8

CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS

INTRODUCTION

The second World War was the turning point for the development of
gas turbine technology. The most rapid progress in the development of
gas turbines was made during this period with the use of the centrifu-
gal compressors. Attention was focused on the simple turbojet unit and
the power to weight ratio was one of the most important considerations.
Centrifugal compressor was the best possible type available at that time.
Development time was another factor in the perfection of gas turbine de-
sign. Much expertise was derived from the experience gained on the design
of small high-speed centrifugal compressors for supercharging reciprocating
engines. Since the war, however, the axial compressor has been developed
to the point where it has an appreciably higher isentropic efficiency. We
have already seen in the analysis of the practical cycles (Chapter 6) the im-
portance of efficiency of each component from the point of view of overall
performance of the power plant.
A centrifugal compressor is one of its class of machines in producing
pressure rise and is known as turbo-compressors. In this type, energy is
transferred by dynamic means from a rotating member (or impeller) to
the continuously flowing working fluid. The main feature of the centrifugal
compressor is that, the angular momentum of the fluid flowing through the
impeller is increased partly by virtue of the impeller’s outlet diameter being
significantly larger than its inlet diameter. The centrifugal compressor may
be known as a fan, blower, supercharger, booster, exhauster or compressor;
the distinction between these types being very vague. Broadly speaking,
fans are classified as low-pressure compressors and blowers as medium-
pressure compressors. Boosters, exhausters and superchargers are named
from their point of view of applications.
Although the centrifugal compressor is unlikely to be used in gas turbine
power plants where specific fuel consumption is the main criterion, it still
has certain advantages for some applications.
280 Gas Turbines

(i) It occupies a smaller length than the equivalent axial flow compressor.
(ii) It is not so liable to loss of performance by build up of deposits on
the surfaces of the air channels.
(iii) It can work reasonably well in a contaminated atmosphere compared
to axial flow machine.
(iv) It is able to operate efficiently over a wider range of mass flow rate
at any particular rotational speed.
This latter feature, viz., a wider range of mass flow rate matching a wide
range of operating conditions with turbine, makes centrifugal compressors
attractive compared to axial flow machines.
A pressure ratio of the order of 4:1 can be obtained from a single-stage,
manufactured using conventional materials. It has already been shown in
chapters 5 and 6 that this is adequate for a heat-exchange cycle when the
turbine inlet temperature is in the region of 1000-1200 K. Certainly, it can
find an application in small power units. It is mainly because the higher
isentropic efficiency of axial compressors cannot be maintained for very
small sizes of machines. Most current proposals for vehicular gas turbines
utilize a centrifugal compressor in a heat-exchange cycle. Materials such as
titanium now enable pressure ratios of over 6:1 to be used.
There is a renewed interest in the centrifugal stage, used in conjunction
with one or more axial stages, for small turbofan and turboprop aircraft
engines. The centrifugal compressor is less suitable when the cycle pressure
ratio requires the use of more than one stage in series because of the tortuous
path the air must follow between the stages. Nevertheless, a single stage
centrifugal compressor has been used successfully in turboprop engines.

8.1 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

The compression process is carried out in a centrifugal compressor, which

comprises mainly of four elements (Fig. 8.1):

(i) The inlet casing with converging nozzle, whose function is to accelerate
the fluid to the impeller inlet. The outlet of the inlet casing is known
as the eye.
(ii) The impeller, in which the energy transfer takes place, resulting in a
rise of fluid kinetic energy and static pressure.
(iii) The diffuser, whose function is to transform the high kinetic energy
of the fluid at the impeller outlet into static pressure.
(iv) The outlet casing, which comprises a fluid collector known as a volute
or scroll.

Further definitions are required to describe the impeller (Fig. 8.2) and
diffuser (Fig. 8.3). The various impeller components shown in Fig. 8.2 are
the following:
 Centrifugal Compressors 281

Volute

3
2 Diffuser

Inlet casing with

converging nozzle
Impeller
0
1

Fig. 8.1 A centrifugal compressor stage

(i) The impeller vanes, help to transfer the energy from the impeller to
the fluid.
(ii) The hub, which is surface AB. [Fig. 8.2(a)].
(iii) The shroud, which is surface CD [Fig. 8.2(a)]. Impellers enclosed
on the surface CD are known as shrouded impellers, but the surface
CD is referred to as the shroud in descriptions of impeller geometry
whether the impeller is enclosed or not.
(iv) The inducer, the section EF in impellers of the form shown in Fig. 8.2(b)
whose function is to increase the angular momentum of the fluid with-
out increasing its radius of rotation.
The diffuser may consist of any annular space [Fig. 8.3(a)] known as a
vaneless diffuser or may be in the form of a set of guide vanes, when it is
known as a vaned diffuser [Fig. 8.3(b)]. The main aim of providing diffusers
is to increase the static pressure by reducing the kinetic energy. Diffusers
will be discussed in greater detail in a later section.
To put it in a nutshell, a centrifugal compressor has essential two parts
of energy transformation:
(i) Rotating impeller which imparts a high velocity to the fluid and at the
same time increases the static pressure. Impellers are housed inside
a stationary casing.
(ii) A number of fixed diverging passages in which the air is decelerated
increasing the static pressure.
282 Gas Turbines

Impeller vanes
Shroud D B
Inducer
C hub F
E
A
A

C hub

Shroud D B
(a) (b)

Fig. 8.2 The impeller

Vaneless diffuser
Outlet diffuser Volute

Impeller
Diffuser vanes

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.3 Diffusers

Figure 8.4 is a schematic diagram of a centrifugal compressor. The

impeller may be designed as single-sided or double-sided as in Fig. 8.5 (a)
or 8.5 (b), but both operates on the same principle. The double-sided
impeller was required in early aero-engines because of the relatively small
flow capacity of the centrifugal compressor for a given overall diameter.

8.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Air is sucked into the impeller eye through an accelerating nozzle and
whirled round at high speed by the vanes on the impeller disc (refer Fig. 8.4).
At any point, in the impeller, the flow experiences a centripetal acceleration
due to a pressure head. Hence, the static pressure of the air increases from
the eye to the tip of the impeller. The remainder of the static pressure rise
is obtained in the diffuser.
It may be noted that air enters the impeller eye with a very high velocity.
The friction in the diffuser will cause some loss in stagnation pressure. It
 Centrifugal Compressors 283

o
90 bend taking air to
combustion chambers
284 Gas Turbines

Depth of diffuser
 Centrifugal Compressors 285

p 2

Inlet 1
casing Impeller Diffuser

Channel

Fig. 8.6 Pressure rise across centrifugal compressor

p p
02
02 03 03 h03 , h02
2
C3
p
3 2
03’ 3
2
C2 3’
2

h p
2

2
2’
p
01
00 h00 , h 01
2
p 01 C1
00 p
1 2
1’ 1
s

Fig. 8.7 Enthalpy–entropy diagram of a centrifugal compressor

286 Gas Turbines

converted to pressure (isentropically), the delivery pressure could be p02 .

Since the diffusion process is not accomplished isentropically, the process
(2–3) results, and some kinetic energy remains at diffuser exit (velocity c3 ),
the static delivery pressure at point 3 is p3 . The final state, in the collector,
has static pressure p3 , low kinetic energy c23 /2 , and a stagnation pressure
p03 which is less than p02 since the diffusion process is incomplete as well
as irreversible.

8.3 IDEAL ENERGY TRANSFER

Let us first consider the case of an ideal compressor with the following
assumptions for a radial vaned impeller:

(i) Losses due to friction are negligible.

(ii) Energy loss or gain due to heat transfer to or from the gas is consid-
ered very small.
(iii) The gas leaves the impeller with a tangential velocity equal to the
impeller velocity (i.e., ct2 = u2 ), no slip condition is assumed.

