Unit 1.

Introduction
1.1 Meaning importance and scope of floriculture in Nepal

Floriculture is the branch of horticulture which deals with commercially growing of flowers,
ornamental plants and beautification of surrounding. Floriculture covers all aspect related to the
production and use of flowers and ornamental plants, flower seed, bulb etc. floriculture thus
deals with production, processing and marketing of cut flower, cut foliage, pot plants, seasonal
shrubs, trees etc., recently named ornamental horticulture.

Importance:

 Aesthetic Importance:

Flowers have been considered as a symbol of grace, beauty, peace and perfection. It helps to
make the beautification of the surrounding. Nepalese have traditionally been using flower or
bunch of flower as a garland or as floral decorations during festival. Saying it with flowers is
very common and different flowers are used to convey feeling. Hence production and use of
flower in Nepal may date back to immemorial.

 Religion and cultural importance:

Generally flowers are offered by devotees in temple, Gurudware and Masjids. Flowers are
given as birthday present, weeding gift or while meeting sick people and even at funerals.

 Industrial Importance:

Floriculture is an important agro-based labor intensive and business oriented industry for
Nepal. Farmers in many parts of Nepal especially in the periphery of the Kathmandu valley are
interested in flori—business. Some flowers like rose, jasmines, tuberose etc are used for
extraction of essential oils which is base for preparation of perfumes; scents are sold in the
market. These essentials oils are used in the soap and cosmetic industry.

 Economic Importance:

Flowers are considered as a highly income source which provide high returns while sold in the
market. The productions of propagating materials like seed, bulbs like plants is done
conventionally and these materials are being sold successfully nursery man are making
handsome money.

 Employment generation:

Commercial floriculture businesses required are large number of labour to perform different
activities associated with commercial floriculture business.
  Medicinal importance:

Most of the ornamental plants have high medicinal value. For eg the young leaves of
rhododendron are applying to fore head for headache.

Scope of floriculture

In Nepal floriculture industry is not so develop as it should have been. Therefore there is
immense scope for its expansion, if floriculture is developed an industry pattern scientifically, it
will flourish and generate tremendous money and employment. There is a good scope for
commercial floriculture. The important factors which decide the scope for commercial
floriculture are soil, climate, labour, transport and market.

 Diversify climatic condition:

Flowers can be commercially produced in many parts of the country. However there is a great
potentially in mid hills region and terai region for flower production as it has got suitable
climate, topography, soil, relative humidity, temperature and rainfall.

 Biodiversity of ornamental plant species:

A large number of indigenous foliage and other ornamental plant species exist in the country.

 High demand:

The demand of cut flowers is increasing day by day with increasing standard of living aesthetic
sense and awareness in the people although it is possible to grow flowers, round the year is one
parts or other parts of the country depending upon seasons. Yet the production of quality bloom
under controlled environment is essential which will fetch higher price.

 Industrial development:

Agro based industries has been high priority of government of Nepal and the country has not
taken of root momentum industrial development. Therefore there is a good scope of the
development of flower base in the country. Most of the fragrant flowers like rose, tuberose
Jasmine etc can be grown easily, so extraction of plants can be set up to meet the increasing
demand of cosmetic and soap quality.

 There is a vast scope for expanding area under commercial flower production because the
area under flower cultivation is very negligible.
 In the international trade of flower seed and bulb sale is low so government of Nepal has
recognized floriculture as export oriented them, therefore there is a bright future for
floriculture business in international trade.
1.2 Status of floriculture in Nepal

The present status of floriculture development in Nepal is as presented below.

 Production

Seasonal flowers and plants, Ornamental plants Shrubs and climbers, Cut flowers, Bulbs-
rhizomes, Tissue culture and Landscaping / gardening are important production areas
currently practiced under floriculture sub-sector in Nepal. Generally Seasonal flowers and
Over the past two decades production pattern is changing according to consumers demand
behaviors as well as global market scenarios. Since early Nineties, cut flower production
system flourished especially with gladiolus and roses. Currently more than 50 cut flowers
are available in Nepalese market. Among these 6 cultivars viz. gladiolus, tuberose and
local roses are grown in open areas and Dutch rose, carnation and gerbera are cultivated
under covered areas and are available round the year.

Flower can be commercially produced in many parts of the country. However, there is
great potentiality in mid hills region & terai region for flower production as it has got
suitable climate, topography, soil, relative humidity, temperature and rainfall. Some
Districts like Kathmandu, Bhaktapur Lalitpur, Kavre, Kaski, Dhading, Chitwan,
Makawanpur, Rupendehi are successfully growing and producing Floriculture Product.

Table 1: Area and Production of Floriculture in Nepal

Description/Year 011/12
Number of nurseries 635
 Number of Districts 35
Land is used ( in Hectare) 120
No of Employment / Involvement 40000
Investment 3.5billion
Gladiolus (Sticks per days) 6000-8000
Carnation (Sticks per days) 5500-7500
Gerbera (Sticks per days) 5000-7000
Rose (Sticks per days) 7000-9000
Tuberose (sticks per days) 4000-6000
Others (Orchid, calendula, Stoma,
Snapdragon, Chrysanthemum, Lily, Limuniun,
Aster, Marigold, Cala Lily, Chinchi Rinchi,
Freezia, Irish, Bird of paradise etc.) 15000
Cut Foliage 15000
Source: FAN

 Land used

The FAN has estimated that the area under flower cultivation is about 120 Ha. of land, out
of which 76.5 Ha. is covered. The total cultivated land under the floriculture sector is
increasing since last one and half decades though there was stagnation in growth only
during the past three years. The growth in land under cultivation is likely to revive with the
current development in political situation of the country.

