission Lines

The transmission system contains the following over-

• 400 kV double circuit OHL

Both cables and overhead lines are modelled based

the mutual sub-matrices between transposed circuits

The impedance and admittance matrix is then used

• Distributed parameter model with frequency de- • Sheath

Due to the geometry of the overhead lines, the

In this example the transposition is modelled explic-

The other 400 kV overhead lines are transposed cir-

For simulating non-linear, electromagnetic transients

The saturation is defined in the transformer type. In

The non-linear flux-current relationship of the 2-

The network model comprises two-winding and three-

3-winding transformers (TR_C1 and TR_C2) are in-

All substations are modelled in detail as shown in Fig-

Generally busbars, circuit breakers and disconnec-

Furthermore, hysteresis can be included in the trans-

The synchronous machine of the power plant has a IS2.2 IS4.2

rated power of 1560 MVA and a nominal voltage of

close vicinity of the generator. Therefore the model is

in Figure 1. The wind turbine is a full-scale converter

using a static generator element, which is configured

converter currents are controlled using a classical d-

q rotating reference system current controller in the N400-B2-CB3

Figure 9: Substation North with 1 1/2 breaker method

2.5.1 Circuit Breakers 2.5.2 Surge Arresters

The resistance of the ElmSind is represented by a 2.5.3 Reactive Power Compensation

The transient phenomena following the above switch-

Figure 13 shows the voltage surge during the line en-

With the exception of lossless and distortion-less

waveform and the surge impedance on both sides of Breaker state

The tripping command activates the operating mech-

Immediately after current interruption a transient volt-

The source side voltage is composed of two compo-

The oscillation frequency of the voltage on the load

4 Study Cases • “Overhead Line Energisation III”:

• “Transformer Energisation II”: • “TRV Shunt Reactor Switching I”:

• “Transformer Energisation III”: • “TRV Shunt Reactor Switching II”:

The voltage at the fault terminal and the overall short

OHL-WN: Phase Current A/Terminal i

N400-B1-CB2: Phase Current A/Terminal i

N400-B1-CB3: Phase Current A/Terminal i

0 N-400-1: Phase Voltage A

20 N-400-1: Short-Circuit Current A

4.4 Transformer Energisation I shift.

During the energisation, the fluxes in all three phases

[p.u.] [p.u.] [p.u.]

4.5 Transformer Energisation II at 𝑡 = 0 s.

During the energisation, the fluxes in all three phases

[p.u.] [p.u.] [p.u.]

CE-3: Phase Current A/Terminal i

The frequency for travel time estimation / modal trans-

-500 Min. =-441,791 kV