(iv) The air enters the rotor directly from the atmosphere without any
tangential component, i.e., ct1 = 0.

Applying these assumptions the Euler’s energy equation (Eq. 8.1) under
ideal conditions becomes

E = u22 (8.2)

This is the maximum energy transfer that is possible. Therefore, the work
done by the impeller on unit quantity of air is given by
W = E = u22 (8.3)

Equation 8.3 represents the maximum work capacity of a radial vaned

impeller for ideal operation. It may be noted that air cannot leave the im-
peller with a tangential velocity greater than u2 , and in practical machines
the work or energy absorbed by the fluid will be less than that given by
Eq. 8.3. Also from thermodynamic analysis we have the equation (refer
Eq. 3.21) for the energy transfer, E, as

W = E = h02 − h01 (8.4)

p02
If rc is the pressure ratio based on total pressure p01 ; we shall have
γ−1

W = Cp T01 rc γ − 1 (8.5)

If c1 ∼
= c2 , i.e., when there is no kinetic energy change between inlet and
exit we can refer to static conditions so that
 Centrifugal Compressors 287

γ−1

W = Cp T1 rc γ − 1 (8.6)

p2max
Here, rc is the static pressure ratio p1 . From Eq. 8.3 and 8.5 we have
γ−1

u22 = Cp T01 rc γ − 1 (8.7)

where Cp is in kJ/kg K.

8.4 BLADE SHAPES AND VELOCITY TRIANGLES

In the previous section, we dealt with ideal energy transfer. In order to

understand the actual energy transfer and flow through the compressor,
we will use two velocity triangles, viz., entry velocity triangle and exit
velocity triangle. The notations used here correspond to the x, r and θ
coordinate system. As per the convention for radial machines, at a given
point the angles are measured from the tangential direction. The absolute
and relative air angles at the entry and exit of the impeller are denoted by
α1 , α2 and β1 , β2 respectively. Based on the value of β2 the blade shapes
are given the name as forward curved blades (β2 > 90◦ ), radial blades
(β2 = 90◦ ) and backward curved blades (β2 < 90◦ ) (refer Fig. 8.8). Note
that angle β2 is measured with respect to negative of u (i.e., −u). The
impeller linear velocities at inlet and exit are given by
2πr1 N
u1 =
60
2πr2 N
u2 =
60

o o o
β > 90 β = 90 β < 90
2 2 2

Forward Radial Backward

Fig. 8.8 Blade shapes

8.4.1 Entry Velocity Triangle

Figure 8.9(a) shows the flow at the entry of the inducer section of the
impeller without Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV). The absolute velocity (c1 ) of
288 Gas Turbines

the flow is axial (α1 = 90◦ ) and the relative velocity (w1 ) is at an angle β1
from the tangential direction. Thus the swirl or whirl component ct1 = 0.
c1 ca1
tan β1 = = (8.8)
u1 u1

Flow
Inducer section u1
of the impeller

ca1= c1 w1
α1 β1
ct1 = 0
u1
(a) Without inlet guide vanes

Inducer

c1
w 1 = c a1
α1 β1
u1 = ct1
Inlet guide vanes
Entry
(b) With inlet guide vanes

Fig. 8.9 Flow through the inducer section

Figure 8.9(b) shows the flow through axially straight inducer blades
in the presence of IGVs. The air angle (α1 ) at the exit of the IGVs is
such that it gives the direction of the relative velocity vector (w1 ) as axial,
i.e., β1 = 90◦ . This configuration seems to offer some manufacturing and
aerodynamic advantages, viz.,
(i) centrifugal impellers with straight blades are much easier and cheaper
to manufacture and
(ii) the relative velocity (w1 ) approaching the impeller is considerably
reduced. In this case β1 = 90◦ and the positive swirl component is
ct1 = u1 (8.9)
w1 ca1
tan α1 = = (8.10)
u1 u1
 Centrifugal Compressors 289

Figure 8.10 shows the entry and exit velocity triangles for impeller blades
located only in the radial section. For the sake of generality, the absolute
velocity vector c1 is shown to have a swirl component ct1 . However, if there
are no guide vanes, c1 will be radial (c1 = cr1 ) and α1 = 90◦ , ct1 = 0. This
particular condition is expressed by zero whirl or swirl at the entry and
would be assumed in this chapter unless otherwise mentioned.

c2
w2
α2 c r2
c t2
β2
u2

Impeller blade ring c1

α1
cr

c t1
1 w1
β1

u1
Fig. 8.10 Velocity triangles for backward swept impeller blades (β2 < 90◦ )

8.4.2 Exit Velocity Triangle

The impeller shown in Fig. 8.10 are having backward swept blades, i.e.,
β2 < 90◦ . The exit velocity triangle is as shown in the figure. The flow
leaves the blades with a relative velocity w2 and at an air angle, β2 . The
absolute velocity of flow leaving the impeller is c2 at an air angle α2 . Its
tangential (swirl or whirl) component is ct2 and the radial component cr2 .
The following relations can be obtained from the velocity triangles as shown
in Fig. 8.10 at the entry and exit.

cr1 = c1 sin α1 = w1 sin β1 (8.11)

ct1 = c1 cos α1 = cr1 cot α1 = u1 − cr1 cot β1 (8.12)

cr2 = c2 sin α2 = w2 sin β2 (8.13)

ct2 = c2 cos α2 = cr2 cot α2 = u2 − cr2 cot β2 (8.14)

Figure 8.11 shows the velocity triangles at the entry and exit of a radial-
tipped blade extending into the inducer section. The velocity triangle at the
entry is similar to that in Fig. 8.10; here ca1 replaces the velocity component
cr1 . The exit velocity triangle here is only a special case of the triangle in
Fig. 8.10 with β2 = 90◦ . This condition when applied in Eqs. 8.13 and 8.14,
gives
290 Gas Turbines

c2
(at exit) w 2 = c r2
α2 β2
c t2 = u 2

c1
ca1 w1
α1 β1
c t1
u1
(at inlet)
Impeller blade ring

Fig. 8.11 Velocity triangles for radial-tipped impeller with inducer blades,
(β2 = 90◦ )

cr2 = w2 = c2 sin α2 (8.15)

ct2 = c2 cos α2 = cr2 cot α2 = u2 (8.16)

Figure 8.12 shows the velocity triangles for forward swept blades, (β2 > 90◦ )
with zero swirl at the entry. It may be observed that such blades have large
fluid deflection and give ct2 > u2 . This increases the work capacity of the
impeller and the pressure rise across it. But in practice, this configuration
is unsuitable for higher speeds and leads to higher losses.

8.5 ANALYSIS OF FLOW THROUGH THE COMPRESSOR

In the previous section we have seen various blade shapes and the corre-
sponding inlet and exit velocity triangles to understand flow conditions. In
this section we will analyze the flow through the compressor from inlet to
exit. Ideal conditions cannot be achieved in practice and various losses do
occur in an actual compressor. The losses are the major factors responsible
for the decrease of efficiency in the centrifugal compressors. In order to un-
derstand the various losses it is necessary to understand the flow through
the compressor first.
In the early days of radial flow compressor development, the design
and theoretical analysis was mainly based on the assumption that the air
flow through the compressor may be considered one-dimensional. How-
ever, there are complications due to flow separation and the appearance
of shocks. Still, one-dimensional analysis provides the base for the initial
design of the components. The technique has been further refined over the
years by the introduction of design parameters or design criteria gained
from experimental results. Finally, the design can be modified with the
 Centrifugal Compressors 291

c2
α2
u w2
2
β2 cr2
c
t2

c1 w1

Impeller blade ring β1

u1

Fig. 8.12 Velocity triangles for forward swept blades, with zero swirl at
entry (β2 > 90◦ )

help of three-dimensional flow analysis to obtain optimum compressor per-

formance.
With the aid of the momentum equation, steady-flow energy equation,
continuity equation and thermodynamic equation of state, it is possible to
estimate the representative state of the air (that is, pressure, temperature,
velocity, Mach number etc.,) at any point in the compressor channel. The
assumptions in the estimation are that the fluid is a perfect gas and the flow
is isentropic and one-dimensional. This will help to determine the shape
of the compressor components (channel geometry) to produce desirable
velocity or Mach number profiles from inlet to exit. When air flows from
inlet to exit, it passes through the following, viz., (1) the inlet casing,
with the accelerating nozzle, (2) the impeller, (3) the diffuser and (4) the
volute. The details of various elements through which air flows with the
representative dimensions are shown in Fig. 8.13.