 Marketing

There is different technique use for marketing in the Floriculture Field. Generally Seasonal
flowers and Ornamental plants are marketed directly from Nursery. Cut flowers, Bulbs are
marketed wholesaler of city area and Landscaping / gardening are basically service
oriented.

. The 6 wholesale markets are being operated by private sector. Its turnover in 2011
crossed Rs.15.2 million.. Market of Floriculture in Nepal has made tremendous progress
over the last two decades and is steadily growing. The number of firms (635), number of
retails sales (86), number of wholesales (6) and total turnover is Rs. 1053.2 million
(estimated 2012) the annual sales increment on an average is 10 to 15% per annum.

1.3 Classifications of ornamental plants:

Ornamental plants may be classified based on the growth habit, lifecycle, leaf form, use and
other characteristics:
 1. Herbaceous ornamental plants: Herbaceous plants are non woody, grown indoors and
outdoors they have a wide variety of uses in land scapes as well. They may be classify in
various ways:
a) Growth cycle:
 Annual: Annual ornamental are planted each season flowering annual are providing
most of the color eg cutflower, hanging basket, colorful flower, marigold, gladiloud,
genia, calandela
 Biennial: Biennial are vegetative in first yr of growth and bloom in next year eg,
hollyhock, foxglable
 Perennials: Live for long time in the landscape, locating them require a great deal of
thought and planning. Perennial may be flowering and non flowering plant.
 Flowering perennials: Flowering perennial may be planted in flower bed in the false
season to provide early blooms after which annuals may be planted. E.g. chrysanthemum,
geranium, lily, tulip etc
 Non flowering foliage: used as indoor as well as potted plant e.g. fern, sensaveria, colas,
dumpcane

Other classification:

Herbaceous plants may be use in variety of other way both in indoors and outdoors

 Bedding plants: Are annuals plant raised for planting outdoors in flower bed e.g.
petunia, zinnia, marigold, pholex, etc
 Hanging basket: Hanging basket plants are annuals or perennials flowering or foliage
that are grown in decorative contains and hanging in the door way area or decorative
plant poles eg geranium, petunia, verbena, spiderplants, houseplant etc
 House plants: Indoor plant or house plant are adapted to indoor condition they are grown
in containers are usually slow growing may be flowering or foliage plant eg senssevia,
Indian rubber plant, monisteria.

2. Woody ornamental plants: Woody ornamental plants differ in size and growth pattern
some plant shed their leaves and are called deciduous where as other maintain fresh
leaves year round and are called evergreen., some are shrubs and other are tree.
i. Shrubs
 Shrubs: Deciduous shrub shed their leaves eg barbery, lilace
 Evergreen shrubs are divided in to two groups
 Narrow leaves shrubs: Junipers, pine
 Broad leaves shrubs: Gardenia

ii. Tree
 Deciduous tree: Brich, willow
 Evergreen trees:
  Narrow leave of evergreen trees: spruce, redcedar,bottlebrush
 Broadleaf: ashok, citrus,eucalyptus

iii. Vine
 Deciduous: Crematin
 Evergreen: English ivy, golden flower

Unit 2...Garden
2.1 Meaning and scope of garden

A garden may be defined as an area embellished with plants, a valuable and pleasurable adjunct
to a house.

There is a good scope for garden.. The important factors which decide the scope are Soil,
Climate, labour, transport and Market.

All most all big cities are developing very speedily to accommodate this fast growing population,
cement concrete, is also developing at the some rate and thus peoples are now realizing the
importance of open space, parks and garden for relaxation, peace of mind, recreation and
unpolluted air. Thus, to meet out all these problems bio-aesthetic planning is essential, which
runs hand in hand with town planning.

In modem life floriculture garden in the country yard is an integral part of the modern life and
thus an ornamental plant has found a pride of place in home gardening.

As far as flower trade is concerned i.e. for cut flowers and loose flowers, it is growing very well
in our state because these cut flowers are used for vase decoration and now-a-days there is a
craze for indoor decoration. As far as loose flowers are concerned these are mainly used for
preparation of gajara, veni, garland and bouquets and thus demand of flowers for these purposes
is unending.

Thus, taking into consideration the different points i.e. bio-aesthetic planning, floral garden,
indoor decoration, social functions and religious functions the demand for floricultural plants is
increasing day by day and to meet out the same there is a good scope for growing and raising of
Ornamental or Floricultural plants. When Flower Trade is concerned; different flowers like Rose,
Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus, and Tuberose are demanded in the market as cut flowers. While
Aster, Gaillardia, Marigold, Chrysanthemum, Jasmines, Tager^ Nerium as loose flowers.
2.2 Style of garden:
2.2.1 Formal style of garden:

Main feature of this style of gardening are: First plan is made on the paper and the land is
selected accordingly. Plan is symmetrical. These types of garden are of geometric design i.e.
squares or rectangular. Therefore the roads are cut at right angle. It becomes a sort of enclosure.
Flower bed are also of geometric shapes. The arrangements of tree and shrubs are necessarily
geometrical and kept in shape by trimming and training. Other features like fountains, water
pools, cascade etc are used for further attraction. The examples of such style of gardening are
Persian garden and mogul garden.

2.2.2 Informal style:

This style reflects naturalistic effect of total view and represents natural beauty. This style is just
contrast of above formal style. In this, plan is asymmetrical and according to the land available
for making garden. Roads paths are made curvaceous and bending. Water bodies are irregularly
shapes. Hillocks are made to create natural mountainous scenery. Flower beds are made up of
irregular shapes suiting to surroundings. Plants are allowed to grow in natural form and instead
of trimming, annual pruning is done. Japanese garden are the best example of this style of
gardening.

2.2.3 Free style of garden:

This style combines the good point of both formal and informal style of gardening. Rose garden
of Ludhina is an example of this style of gardening.

Garden design:
Mughal Gardens:
The gardens laid out during the rule of Mughal emperors in India are known as Mughal
Gardens. Mughal Gardens are of formal style i.e. symmetrically planned and accommodated in
rectangular or square plots. The main features of Mughal gardens are as follows.
 Site and Design: Mughals were very choosy about the selection of site and always
preferred a site on hill slope with a perennial rivulet or along the bank of a river. Mughal
gardens are generally rectangular or square in shape and different architectural features
are the main stay of the design.
 Walls and gates: Mughal gardens are surrounded by high protecting walls and with an
imposing wooden gate at the entrance which is studded with bold iron nails and pointed
iron spikes. The purpose of high wall is security from the enemies and shelter against the
hot winds.
 Terrace: The Mughals come from the hilly terrains and so they were fond of terraces in
the gardens. For this reason they used to select the location of garden near the hilly
slopes. The presence of 7,8,12 terraces in the gardens symbolizes planets or paradise or
zodiac respectively. Terraces are not only found made in gardens of hilly slopes but also
in the plains.
 Running water: The presence of running water is the life of Mughal gardens. The
presence of water not only has a cooling effect but reflection of stars and trees adds
beauty to this style. Broad water canals are made in overall proportion of the area central
water course is strong and dominant. In the centre of these canals there are fountains
which make central axis also. Running water in the form of cascade and Chadar makes
garden splendid.
 Bardari: This is a arbour-like structure made of stone and mansory with a pucca roof and
a raised platform for sitting. These were usually provided with twelve or occasionally
more doors on all sides for the emperors to watch the performances of the dancing girls.
 Tomb and Mosque: It was a common practice to have the gardens built around a
tomb(e.g.Taj Mahal, Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra). It is often said that the Mughal gardens
were at their best when built around a monument.

 Plant Materials used in Mughal Gardens: Depending upon local climatic conditions
plant material was selected carefully and was planted giving the formal effect. They
planted fruit, trees, flowering, plants, shrubs and colorful annuals to give a new life to the
gardens. Fragrant flowers provided them maximum attraction. Mughals had bias for
spring flowering trees and flowers. The seasonal flower beds were of geometrical pattern
and constructed along the water canals or near the main buildings. The trees generally
planted were Chinar (Platanus orientalis), white Poplar (Poplus alba), cypress, apple,
peach, plum, cherry (sour and cherry), quince, pomogranate, fig, mangoo, grape, gular,
aonla, orange, and citron etc. Among spring flowering trees Seto Kachnar(Bauharva alba)
, palas(Butea monosperma), champa(Michelia champaka), Chaltha(Diilenia indica),
Chandan(Santalum album)were planted. Fragrant shrubs like Parijat, Hari
champa(Artabotris odoratissima), roses, screwpine, jasminum sambac, J. multiflorum,
J.grandiflorum, shoe flower were commonly planted. Flowering plants like Narcissus,
irises, carnation, hollyhock, marigold (T. patula), larkspur, stock, sunflower, amaranthus,
cock's comb etc. were dominant. The colourful effects were created by massing single
colourful annuals.
 Japanese Gardens:
The Japanese gardens are famous for their unique style natural beauty and calmness.
One most admirable aspect of the Japanese garden is that while other major styles of gardening
of the world changed radically or fallen into disfavour; the Japanese continued the same style for
centuries but still remained popular. This can be attributed to the special relation of the Japanese
gardens to nature. A most important teaching of the Japanese garden is possibly that" unless a
garden has an air of peace it is not worth a place visiting. It should be a place where place the
mind finds rest and relaxation. The important types of Japanese gardens are hill garden, flat
garden tea garden, passage garden and sand.
The Features of Japanese Gardens Ponds.