8.5.1 The Inlet Casing

The inlet casing consists of an accelerating nozzle with or without inlet
guide vanes. The function of the inlet casing is to deliver air to the impeller
eye with minimum loss and to provide a uniform velocity profile at the eye.
The inlet flange is axisymmetric and the inlet duct takes the form of a simple
accelerating convergent nozzle. Since there is no energy transfer, stagnation
enthalpy remains constant. Hence, from the h-s diagram (Fig. 8.7),

c21
T1 = T01 − (8.17)
2Cp
292 Gas Turbines

Volute (4)
Diffuser (3)

Casing Shroud
Impeller eye
d2 Impeller (2)
2 Hub
dt
d1 Driving shaft
2 2
dh
2 Inducer section
IGV
Inlet casing with
accelerating nozzle (1)

Fig. 8.13 Details of airflow passage of a centrifugal compressor stage

With an air filter fitted to the compressor inlet casing, a pressure drop will
occur which must be kept to a minimum. However, it should be accounted
for, in the flow analysis and prediction of compressor performance.
Significant losses can occur in inlet casings fitted with silencing baffles.
Under this condition an inlet casing efficiency (ηic ) may be used. Similar
to the nozzle efficiency, ηic , can be defined as (Fig. 8.7)
h00 − h1
ηic = (8.18)
h00 − h1
where h00 − h1 is the enthalpy change in isentropic expansion from p00
to p1 .
For a perfect gas assumption (Cp = constant) Eq. 8.18 becomes
T00 − T1
ηic =
T00 − T1

T00 − T1 1
= T1
T00 1− T00
⎡ ⎤
T00 − T1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
= ⎣ (γ−1)/γ ⎦ (8.19)
T00 p1
1− p00

T00 = T01 since h00 = h01 (refer Fig. 8.7). Now,

c21
T01 − T1 =
2Cp

Rearranging and substituting in Eq. 8.19 gives

 Centrifugal Compressors 293

γ/(γ−1)
p1 c21
= 1−
p00 2Cp ηic T00

From values of p1 and T1 = T00 − c21 /2Cp , the density at the impeller eye
can be calculated.
p1
ρ1 =
RT1

and hence the mass flow rate entering the impeller eye can be estimated
π 2
ṁ = d − d2h1 ca1 ρ1 (8.20)
4 t1
where dt1 and dh1 are the impeller eye tip and eye hub diameters respec-
tively, and ca1 is the axial component of the absolute velocity of the air
entering the impeller eye. In the case of a swirl-free intake
ca1 = c1 (8.21)

For compressor intakes, where the air must be turned from a radial to an
axial direction, the air incidence angle at the impeller eye (inducer) has
to be chosen very carefully. This is mainly because of the variation in the
axial velocity distribution caused by the free vortex flow effect in the bend
of the inlet ducting.

8.5.2 The Inducer

The inducer, or entry section of the impeller has a very pronounced effect
on the impeller performance and hence on over-all compressor efficiency.
The eye hub diameter (dh1 ) of the inducer is determined by a number of
design considerations such as inducer stress/vibration, impeller manufac-
turing techniques and the number of blades.
The tip of the inducer eye is the point where the highest inlet relative
Mach number occurs, and therefore careful attention should be paid to the
choice of the inducer eye tip diameter (dt1 ). For a given design mass flow
rate and impeller speed, dt1 should be chosen so as to obtain a minimum
relative Mach number (Fig. 8.14).
To further reduce the relative Mach number (Mt1 ), pre-whirl (inlet guide
vanes) may be used. However, the penalty will be a reduction in energy
transfer in the impeller. Thus the technique is usually used only on high-
pressure ratio compressors, where the inlet Mach number exceeds unity
and shock waves reduce impeller efficiency. The use of inlet guide vanes
has to be carefully evaluated for each application. Since there is a trade-off
between improved stage performance from the impeller and reduced stage
performance from the diffuser.

8.5.3 The Impeller

Energy transfer occurs in the impeller of the compressor, hence there is an
increase in stagnation enthalpy and pressure. To attain peak compressor
294 Gas Turbines

Mach number at eye tip

Diameter of eye tip

Fig. 8.14 Effect of eye tip diameter

efficiency great care must be taken so that very efficient diffusion processes
is achieved in the impeller and the diffuser. Since the diffusion processes
are related to the flow, a reasonable relative Mach number at the impeller
inlet, and a minimum absolute Mach number at the impeller outlet are to
be ensured.

8.5.4 The Effect of Impeller Blade Shape on Performance

As already mentioned in section 8.4 the various blade shapes utilized in
impellers of centrifugal compressors can be classified as
(i) forward-curved blades (β2 > 90◦ ),
(ii) radial-curved blades (β2 = 90◦ ),
(iii) backward-curved blades (β2 < 90◦ ).
Figure 8.15 represents the variation of pressure-ratio that can be ob-
tained with respect to mass flow rate for the above mentioned various shapes
for operation at a given rpm. The basic velocity diagram at exit is shown
for each type of blade is Fig. 8.16. For example, the Euler energy equation
without inlet swirl (ct1 = 0) is written as

E = u2 ct2 = u2 (u2 − cr2 cot β2 ) (8.22)

For any particular impeller running at a constant speed, energy equation

can be written as
E = K1 − K2 Q (8.23)

where Q is the volume flow rate which is proportional to flow velocity for
given impeller, and K1 and K2 are constants as given by
K1 = u22 (8.24)

and
u2 cot β2
K2 = (8.25)
πd2 b2
 Centrifugal Compressors 295

Forward

Pressure ratio or head

Radial

Backward

Mass flow rate

Fig. 8.15 The effect of impeller blade shape on performance

c2
c2 c2 w2 = cr2
w2 w2
cr2 cr2
β2 β2 β2
u2 c t2 = u2
c t2 c t2
u2

Forward Radial Backward

Fig. 8.16 Exit velocity diagrams for different shapes of blades

The comparison of performance for the three types of vanes are made
for the same volume flow rate, each blade having unit depth, and for the
same vector value of cr2 . Figure 8.16 shows the exit velocity triangles for
three types of impellers from which the relative performance of the blades
can be evaluated.
Centrifugal effects of the curved blades create a bending moment and
produce increased stresses which reduce the maximum speed at which the
impeller can be run. Good performance can be obtained with radial im-
peller blades. Backward-curved blades are slightly better in efficiency and
are stable over a wider range of flows than either radial or forward-curved
blades. The forward-curved impeller can produce the highest pressure ratio
for a given blade tip speed; but is inherently less stable and has a narrow
operating range. Its efficiencies are lower than that are possible with the
backward-curved or radial-curved blades.
Although all the three types can be used in compressors, the radial
blade is used almost exclusively in turbojet engine applications.
296 Gas Turbines

8.5.5 The Impeller Channel

The relative velocity of the air in the impeller channels undergoes a rapid
deceleration from the impeller eye to the impeller tip. In addition to the
function of transferring energy to the air, the impeller should act as an
efficient diffuser. A badly shaped channel will interfere with the diffusion
process, causing flow separation at the impeller walls; leading to higher
losses. To obtain gradual deceleration of the flow in the channel, the geom-
etry of the impeller channels should be such that it can provide a smooth
change in the relative Mach number along the mean flow path.
The flow in an impeller is not completely guided by the impeller vanes
and hence the effective fluid outlet angle does not equal to the impeller
vane outlet angle. To account for this deviation, a factor known as the
slip factor is used to correct the energy transfer calculated from simple
one-dimensional theory. It may be kept in mind that impeller flow is not
one-dimensional. Many analyses have been made of the velocity distribu-
tion within an impeller assuming the flow to be isentropic. Although such
solutions may depart from experimental velocity distributions, they are
useful in predicting regions in an impeller channel where losses may occur.
No quantitative criteria for boundary layer separation in impellers are at
present available and much more work is necessary to take these factors
into account.
It is a known fact that the vorticity of frictionless fluid does not change
with time. Hence, if the flow at the inlet to an impeller is irrotational,
the absolute flow must remain irrotational throughout the impeller. As the
impeller has an angular velocity, ω, the fluid must also have an angular
velocity −ω, relative to the impeller which is known as the relative eddy.
Thus if there were no flow through the impeller the fluid in the impeller
channels would rotate with an angular velocity equal and opposite to the
impeller’s angular velocity [Fig. 8.17(a)].