 Ponds: Ponds are of irregular shape. The banks are generally bordered with stone piling
work in a regular or an irregular fashion. In older days the bottom used to be made
impervious by puddling of clay. But now-a-days, concrete bottomed ponds are also used.
The ponds are generally fed by a stream or a waterfall.
 Streams: Small streams in Japanese gardens are arranged most naturally with natural
stones bordering the banks. Often fanciful stones are arranged in midstream to break the
flow of water. The flow of water in the stream may be manipulated by changing the
inclination. Sometimes it may be fast as a mountain rivulet or like a smooth flowing river
of the plains.
 Waterfalls: The presence of waterfall in Japanese gardens is another attempt in imitating
nature. A waterfall may be made more effective by manipulating it to drop in two or three
levels. To make the waterfalls dignified and natural, large sized stones are arranged
around these. To many Japanese the naked exposer of the cascade of water is not to good
taste and hence these are partially screened by planting a group of trees in front of the
waterfall. The dense planting of evergreens around the waterfall also symbolizes
mountain scenery where actually a waterfall naturally belongs.
 Fountains: Often natural fountains are provided near the foot of the hill, on the hill side or
in the forest. Often water is conveyed from a hillside by means of bamboo-piping.
 Wells: In older days wells in the Japanese gardens were features of utility. In modern
times this feature is more in the nature of an ornament than a utility. The wells may be
square, circular or criss-cross in shape. The frame is generally constructed of stone but
occasionally wood is also used. The frame is generally raised above the ground level to a
height of 45-60cm. The mouth of the well is often covered with a pulley fitted on a
framework. Round or square shaped buckets are hung on either side of the pulley,
suspended from a rope.
 Islands: Often the islands are in the shape of mounds or hillocks. Often the islands are
made a peninsula, connected to the mainland by a narrow neck of land instead of a
bridge. There are different types of island. They are Elysian Isle, Wind-Swept Isle,
Master's Isle, Guest's Isle, Mountain Isle, Forest Isle and Rock Island etc.
 Bridges: Bridges are special features in a Japanese garden. These are used to reach on
island or for crossing a stream. Bridges may be made of stones, polished or unworked
earth, wood and other materials. The main criterion is that the construction should be
pleasing to the eye. The Japanese concept of a bridge is not just a quick crossing of water
way. The aim is to prolong the crossing time so that the visitor gets enough time to enjoy
 the scenery around. Even when slabs of stones are used as a bridge, one single span will
not connect the destination but there will be detour in the midstream and another slab
running in a different direction will carry the visitor to the ultimate point. Often to cross a
marshy place or a stream a bridge is constructed by placing eight wooden planks in a
zigzag manner supported by arched beams ranging from the riverbed. If there are two or
more bridges in the garden different types of bridges should be constructed to bring
variety. When the pond or water-way is large enough to permit boating, the bridges
should be of arching type, to permit the boat to pass under.
 Water basins: The water-basins are fitted near a house meant for the guests to rinse their
mouth and wash the hands. But in present time these basins have become ornamental
features. The size of the basins is generally proportionate to the size of the house. A small
house may have a basin 1m tall, whereas big houses may have as tall as 2 to 2.5 m tall.
The basins are generally fitted with an ornamental lid. The water basins are of various
shapes most common ones are in the shape of urn. But square-star shaped, cylindric stone
bottle shaped and bowl shaped basins are also quite common. A screen fence is provided
near the water basin to arrest the unwelcome sight, stones are placed at the base of water
basin to arrest the splash of water which otherwise may wet the space. A lantern is
provided near by for illumination.
 Stone lanterns: Stone lantern is an important feature of Japanese garden. The usual stones
used are granite, but sand stone or white marble may also be used. The usual place of
fixing the lanterns are near the base of a hill, on an island, on the banks of a lake, near a
water basin or a well, along a path, on a boat landing near waterfalls and a bridge. The
 lanterns are used singly but along with a combination of rocks, fences, water basins,
shrubs and trees. The lanterns are not meant for illumination but as objects of ornaments.
Even when a lantern is lit in the night, the light emitted hardly illuminates the place
because mostly a group of bushes are grown near it. A lantern has six parts, namely, the
ornamental top, cap, light chamber, middle stand, post and base. These may be of various
shapes and sizes. The size should be in proportion to the building or the other garden
features around the lantern. Lanterns looking of age are valued much and many people
make the lanterns look old by artificial means. One such method is to attach moss to the
lantern.
 Stones: Different stones are used to beautify the surroundings in the garden. These stones
represent different symbols like natural mood, idea, spiritual and melodic symbols. There
are distinct five shapes recognized for stones which are employed in the garden. They are
statue stone, low-vertical stone, flat stone, recumbent or ox stone, and arching stone. The
arrangement of these stones is done in composition comprising of two, triple or quintuple
combination. Such combination has different meaning. E.g. long life-three stones placed
together on the edge of a beach.
 Pagodas: Another important feature of Japanese garden is the stone tower or the pagoda
which is a structure consisting of two, three, five or more separately roofed stages.
 Fences and Gates: Fence in Japanese garden is of two types, one is for partition and the
other one for screening purpose. The partition fences are light and are made of wood and
twigs of bamboo. The screen fences are meant for covering something which is not
pleasant in sight. The screen fences are made of wood or bamboo(whole or spit or
twigs)woven into patterns giving an artistic look so that they can stand on their own in
the garden as features of ornamentation. Gates are also two types, one is the front
 entrance and the second the back entrance. Gates are also made of light materials such as
wood or bamboo. Some gates are roofed, some are bare. The roofed gates may have roof
made of bamboo, wood or simply thatched.