(a) Relative eddy (b) Relative flow through the impeller

Fig. 8.17 Relative eddy and flow through the impeller

The flow through a rotating impeller can be considered as the vector sum
of the flow through the impeller passages – when the impeller is stationary –
and the flow produced in the fluid by the rotation of the impeller. It may be
 Centrifugal Compressors 297

noted that the large amount of the mass of air flowing through the impeller
has certain inertia and due to the formation relative eddies, the velocity
of air at the tip is always less than the blade speed. Further, the relative
flow through the impeller is not perfectly guided by the impeller vanes but
is deflected away from the direction of rotation of the impeller; because of
which air leaves at an angle smaller than the vane angle [Fig. 8.17(b)].
The resultant velocity triangle at impeller outlet will be as shown in
Fig. 8.18. It may be seen that the actual tangential component of abso-
lute velocity (ct2 ) of the fluid is less than that of the perfectly guided value
(ct2 ). The perfectly guided value will be obtained if the fluid leaves the im-
peller at the vane angle (β2 ). The difference between the value of perfectly
guided and actual tangential component (ct2 − ct2 ) is called slip velocity
(cs ). Hence, the energy transfer can be written as

E = u2 ct2 (8.26)
It follows that the actual energy transfer in the impeller is less than the
perfectly guided value as the fluid does not come out at an angle β2 , the
exit blade angle.

Actual velocity triangle

cs
Perfectly guided
velocity triangle

c2 w2 w2' cr
c 2’
β2
β2’

u2
ct2
ct2’

Fig. 8.18 Effect of relative eddy on impeller outlet velocity

8.5.6 Slip Factor

The actual velocity profiles at the impeller tip due to real flow behaviour are
shown in Figs. 8.19 and 8.20. Figure 8.19 corresponds to the velocity profile
at exit in the meridional plane whereas Fig. 8.20 depicts the details between
two vanes. The energy transfer occurring in the impeller corresponding to
these velocity profiles is less than the one that would have been obtained
with one-dimensional flow.
The relative eddy [Fig. 8.17(a)] mentioned earlier causes the flow in the
impeller passages to deviate (Fig. 8.21) from the blade angle (β2 ) at the
exit to an angle (β2 ), the difference being larger for a larger blade pitch or
smaller number of impeller blades.
298 Gas Turbines

cr= w
Exit velocity profile

Hub
Shroud

Meridional plane*

* Meridional plane is a plane

which contains the axis of
rotation and is swept around
that axis

Fig. 8.19 Velocity profile at the impeller tip in the meridional plane

Exit velocity profile

w

Vane to vane plane

Fig. 8.20 Vane to vane velocity profile at the exit of the impeller
 Centrifugal Compressors 299

Actual
Ideal cs
c2
w
c 2’ cr 2
ct 2 cr
2’

w 2’
2
c β2’ β
t2’
2
u
2

Fig. 8.21 Exit velocity triangles with and without slip

On account of the aforementioned effects, the apex of the actual velocity

triangle at the impeller exit is shifted away (opposite to the direction of
rotation) from the apex of the perfectly guided velocity triangle as shown
in Fig. 8.21. This phenomenon is known as slip and the shift of the apex is
the slip velocity (cs ). It may be noted that on account of the slip, the whirl
component is reduced which in turn decreases the energy transfer and the
pressure developed. The ratio of the actual and perfectly guided values of
the whirl components at the exit is known as slip factor (μ)

ct2
μ = (8.27)
ct2

The slip velocity is given by

cs = ct2 − ct2 = (1 − μ)ct2 (8.28)

8.5.7 Determination of Slip Factor

Several theoretical and empirical equations have been derived for the slip
factor to allow calculation of energy transfer during the design of a new
impeller. The most widely used of these are theoretically based equations
300 Gas Turbines

derived by Stodola∗ , Stanitz† and Balje‡ , all of which assume the flow of
an inviscid fluid through the impeller.

8.5.8 Stodola’s Formula

Stodola∗ assumed that the relative eddy was equivalent to the rotation
of cylinder with an angular velocity equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to that of the impeller.
Figure 8.22 depicts the model of flow with slip as suggested by Stodola.
The relative eddy is assumed to fill almost the entire exit section of the
impeller passage. It is considered equivalent to the rotation of a cylinder
of diameter d = 2r at an angular velocity ω which is equal and opposite to
that of the impeller as shown in the figure. The diameter, and hence, the
tangential velocity of the cylinder is approximately determined as follows:

s = 2 π r2 / z

β
2’
ω
2r

Fig. 8.22 Stodola’s model of flow with slip

The blade pitch at the outer radius (r2 ) of the impeller with z number
of blades is
2πr2
s =
z

The diameter of the cylinder is

2πr2
2r ≈ s sin β2 = sin β2 (8.29)
z
∗ Stodola, A., Steam and Gas Turbines, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, Vol.I &

II, 1927, Reprint Peter Smith, New York, 1945.

† Stanitz, J.D., ’Some theoretical aerodynamic investigations of impellers in radial and

mixed flow centrifugal compressors’, Trans ASME, 74, 4, 1952

‡ Balje, O.E., ’A study of design criteria and matching of turbomachines. Pt. B –

Compressor and pump performance and matching of turbo components’, ASME paper
No.60–W A–231, 1960
 Centrifugal Compressors 301

The slip velocity, is assumed to be due to the rotation of the cylinder and
can therefore be taken as,
cs = ωr

Substituting in the above equation for r from Eq. 8.29, we have

ωπr2
cs = sin β2 (8.30)
z

However, ωr2 = u2 . Therefore,

π
cs = u2 sin β2 (8.31)
z

Substituting Eq. 8.31 in Eq. 8.28, we have

π
(1 − μ)ct2 = u2 sin β2
z
π u2
μ = 1− sin β2
z ct2

From Fig. 8.21, we have

ct2 = u2 − cr2 cot β2 ,

and
π sin β2
μ = 1− (8.32)
z 1 − φ2 cot β2

where the flow coefficient, φ2 = cr2 /u2

For a radial-tipped impeller (β2 = 90◦ )

π
μ = 1− (8.33)
z
The above expressions for μ show that for a given geometry of flow, (blade
exit angle) the slip factor increases with the number of impeller vanes.
When the slip factor approaches 1, the slip velocity tends to be zero (i.e.,
ct2 = ct2 ). Hence, larger the number of blades lower will be the slip
velocity. However, there is a limitation from the manufacturing point of
view to decide about the number of impeller vanes. Thus, the number of
impeller vanes is one of the governing parameters in the calculation of losses
and this should be given due consideration. It should be noted that because
of the phenomenon of the slip the actual energy transfer is given by

E = μu2 (8.34)

8.5.9 Stanitz’s Formula

A method based on the solution of potential flow in the impeller passages
is suggested by Stanitz for β2 between 45◦ and 90◦ . The slip velocity is
302 Gas Turbines

found to be independent of the blade exit angle and the compressibility.