 Plant Materials Used in Japanese Garden:

The aim of the Japanese garden is to imitate nature by using natural elements hence, there
is hardly any bar in using any plant material which serves this purpose. There is a
tendency among the garden enthusiasts to introduce plants of Japanese origin in the
Japanese garden. Evergreen trees, shrubs, a few climbers and bulbous, herbaceous and
perennial herbaceous flowering plants are commonly grown in the Japanese gardens. The
following are the important plants grown in Japanese gardens.

1. Evergreen trees: Pines, different species of Abies, Crytomeria japonica, Juniperus

chinensis, Podocarpus macrophylla.
2. Deciduous:Maples(Acer species),Poplars (Populus sp.), Mulbery (Morus alba),
Willow(Salix babylona).
3. Shrubs: Azalea, Camellia japonica, Rhododendron, Aucuba japonica, Gardenia
4. Climbing plants: Clematis paniculata, Lonicera japonica, Ipomea hederacea, Wisteria
sinensis.
5. Flowering plants: The most commonly used plants are different Prunus species besides
Magnolia grandiflora and others.
6. Flowers: Aster, Carnation, Anemone, Chrysanthemum, Canna, Orchids, Lilies, Lotus,
Iris, Freezia, Peonies.

2.3 Garden components:

The extensive modern garden is usually make up of the following parts or features.

1. Lawn:

Lawn is an important component of a garden. No garden is complete without the presence of

lawn. Lawn can be defined as the green carpet for the land scape maintain by growing and
moving grasses. The lawn is an area maintain under thickly grown grass cover. It forms the heart
of the garden and plays the important part to add beauty to the garden. Lawn serves as a basic for
a flower bed, a border, a shrubbery etc. suitable lawn grasses are doob or Bermuda grass, manilia
grass etc. planting of lawn can be done by seed, Dibbling, turfing or by turf. (see detail on lawn
preparation notes)

2. Shrubs and Shrubberies:

Groups of shrubs planted of corners will be useful in natural designs. Shrub borders of informal
(allowed to grow without trimming) or formal (trimmed to a particular height) can border the
main walks and paths. A shrubbery is a border planted with different kinds of shrubs and a shrub
border is one where only one kind of shrub is used. Jasmine,Foliage shrubs are acalypha, croton,
rubberplant, heliconia etc, flowering shrubs are rose, jasmine, hibiscus etc

3. Climbers and Creepers:

Climbers and creepers are used to grow against or over walls, trellieses, arches, pergolas, arbour,
pillars or large trees. These climbers may be light or heavy depending upon the amount of wood
it produces.

4. Trees:

They form the l frame work of the garden. They are generally planted along the boundaries.
Masses of trees in a corner will help to give depth and perspective. A spreading tree is an ideal
feature for 'picnic' ground in large public garden. Trees with, beautiful or fragrant flowers or
hand some foliage or forms and trees which provide adequate shade are grown in gardens.

5. Flower Beds and Borders:

Several flowering annuals and herbaceous perennials can be grown in beds and borders. Flower
beds of simple design can be laid out on the out skirts of lawn along the foundation of buildings.
In the path leading to the entrance of the house and on sides of foot steps.

Borders are continuous beds of more length than width containing plants of a heterogeneous
character as distinguished from flower beds which are composed of plants of one kind only.
Borders can be had on the sides of paths, walks and drives or in front of shrubberies and trellises
with climbers.

6. Ornamental Hedges:

A good live hedge is essential to enclose a garden ornamental 'internal' hedges can also be
planted inside the garden with attractive foliage or flowering shrubs. These are pruned to
maintain a height of 50-65 cm. They help to divide the garden into a number of parts; each will
have its own distinct feature.

7. Edges or edging:

These are the materials of any description which is used in gardens for dividing-beds, borders
etc. from roads, walks or paths demarcating spaces allotted for particular purpose, as flower
beds. These can be either dwarf growing plants (Eupotorium Altemantherd )which would stand
frequent trimming or they may be made of bricks, stones or concrete slabs.

8. Drives, Roads, Walks and Paths :

All these should occupy minimum space and not be too many in number. They should serve to
link one part with the other part. Paths may be made up of earth, brick, concrete or be paved.
Paved paths are particularly effective in formal gardens. Paving can be done by flat stones or
concrete slabs or bricks. Sometimes paving with irregularly sized stones to create an odd pattern
will result in a crazy path. The inter spaces can be planted with ground spreads.

9. Topiary:

Training and pruning the plant to give it a particular ornamental shape is termed as topiary. The
plant are train to impart a shape of bird, crocodile, elephant, horse, camel etc. The topiary
features are eye-catching and added to the beauty of the garden. The most common plants for
topiary are Cupressus, Casuarina and Bogainvillea. To get a particular shape the desired frame
of the object is fixed in the ground at desired location. Continous training and pruning give the
plant a desired shape.

10. Trophy:

It refers to the arrangement of potted colorful foliage of flowering shrubs and flowering annuals
or herbaceous perennials around a tree or any central object such as a Statue. These potted plants
are often arranged in tiers.