This is given by
1.98
cs = u2 (8.35)
z
1.98
(1 − μ)ct2 = u2
z
1.98 u2 1.98
μ = 1− = 1− (8.36)
z ct2 z(1 − φ2 cot β2 )

For β2 = 90◦
1.98
μ = 1− (8.37)
z
Equations 8.33 and 8.37 are of identical form.

8.5.10 Balje’s Formula

Balje suggests an equation for radial-tipped (β2 = 90◦ ) blade impellers:
−1
6.2
μ = 1+ (8.38)
zn2/3

where
Impeller tip diameter
n =
Eye tip diameter

8.6 DIFFUSER

Centrifugal compressors are usually fitted with either a vaneless or a vaned

diffuser, although in some low-speed applications a volute is fitted directly
around the impeller. The influence of the diffuser upon compressor perfor-
mance cannot be over emphasized: a considerable proportion of the fluid
energy at the impeller tip is kinetic energy (especially in radial-vaned im-
pellers) and its efficient transformation into static pressure is important.
Losses may be high in the diffuser as the fluid is flowing against an adverse
pressure gradient. Hence, careful design of diffuser is a must.

8.6.1 Vaneless Diffuser

As the name indicates, the gas in a vaneless diffuser is diffused in the
vaneless space around the impeller before it leaves the stage through a
volute casing. In some applications the volute casing is omitted.
The gas in the vaneless diffuser gains static pressure rise simply due to
the diffusion process from a smaller diameter (d2 ) to a larger diameter (d3 ).
The corresponding area of cross-section in the radial direction are
A2 = πd2 b2 = 2πr2 b2 (8.39)
 Centrifugal Compressors 303

A3 = πd3 b3 = 2πr3 b3 (8.40)

Such a flow in the vaneless space is a free-vortex flow in which the angular
momentum remains constant.

It can be shown that for a parallel walled (constant width) diffuser, the
ratio of tangential velocity at the exit to that of inlet is given by
ct3 cr3 c3 r2
= = = (8.41)
ct2 cr2 c2 r3

Further, it can be shown that for a constant width diffuser with compress-
ible flow
cr2 cr3
α2 = α3 = tan−1 = tan−1 (8.42)
ct2 ct3

Equation 8.41 clearly shows that the diffusion is directly proportional to

the diameter ratio (d3 /d2 ). This leads to a relatively large-sized diffuser
which is a serious disadvantage of the vaneless type. In some cases the
overall diameter of the compressor may be impractically large. This is a
serious limitation which prohibits the use of vaneless diffusers in aeronau-
tical applications. Besides this, the vaneless diffuser has a lower efficiency
and can be used only for a small pressure rise. However, for industrial ap-
plications where large-sized compressors are needed, the vaneless diffuser is
economical and provides a wider range of operation. Besides this, it does
not suffer from blade stalling and shock waves.

8.6.2 Vaned Diffuser

For a higher pressure ratio across the radial diffuser, the diffusion process
has to be achieved across a relatively shorter radial distance. This requires
the application of vanes which provide greater guidance to the flow in the
diffusing passage. Diffuser blade rings can be fabricated from sheet metal
or casting can be made as cambered and uncambered shapes of uniform
thickness (see Figs. 8.23 and 8.24). Figure 8.25 shows a diffuser ring made
up of cambered aerofoil blades.
To avoid flow separation, the divergence of the diffuser blade passages
in the vaned diffuser ring can be kept small by employing a large number
of vanes which will lead to higher friction losses. Thus an optimum number
of diffuser vanes must be employed. It is the normal practice to have the
divergence of the flow passages not more than 12◦ .
The flow leaving the impeller has jets and wakes. When such a flow enter
a large number of diffuser passages, the quality of flow entering different
diffuser blade passages differs widely and some of the blades may experience
flow separation leading to rotating stall and poor performance. To avoid
such a possibility it is safer to provide a smaller number of diffuser blades
than that of the impeller. In some designs the number of diffuser blades is
kept one-third of the number of impeller blades. This arrangement provides
a diffuser passage with flows from a number of impeller blade channels.
304 Gas Turbines

Flow

Fig. 8.23 Diffuser ring with cambered blades

α3
(90- α Straight flat blade
3)
α2

r3
r2

Fig. 8.24 Diffuser ring with straight (uncambered) flat blades

es
il blad
ofo
Aer

Flow

Fig. 8.25 Diffuser ring with cambered aerofoil blades

 Centrifugal Compressors 305

Thus the nature of flow entering various diffuser passages does not differ
significantly.
Another method to prevent steep velocity gradients at the diffuser entry
is to provide a small (0.05d2 − 0.1d2 ) vaneless space between the impeller
exit and the diffuser entry as shown in Fig. 8.26 and Fig.8.27. This allows
the non-uniform impeller flow to mix out and enter the diffuser with less
steep velocity profiles. Besides this the absolute velocity (Mach number)
of the flow is reduced at the diffuser entry. This is a great advantage,
especially, if the absolute Mach number at the impeller exit is greater than
unity. The supersonic flow at the impeller exit is decelerated in this vaneless
space at constant angular momentum without shock.

Diffuser blades

Flow

ω
d2
Impeller
2
blades dh
2 d1
Vaneless space
2

Fig. 8.26 Vaneless space between impeller exit and diffuser entry

b3

Diffuser

b2 r3
θ

Vaneless space
Impeller r2

Fig. 8.27 Radial diffuser passage with diverging walls

Every diffuser blade ring is designed for given flow conditions at the
entry at which optimum performance is obtained. Therefore, at off-design
306 Gas Turbines

operations the diffuser will give poor performance on account of mismatch-

ing of the flow. In this respect a vaneless diffuser or a vaned diffuser with
aerofoil blades (Fig. 8.25) is better. For some applications it is possible to
provide movable diffuser blades whose directions can be adjusted to suit
the changed conditions at the entry.
In some designs for industrial applications, a vaneless diffuser supplies
the air or gas direct to the scroll casing, whereas for aeronautical appli-
cations, various sectors of the vaned diffuser are connected to separate
combustion chambers placed around the main shaft.

8.7 VOLUTE CASING

The volute or scroll casing collects and guides the flow from the diffuser or
the impeller (in the absence of a diffuser). The flow is finally discharged
from the volute through the delivery pipe. For high pressure centrifugal
compressors or blowers, the gas from the impeller is discharged through a
vaned diffuser whereas for low pressure fans and blowers, the impeller flow
is invariably collected directly by the volute; since a diffuser is not required
owing to the relatively low pressures.
Figure 8.28 shows a volute casing along with impeller, diffuser and vane-
less spaces. The volute base circle radius (r) is a little larger (0.05 to 0.10
times the diffuser or impeller radius) than the impeller or diffuser exit ra-
dius. The vaneless space before volute decreases the non-uniformities and
turbulence of flow entering the volute as well as noise level. Some degree
of diffusion in the volute passage is also achieved in some designs, while
others operate at constant static pressure.

Delivery pipe

Vaneless spaces Throat Exit

Tongue
Flow

Impeller
r
Di r
ffu
ser
Volute
section
Volute passage dr

Fig. 8.28 Flow through volute casing of a centrifugal compressor

 Centrifugal Compressors 307

Different cross-sections are employed for the volute passage as shown

in Fig. 8.29. The rectangular section is simple and convenient when the
volute casing is fabricated from sheet metal by welding the curved wall to
the two parallel side walls. While the rectangular section is very common
in centrifugal blowers, the circular section is widely used in compressor
practice.