11. Garden Adornments:

There are several garden adornments and accessories such as Fountains, Statues, Garden seats,
ornamental pots and Pillars, arches and pergolas, trellises, hanging baskets, tubs, vases and urns
with plants which make the garden more enjoyable. Planning of a fountain is an interesting
feature in a garden and the water in the cistern should be kept clean. Garden seats made up of
stones, concrete or metal are placed under the tree. Handsome tubs, vessels and ums are utilized
to display plants in conspicuous places. Arbours, arches, pergolas and trelises serve as support to
several beautiful plants and to dispel monotony in garden.
2.4 Principle of landscaping design:

 Scale and proportion: Scale and proportion refer to the relative size of the object and
the plant in a land scope area. The scale and proportion planting material should bear a
pleasing relationship with the dimension of landscape area and building in it.. If the
ornamental plants and decorative objects selected are much smaller or bigger relative to
each other and to the landscape area. A very wide path in a small area, large tree planted
in a near the small building would be out of scale.
 Rhythm: Repetition of same object at equidistance is called rhythm. It can be created
through the shapes, progression of sizes or a continuous line movement. In garden
generally tress of single species of equal height and shape are planted to create this effect.
In mogul garden, fountains and water canals have been extensively used to create this
effect. Now days other objects like lights are also used to create the effect of rhythm.

 Balance: It is very important to maintain the balance on both sides of the central line.
The balance may be formal, informal or symmetrical types. Imbalance will look lopsided
will distract the attention. In making the balance with plants, their form colour, texture
shrubs. Similarly one side planted with tall upright trees will not make balance with other
side if planted with dwarf or weeping trees.

 Accent or emphasis: The accent or emphasis is created on the garden to avoid the
monotonous view. It is the method to stress the most important things. Mostly unusual
objects like tall fountain, tree, statue, etc are used to create this effect.

 Contrast: This principle is most useful in emphasizing the best feature of an object.
Weeping growth habit against upright growth; dwarf against tall; rough texture against
soft texture etc are some of the examples which can be followed. It is also very important
that one of the two contrasting objects must clearly dominate each other.

 Harmony: It is the overall effect of various features, styles and colour schemes of the
total scene. The degree of harmony or unity of various elements of landscape is measure
induced in us and is called as beauty. When different parts of landscape are correctly
 placed in the right way, produces a harmonious effect. Such landscape creates
picturesque effect and appeal to visitors. On the contrary, the absence of harmony or lack
of unity is ugliness.

2.3 Landscaping Design for residential and public building; parks and highways

The basic principles in landscaping plant types with reference to a home ground is briefly
discussed below:

1) The landscape plan must taken into consideration at least four general uses of
land.

a) The public areas, the frontage, is viewed from the street or by one approaching the front door.
This area is put into limited use by the family. It is desirable to keep this land minimum in area.
Lawn, trees to frame the house and son* shrubbery may be planted in this area.

b) Foundation area includes the small areas surrounding the- house. It is very important and this
should receive much and early attention. This area may be assigned to plant attractive shrubs or
herbaceous perennials.

c) The Utility or service area includes driveways, cloth yards,, a place for garbage, Tennis
court etc.

d) Outdoor living or private area is planned for privacy. It is usually away from the approach
area. It may be located to either side of the house with screening accomplished by fence, shrubs
or trees. It usually occupies a large area. Home landscaping should primarily aim at providing
shade. Home ground may be assigned judiciously for outdoor living, parking the vehicles,
children play area, corner for growing sacred flowers and flowers for personal decorations and
vegetable gardening.

2) Locating or arranging the plant material is the final step in developing the horizontal plan or
blue print. The functions or purposes of plant materials include shade, screening, privacy,
background, accent, framing, wind break and specimen plants.

 Shade is obtained primarily from broad leaved evergreen trees in our country. The shape
and ultimate size of trees for shade are important criteria of selection and placement.
 Screening is frequently attained by effective use of shrubs, although vines on trellises and
fences are also effective screening materials.
  Privacy in the home grounds can be obtained from buildings, fences and plants. Back
ground plantings generally consist of trees or shrubs along the back or distant and of the
ground. They give a feeling of depth and soften the harsh lines produced by man made
structures. They add coolness to the surroundings during summer.

 Accent points of the landscape are those which have some distinct features and should
catch the eye immediately.

 Framing plants are those which encircle the main point of interest, the house in a home
plan. The trees and shrubs on either side both in the back yard and fore ground form the
framing view of the house.

 Wind breaks are usually of tall growing trees with strong branches and are placed on the
boundaries to reduce, wind velocity!

Landscaping design of City Parks

In city there may be parks of several sizes from very large to medium size and also squares or
small gardens are generally found at street inter sections. The small gardens or squares are
planted with a view to relieving the eyes of the people passing by them or for a short resting
period for those who care to use them. Therefore, these may be planted with a path of grass, few
flower beds, one or two shades or flowering trees or a group of shrubs and trees. The medium to
large parks are meant for a place of recreation and these are considered as lungs of the cities.
These should be a place of beauty as well as utility.

Most of the cities in Nepal have developed unplanned and hence there is hardly any space for a
large park. But to give the citizens of such cities a breathing place garden or large parks may be
laid out in the nearest vicinity of the countryside easily approachable by car or bus or even by
bicycle. But in the present day conditions in a developing country like India, Nepal, it may not be
possible to take up such ventures in the immediate furore.

The prospect park as (1) a long meadow, which is a park like open space; (2) an undulated and
rising hilly section with woodland scenery (3) a lake and its surroundings (4) a number of
sceneries of objects of beauty.

The Bud ha Jayanti Park in New Delhi falls in to this category. The vast park called "Rabin dr a
Kan an" in South Calcutta with large grassy open spaces, a huge lake with islands, stadium, lily
pool garden with a miniature zoo, flowering trees, shrubs, and a hanging bridge may come into
this category.
The small city park may be an area any thing between 5 and 100 hectares or little more. A large
rural park gives a degree of scolusion from the city but the small city park, as it is situated within
the city, has no such characteristic although the features may be the same as that of a large rural
park. In the small parks, the scenery created will not look so natural as those of a large rural park,
because of the limitation of space.

 Good flowering and shade trees should be planted in groups or singly in some comers or
other suitable places for creating beauty as well as a place for resting.
 Garden benches should be constructed at regular intervals especially under the shade of
the trees.

 Few interesting and are shrubs should also be included. Besides these, some garden
adornments such as statues and fountains can also be planned in appropriate parts of such
parks.

The third category of city parks may be called as 'pleasure grounds' which have large reserve
areas for playing games, and often" this is the main feature of these parks. A restricted
swimming pool is also often a feature of a pleasure ground. If it is meant for the children,
features such as swings, see-saw, sliding chute, meny-go round, etc. should form part of the park:

Landscaping design for highway

The landscaping of the National and State Highways with trees is an important aspect of
beautifying our country side. Landscaping of high ways does not mean only planting of trees; it
is only one part of it Landscaping of a highway also includes all other measures which help
enhance the beauty and fits it into the natural landscape of the area. Besides its engineering
perfection, a highway must look aesthetic, and should not disturb the ecological aspect of the
area too much. But, unfortunately in Nepal, this aspect has been either neglected or done in a
chumsy fashion. Planting of trees on highways is necessary not only for the purpose of
beautification but also for utility and necessity.

 The main purpose of roadside trees is to provide shade during the summer. For this
purpose, evergreen trees with spreading crowns should be selected. For wider roads,
double rows can be planted, with the outer rows having shade trees and the inner rows
with flowering trees.
 The road side trees on the National Highways should not only provide shade but
preferably also have some economic value. With this in .view many of the High ways
 have been planted with trees such as Tamarind, Mango, Eugenia operaculata etc. The
roadside fruit trees will be subjected to damage by urchins and anti-social elements and in
the process, may have less life expectancy. Eugenia operculata has one nuisance value as
when its fruits ripe they drop on the road and make it dirty. The stain of this fruit is also
difficult to remove from the cloths.

 Neems, Mahua, are road side trees of economic value. The highway trees should be
planted 12 m apart in the row and at least 5-6 m away from the edge of the roads, so that
they get enough space for spreading and do not interfere with the traffic. If a road is an.
wide as 30 m or more, double rows of trees should be planted, rows being spaced 10-12
m apart.

 Some of the other methods of improving the roadside landscape may be suggested here.
While constructing a new road it becomes necessary to excavate earth from the road side
for the road embankment, as a result the road side develops some scars in the form of
irregular ditches and burrow areas, which not only look ugly but also serve as breeding
grounds for mosquitoes. It is suggested that such burrows and pits should be reshaped
and formed into road side lakes, if needed by outlining the borders with brick or cement
lining. The banks can be landscaped with a few beautiful trees.

 If already some features such as a group of trees or a temple exists on the road side, this
should be incorporated in the overall landscaping of the highway
2.6 Preparation and maintenance of lawn

Lawn:

A lawn can be defined as the green carpet for a landscape. It is a piece of land thickly covered
with uniform green luft of grass. It is a basic feature for home ground development and essential
feature for any type of garden.

Importance:

 It improves the appearance of house and enhances the beauty,

 provides perfect setting for a flower bed,
 A border a shrubbery or a specimen tree or a shrub.
 It serves as a place for enjoying beauty while resting ,
 Harmonizes with the surroundings.
 Source of charm and pride.
 Reduce the tension of the mind after day's hard work.

Preparation of lawn

1. Selection of site: The site selected should be open and sunny. The view of the lawn
should be uninterrupted from the house and from the entrance. The best situation will be
the southern side and the next best is the south east and south west of the building.

2. Soil: Soil should be loam in texture with good water holding capacity and water drainage
at least 25-30 cm. in depth, containing enough humus, slightly acidic to neutral pH 5.5-6.

3. Land preparation

 Digging: Prior to digging, a rough surface leveling by eye estimation should be done. If
leveling is needed, a lot of shifting and filling of soil is necessitated. After leveling, the
digging work will commence. The digging operation should be done by the trenching
method. While digging, a trench of 60 cm deep and 45 cm width is dug at one end of the
 site along its entire length and the soil removed from the freshly dug trench going into the
trench dug preceding this. At each stage of digging, the soil clods should be broken and
pulverized thoroughly. During the process of digging all stones, grass roots should be
removed. Generally digging is done during hot months (April-May) after the trenching is
completed.