(a) (b) (c)

r4 r4 r4
axis

Circular Trapozoidal Rectangular

Fig. 8.29 Different cross-section of the volute passage

While, on the one hand, the volute performance is dependent on the

quality of flow passed on to it from the impeller or diffuser, the performance
of the impeller or the diffuser also depends on the environment created by
the volute around them. The non-uniform pressure distribution around the
impeller provided by its volute gives rise to the undesirable radial thrust
and bearing pressures.

8.8 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER

As ideal energy transfer given by Eq. 8.2 will not hold good for an actual
compressor, in order to assess the performance, certain parameters are used.
In this section we will describe them briefly.

8.8.1 Power Input Factor

The ideal energy transfer is given by Eq. 8.2, which is E = u22 . In practice,
the actual energy transfer to the air from the impeller is lower than that
given by Eq. 8.34, which is μu22 . Further, some energy is lost in friction
between the casing and the air carried round by the vanes, and in disc
friction or windage. In order to take this into account, power input factor,
Pif is introduced, so that the work input to the compressor becomes
Wc = Pif μ u22 (8.43)
The normal value used for Pif is between 1.035 to 1.04.
Let ΔTc = T02 − T01 be the total head temperature rise across the
compressor. As there is no energy addition in the diffuser this temperature
rise is also the temperature rise across the impeller. Thus,
Pif μu22
ΔTc = T02 − T01 = (8.44)
Cp
308 Gas Turbines

8.8.2 Pressure Coefficients

This is a performance parameter which is useful in comparing various cen-

trifugal compressors.
Each impeller has a definite maximum work capacity limited by the
maximum tangential velocity at the exit. If this maximum work is utilized
to the maximum advantage, an isentropic compressor will result, and a
delivery pressure of p02 max will be obtained. Now referring to Fig. 8.30 we
have,

T02’ max 02’ max

T02 02
02’
T 02’

T p p
02
02max
p
01

04 03 01
T01

Fig. 8.30 T –s diagram of the compression process

γ−1
p02max γ
T02 max = T01 (8.45)
p01
γ−1
p02max γ
Wisen = Wmax = Cp T01 −1 (8.46)
p01

The actual compressor produces only p02 pressure after an expenditure

of adiabatic work given by
γ−1
p02 γ
Wadia = Cp T01 −1 (8.47)
p01

Now pressure coefficient ψp is defined as

 Centrifugal Compressors 309

γ−1
p02 γ
Cp T01 p01 −1
Wadia
ψp = = γ−1 (8.48)
Wisen p02max γ
Cp T01 p01 −1

and from Eq. 8.7, the denominator is u22 and therefore

γ−1
Cp T01 (rc ) γ
−1
ψp = (8.49)
u22

8.8.3 Compressor Efficiency

We have already dealt with the compressor efficiency. However, it is better
to recall it once again here. The overall stagnation isentropic efficiency
(Fig. 8.31) in terms of pressure ratio can be written as

p
02

2 p
01

2’
h Δ h0

Δ h 0’

Fig. 8.31 h–s diagram of the compressor

Δh0
ηc =
Δh0

In terms of temperature and pressure ratios

γ−1

T01 rc γ − 1
ηc = (8.50)
(T02 − T01 )

From Eq. 8.44,

310 Gas Turbines

Pif μu22
T02 − T01 = (8.51)
Cp

From Eq. 8.49,

γ−1
ψp u22
T01 rc γ − 1 = (8.52)
Cp

Substituting in the Eq.8.50

ψp
ηc = (8.53)
Pif μ

8.9 LOSSES IN CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Total losses in a centrifugal compressor may be divided into two groups:

(i) Frictional losses These are proportional to c2 and hence proportional

to ṁ2 .

(ii) Incidence losses These loses in terms of drag coefficient CD are pro-
portional to CD c2 .

Figure 8.32 shows the variation of the above two losses with respect to the
mass flow rate.

Total losses
Frictional losses
Losses

Incidence losses

Mass flow rate

Fig. 8.32 Variation of losses with respect to the mass flow rate

8.10 COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS

The ideal performance characteristics as shown in Fig. 8.15 for a radial-

vane compressor are to be modified because of the losses mentioned above.
If these losses are subtracted from the ideal energy transfer for a radial-
vaned impeller, then the constant-pressure ratio straight line characteristics
becomes curved, with a maximum value of energy at some particular value
of the mass flow rate as shown in Fig. 8.33. Radial-vaned impellers are
 Centrifugal Compressors 311

mostly used with gas turbine compressors. Therefore, a characteristic which

will have a point of maximum pressure ratio with a positive and a negative
slope is shown in Fig. 8.33. This particular variation decides upon the range
of compressor operation.

Ideal

Actual
Loss

For = 90

Mass flow rate

312 Gas Turbines

6
N
Relative to design value
5 T 01

Pressure ratio
4
Locus of points of
maximum efficiency
3
Surge line
2

1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

m T 01 Relative to design value

p
01

Fig. 8.35 Actual characteristics of a centrifugal compressor

100

80
Total head efficiency (%)

60
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

40 N
Relative to design value
T
01
20

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

T
01 Relative to design value
m
p01

Fig. 8.36 Total head efficiency of a centrifugal compressor

 Centrifugal Compressors 313

pressure ratio starts reducing. At this moment, there is a higher pressure in

the downstream of the system (near exit) than at compressor delivery and
the flow stops momentarily and may even reverse its direction. This reduces
the pressure downstream. After a short interval of time, compressor again
starts to deliver fluid and the operating point shifts to C again. Again
the pressure starts increasing and the operating point moves from right to
left. If the downstream conditions are unchanged then once again the flow
will break down after point A and the cycle will be repeated with a high
frequency. This phenomenon is known as surging or pumping. This will be
again explained in greater detail with respect to axial flow compressor in
the next chapter.
This instability will be severe in compressors producing high pressure
ratios, which may ultimately lead to physical damage due to impact loads
and high-frequency vibration. Because of this particular phenomenon of
surging or pumping at low-mass flow rates, the compressor cannot be op-
erated at any point to the left of the maximum pressure ratio point A, i.e.,
it cannot be operated on the positive slope of the characteristic.
At higher mass flow rate points on the characteristic a different situation
occurs. At a constant rotor speed the tangential velocity component at the
impeller tip remains constant. As can be seen from Fig. 8.34, with the
increase in mass flow rate the pressure ratio decreases (ABCD) and hence
the density also decreases. These effects result in a considerably increased
velocity which increases the absolute velocity and the incidence angle at
the diffuser vane top. Thus there is a rapid progress towards a choking
state. The slope of the characteristic therefore steepens and finally after
point D mass flows cannot be increased any further. The characteristic
finally becomes vertical. The point D on the characteristic curve is called
a choking point.
The actual characteristics and the total head efficiency of a centrifugal
compressor are shown in Figs. 8.35 and 8.36 respectively. Part of the curve
which is on the left of the maximum pressure ratio point is inoperable due
to surge, and the line joining these points is called the surge line. On the
higher mass flow part the range is limited due to the choke point. The
peak efficiencies at each speed are quite close to the surge line. When the
compressor is used in the gas turbine power plant then the characteristics
of compressor and turbine must be matched properly. Otherwise problems
will be experienced either due to surging or due to low efficiency.

Worked out Examples

8.1 A centrifugal compressor under test gave the following data:

Speed : 11,500 rev/min
Inlet total head temperature : 21◦ C
Outlet and inlet total head pressure : 4 bar, 1 bar
Impeller dia : 75 cm
If the slip factor is 0.92, what is the compressor efficiency?
314 Gas Turbines

Solution

02
T 02’

01
s
Fig. 8.37

11500
u = π × 0.75 × = 451.6 m/s
60
0.92 × 451.62
WC = μu2 = = 187.63 kJ/kg
1000
W = Cp (T02 − T01 )

187.63
T02 = + 294 = 480.7 K
1.005
p01 = 1 bar
γ−1
0.286
p02 γ
4
T02 = T01 = 294 × = 437 K
p01 1

437 − 294 Ans

ηc = × 100 = 76.6% ⇐=
480.7 − 294

8.2 A centrifugal compressor has to deliver 35 kg of air per sec. The

impeller is 76 cm diameter revolving at 11,500 rpm with an adiabatic
efficiency of 80%. If the pressure ratio is 4.2:1, estimate the probable
axial width of the impeller at the impeller tip if the radial velocity is
120 m/s. The inlet conditions are 1 bar and 47◦ C.

Solution

T02 = 320 × 4.20.286 = 482.4 K

T02 − T01
T02 = T01 +
ηc
482.4 − 320
= 320 + = 523 K
0.8
 Centrifugal Compressors 315

02
T 02’

01
s
Fig. 8.38

Ignoring the effects of velocity of flow

p02 4.2 × 105 3
ρ2 = = = 2.8 kg/m
RT02 287 × 523
35
Atip = = 0.1042 m2
2.8 × 120
0.1042 Ans
Axial width = = 0.0436 m = 4.36 cm ⇐=
π × 0.76

8.3 A centrifugal compressor has an inlet eye 15 cm diameter. The im-

peller revolves at 20,000 rpm and the inlet air has an axial velocity of
107 m/s, inlet stagnation temperature 294 K and inlet pressure 1.03
kg/cm2 . Determine

(i) theoretical angle of the blade at this point and

(ii) Mach number of the flow at the tip of the eye.

Solution

Peripheral speed of eye tip,

20000
u1 = π × 0.15 × = 157.08 m/s
60
axial velocity ca1
β1 = tan−1 = tan−1
peripheral velocity u1
107 Ans
= tan−1 = 34.26◦ ⇐=
157.08

Relative velocity at eye tip,

u1 157.08
= = = 190 m/s
cos β1 cos 34.26
316 Gas Turbines

w1
ca1 = c1

α1 β
1
u1
Fig. 8.39

Velocity of sound, -
c2a
= γR T01 −
2Cp
1
1072 2

= 1.4 × 287 × 294 −

2 × 1005

= 340.35 m/s

Mach number at the tip

Relative velocity at eye tip 190
= =
Velocity of sound 340.35
Ans
= 0.558 ⇐=

8.4 A centrifugal compressor takes in gas at 0◦ C and 0.7 bar and delivers
at 1.05 bar. The efficiency of the process compared with the adiabatic
compression is 83%. The specific heat of the gas at constant-pressure
and constant-volume are 1.005 and 0.717 respectively. Calculate the
final temperature of the gas and work done per kg of gas.
If the gas were further compressed by passing through a second com-
pressor having the same pressure ratio and efficiency and with no
cooling between the two compressors, what would be the overall effi-
ciency of the complete process?

Solution
γ−1
0.286
p02 γ
1.05
T02 = T01 = 273 ×
p01 0.7

= 306.6 K
T02 − T01
T02 = T01 +
ηc
306.6 − 273 Ans
= 273 + = 313.5 K ⇐=
0.83
 Centrifugal Compressors 317

03
T 03’

02’ 02

01
s
Fig. 8.40

Ans
Wc = 1.005 × (313.5 − 273) = 40.7 kJ/kg ⇐=

With additional compressor

0.286
1.05
T03 = 313.5 × = 352 K
0.7

T03 − T02
T03 = T02 +
ηc
352.0 − 313.5
= 313.5 + = 359.9 K
0.83
0.286
T03 = 273 × (1.5 × 1.5) = 344.3 K
344.3 − 273 Ans
ηoverall = × 100 = 82% ⇐=
359.9 − 273

8.5 Determine the impeller diameters and the width at the impeller exit
and the power required to drive the compressor, from the following
given data:
Speed (N ) : 12,500 rev/min
Mass flow rate (ṁ) : 15 kg/s
Pressure ratio (r) : 4:1
Isentropic efficiency (ηc ) : 75%
Slip factor (μ) : 0.9
Flow coefficient at impeller exit(φ) : 0.3
Hub diameter of the eye : 15 cm
Axial velocity of air at entry to and
exit from the impeller : 150 m/s
Stagnation temperature at inlet : 295 K
Stagnation pressure at inlet : 1.0 bar
Assume equal pressure ratio in the impeller and diffuser.
318 Gas Turbines

Solution

ca2 150
u2 = = = 500 m/s
φ 0.3

Power input

15 × 0.9 × 5002
ṁμu22 = = 3375 kW
1000
N
u2 = πD2
60
500 × 60 Ans
D2 = = 0.7639 m ⇐=
π × 12500
c2a 1502
T1 = T01 − = 295 −
2Cp 2 × 1005

= 283.8 K
γ
3.5
T1 γ−1
283.8
p1 = p01 =
T01 295

= 0.8733 bar
0.8733 × 105 3
ρ1 = = 1.07 kg/m
287 × 283.8
ṁ 15
A1 = =
ρ1 ca1 1.07 × 150

= 0.0934 m2
π 2
D − 0.152 = 0.0934
4 1
Ans
D1 = 0.376 m ⇐=
p3
= 4
p1
p2 p3
=
p1 p2

p22 = 4p21

p2 = 2p1 = 2 × 0.8733 = 1.7466 bar

T2 = 283.8 × 20.286 = 346 K

346 − 283.8
T2 = 283.8 + = 366.73 K
0.75
 Centrifugal Compressors 319

1.7466 × 105
ρ2 = = 1.67 kg/m3
284.6 × 366.73
ṁ
A2 = πD2 W2 =
ρ2 ca2
15 1
W2 = ×
1.67 × 150 π × 0.7639
Ans
= 0.025 m = 2.5 cm ⇐=

8.6 A single sided centrifugal compressor is to deliver 14 kg of air per

second when operating at a pressure ratio of 4:1 and a speed of 12,000
rpm. The total head inlet conditions may be taken as 288 K and 1.033
kgf/cm2 . Assuming a slip factor as 0.9, a power input factor of 1.04
and an isentropic efficiency (based on total head) of 80%, estimate the
overall diameter of the impeller. If the Mach number is not to exceed
unity at the impeller tip and 50% of the losses are assumed to occur
in the impeller, find the minimum possible depth of the diffuser.

Solution

c2 w2
ca2
α2 β2
ct2 cw2
u2
Fig. 8.41

γ
p03 ηc (T03 − T01 ) γ−1
= 1+
p01 T01
3.5
0.8 × (T03 − 288)
4 = 1+
288

T03 = 462.95 K

ΨμU 2
T03 − T01 =
Cp
1
(462.95 − 288) × 1.005 × 103 2
U = = 433.4 m/s
1.04 × 0.9

πDN
= 433.4
60
320 Gas Turbines

60 × U 60 × 433.4
D = = = 0.69 m
πN π × 12000
Ans
= 69 cm ⇐=

Minimum depth of the diffuser will be at impeller tip so if we find for the
impeller, radial velocity at tip and density at tip and knowing W , we can
calculate the area of passage and thus the depth of diffuser which is also
the depth of impeller tip.

For Mach number, M at impeller tip

c2
M = √
γRT3

c22 = γRT3 (since M = 1)

T03 = T3 + Temperature equivalent of c2

c22
= T3 +
2 × 1.005 × 103
γRT3
= T3 +
2 × 1.005 × 103
γR
= T3 1 +
2 × 1.005 × 103

1.4 × 287
= T3 1 + = 1.2 × T3
2 × 1.005 × 103

T03 462.95
T3 = = = 385.8 K
1.2 1.2
√
c2 = γRT3 = 1.4 × 287 × 385.8

= 393.71 m/s

Now, we know that

c22 = c2t2 + c2a2

c2a2 = c22 − c2t2 = 393.712 − (μU )2

2
= 393.712 − (0.9 × 433.4)

ca2 = 53.48 m/s

T02 − T01 = ηc (T03 − T01 ) = 0.8 × (462.95 − 288)

T02 = 139.96 + T01 = 139.96 + 288 = 427.96 K

 Centrifugal Compressors 321

The overall loss

= T03 − T02 = 462.95 − 427.96 = 34.99 K

Since, 50% of the loss occurs in the impeller, so

T2 = T3 − Loss in impeller
34.99
= 385.8 − = 368.305 K
2
γ
3.5
p2 T2 γ−1
368.305
= = = 2.37
p01 T01 288

p2 = 1 × 2.37 = 2.37 bar

p2 2.37 × 105 3
ρ2 = = = 2.24 kg/m
RT2 287 × 368.305
ṁ 14
A = = = 0.117 m2
ρ2 ca2 2.24 × 53.48

Total area of flow in impeller

A = 2πr × Depth of diffuser

Depth of diffuser
A 0.117
= = = 0.054 m
2πD/2 π × 0.69
Ans
= 5.4 cm ⇐=

8.7 A centrifugal compressor runs at 10,000 rpm and delivers 600 m3 /min
of free air at a pressure ratio of 4:1. The isentropic efficiency of
compressor is 82%. The outer radius of impeller (which has radial
blades) is twice the inner one and neglect the slip coefficient. Assume
that the ambient air conditions are 1 bar and 293 K. The axial velocity
of flow is 60 m/s and is constant throughout. Determine
(i) power input to the compressor,
(ii) impeller diameters at inlet and outlet and width at inlet, and
(iii) impeller and diffuser blade angles at inlet.

Solution
γ−1
T03 = T01 × (4) γ
= 293 × 40.286 = 435.56 K

T03 − T01 435.56 − 293

T03 = T01 + = 293 +
ηc 0.82
= 293 + 173.85 = 466.85 K
322 Gas Turbines

03
03’ c1
T w1 = ca1
01

1 α root
s u1
Fig. 8.42

u22 = Cp ΔT = 1005 × 173.85

= 174719.25 m2 /s2

u2 = 418 m/s
Ans
WC = u22 = 174.719kW/kg/s ⇐=
418 × 60
D2 = = 0.8 m
π × 10000
D2 Ans
D1 = = 0.4 m ⇐=
2
c2a 602
T1 = T01 − = 293 − = 291.2 K
2Cp 2 × 1005
γ
3.5
T1 γ−1
291.2
p1 = p01 = = 0.9787 bar
T01 293

p1 0.9787 × 105
ρ1 = =
RT1 287 × 291.2
3
= 1.171 kg/m

Q̇ = ca Aflow at root = ca πD1 Wroot

10 1 Ans
Wroot = × = 0.133 m ⇐=
60 π × 0.4
πN π × 10000
u1 = ×D = × 0.4 = 209.4 m/s
60 60
60 Ans
αroot = tan−1 = 16◦ ⇐=
209.4
60 Ans
αtip = tan−1 = 8.17◦ ⇐=
418
 Centrifugal Compressors 323

8.8 A centrifugal compressor has a pressure ratio of 4:1 with an isentropic

efficiency of 80% when running at 15000 rpm and inducing air at
293 K. Curved vanes at inlet give the air a prewhirl of 25◦ to the
axial direction at all radii and the mean dia of eye is 250 mm. The
absolute air velocity at inlet is 150 m/s. Impeller tip dia is 600 mm.
Calculate the slip factor.

Solution

c1 ο w1
25
ca1
ο
65 β1
ct1 cw1
u1
Fig. 8.43

γ−1
T02 p02 γ
=
T01 p01
0.286
4
T02 = 293 × = 435.56 K
1

Isentropic temperature rise

T02 − T01 = 435.56 − 293 = 142.56 K

Actual temperature rise,

Isentropic temperature rise
ΔT =
Isentropic efficiency
142.56
= = 178.2 K
0.8

Power input per unit mass flow rate

= Cp × ΔT = 1.005 × 178.2 = 179 KJ/kg

c1 = 150 m/s

π × Mean dia of eye × 15000

u1 =
60
π × 0.250 × 15000
= = 196.35 m/s
60
ct1 = c1 sin 25 = 150 × sin 25 = 63.4 m/s

At exit,
324 Gas Turbines

π × Impeller tip dia × 15000

u2 =
60
π × 0.6 × 15000
= = 471.24 m/s
60

Power input unit mass flow rate = u2 ct2 − u1 ct1

3
179 × 10 = 471.24 × ct2 − 196.35 × 63.4

ct2 = 406.27 m/s

ct2 406.27 Ans
μ = = = 0.862 ⇐=
u2 471.24

8.9 Determine the number of radial impeller vanes using Stanitz formulae
for a centrifugal compressor which requires 180 kJ of power input per
unit mass flow rate and is running at 15000 rpm. Guide vanes at inlet
give the air a prewhirl of 25◦ to the axial direction at all radii and the
mean dia of eye is 250 mm. Impeller tip dia is 600 mm. The absolute
air velocity at inlet is 150 m/s.

Solution

c1 ο w1
25
ca1
65
ο β1
ct1 cw1
u1
Fig. 8.44

Power input per unit mass flow rate

= u2 ct2 − u1 ct1
π × Mean dia of eye × N
u1 =
60
π × 0.25 × 15000
= = 196.35 m/s
60
π × Impeller tip dia × N
u2 =
60
π × 0.6 × 15000
= = 471.24 m/s
60
ct1 = c1 sin 25 = 150 × sin 25 = 63.39 m/s
 Centrifugal Compressors 325

180 × 103 = 471.24ct2 − (196.35 × 63.39)

196.35 × 63.39 + 180 × 103

ct2 =
471.24
= 408.38 m/s

Stanitz formulae for radial impellers is given by

1.98
μ = 1−
z

where z is number of impeller vanes.

ct2 408.38
μ = = = 0.866
u2 471.24

Therefore,
0.63 × π
0.866 = 1−
z
Ans
z ≈ 15 ⇐=

8.10 A centrifugal compressor compresses 30 kg of air per second at a

rotational speed of 15000 rpm. The air enters the compressor axially,
and the conditions at the exit sections are radius = 0.3 m, relative
velocity of air at the tip = 100 m/s at an angle of 80◦ C with respect
to plane of rotation. Take p01 = 1 bar and T01 = 300 K.
Find the torque and power required to drive the compressor and also
the head developed.

Solution

c2 w2
cr2
β2
ct2 cw2
u2
Fig. 8.45

N 15000
u2 = πD2 = π × 0.6 × = 471.24 m/s
60 60
ct2 = u2 − w2 cos β1 = 471.24 − 100 × cos 80

= 453.88 m/s
326 Gas Turbines

Torque = F r = mct2 r = 30 × 453.88 × 0.3

Ans
= 4084.92 Nm ⇐=
15000
Power = T ω = 4084.92 × 2 × π ×
60
= 6.417 × 106 W
Ans
= 6.417 × 103 kW ⇐=

W = u2 ct2 = 471.24 × 453.88

= 213886.41
γ−1
p02 γ
W = Cp T01 −1
p01
γ−1
p02 γ
213886.41 = 1005 × 300 × −1
p01

p02
= 6.531
p01
Ans
p02 = 6.531 bar ⇐=

Review Questions

8.1 What is a centrifugal compressor and what are its advantages?

8.2 Where do the centrifugal compressors find application and why?

8.3 With a neat sketch explain the essential parts of a centrifugal com-
pressor.

8.4 With a suitable diagram explain the working principle of a centrifugal

compressor.

8.5 What are the three types of blade shapes possible and how they are
classified?

8.6 With a neat sketch explain the inlet and exit velocity triangles for
various types of blades.

8.7 Briefly explain the flow through the following components:

(i) the inlet casing,

(ii) the inducer,