 Manuring and grading: After the digging is over, the soil is to be manure and graded
(leveled). Apply well-decomposed F.Y.M./compost @ 5 kg/sqm, the manure is sieved
finally and spread over the surface. This is then worked up in the soil to a depth of 15-20
cm. after the application of manure; the next step will be to settle soil thoroughly. To do
this prepared soil is watered heavily and to check the run off, bunds are put up all along
the periphery. While leveling, a gentle slope is given for drainage of extra water. The
loose soil is then made firm by the use of light roller. After this light irrigation is again
given, the level is rechecked when the soil is sufficiently dried up. It is always advisable
to keep the level of the lawn 5 cm below the level of the paths drives.

 Choice of grass for making lawn

The number of grass varieties suitable for fine lawn is limited, as a few species alone are capable
of withstanding frequent cutting and sampling and at the same time providing a continuous
uniform green cover some of the grass suitable for lawn is as follows.

Doobo grass (Burmunda grass) (Cynodon dactylon): It is most commonly grown lawn grass in
Nepal. This thrives under hot and sunny site. This grass is suitable for large area and playground.

Japanese/ Korean grass (Zoysia japonica): This grass is used in the form of carpet grass. It is cold
tolerant and slow in growth. Water requirement of this grass is more suitable for small area and
home lawn.

Carpet grass ( Axonopus affinis): It is suitable for sandy or sandy loam soil and grows well under
shade along roadside and open area.

Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis): This is also known as June grass. It is one of the most
popular grasses in western countries as the leaf blades give a soft carpet like feeling when it is
laid as a lawn. The colour is blue green.

4. Method of planting
(a) From seed: Not popular since a mixed lot of seeds may create an ugly look of the lawn. The
land is raked and sown through tractor-mounted machine and then mulched with cut straw
pieces in developed countries. This is done at a time when rain the rain is expected
frequently. Seed germinates in a week and seedling come out through the straw mulching
covering very soon.

(b) Dibbling: After the land is ready, well matured rooted or uprooted grass cutting is obtained
from a close cut lawn or nursery or from lawn scraping. These cuttings are then dibbled
(planted) in the ground when it is slightly moist at 7-10 cm apart. The soil is kept moist by
frequent watering till the grass sprouts. Within 5-7 weeks the grass will be ready for first
cutting. This is the cheapest method and a lawn will be ready in about four months.

(c) Turfing: This is the quickest method of developing a lawn. Turf is a piece of earth of bout 5
cm thickness with grass thickly grown over it. The piece may be of small squares or in rolls
of small width (30 cm or so). The turf must be free from weeds. In the prepared land, the turf
pieces are laid closely to each other in a bonded alternate pattern, like bricks in a wall.

(d) Turf plastering: A paste is prepared by mixing garden soil and fresh clouding (50:50) and
enough water to form thicky pasty substance. But of chopped up fresh grass roots rhizomes,
stems (5-7 cm long) ae then mixed to the past. This mixture is then spread uniformly on the
surface of the perfectly leveled ground after moistening of the soil. The paste is then covered
by spreading 2 cm of dry soil and watered at regular interval.

(e) Bricking: In this method, piece of lawn along with soil in the shape of bricks are taken out
and are planted and watered immediately. This method is generally used to replace the few
unhealthy patches in well-maintained lawn.

(f) Planting on polythene: In this method, lawn is grown on thick polythene (800gauge
thickness). First polythene is cut into suitable pieces of desired dimension. Mixture of soil (3-
4cm thick) is spread over the polythene sheets and grass is grown over it. It can be rolled and
taken to place and rolled out where temporary effect is to be created.

5. Maintenance of Lawn

(a) Weeding: One of the main aspects of maintenance is the control of weed . Weed is common
in both new and old lawn. Therefore, as soon as a lawn is established hand weeding should
start and continue at regular intervals or whenever the weeds come out. All weeds should be
removed with their roots and these should never be allowed to seed.
(b) Rolling: Light rolling should be done on ground to suppress the upright growth, to anchor the
grass firmly in the soil and to keep the level of ground and also to press down the small
stones or pebbles which otherwise will interfere with the mower blades. In light sandy soils,
rolling after each weeding will be helpful to keep the surface leveled. Rolling should be
avoided when the soil is wet

(c) Mowing: In case of mowing, newly planted lawn is not mowed till it has established well.
When the grass grows to a height of 5-6 cm, the first cut should be given. For this purpose
shears should be used and not the lawn mower before using the lawn mower for the first time
light rolling should be done. Mowing is needed at regular basis in care of established lawn.
Generally in rainy and winter season mowing is required at the interval of 7-10 days during
spring season at the interval of 15 days whereas during summer it is done at monthly
intervals. Different types of mower like hand driven, bullock driven or tractor driven are
available and can be selected depending upon the size of the lawn.

(d) Sweeping: Sweeping is also an important operation. Sweeping the lawn thoroughly after
each mowing is essential to clean the cut grasses that might have fallen from the mower box.
Sweeping is also done every morning to clean the fallen leaves and other debris. Sweeping
may have to be repeated two or three times in a day during the season when the deciduous
tree shed their leaves.

(c) Irrigation: Grasses are shallow rooted and surface feeder; hence, adequate watering should
be done frequently. During autumn and winter months watering is down at an interval of 10
days whereas during spring and summer months it should be don at an interval of 7 days.
Irrigation can be given by sprinkler, hosepipe or by flood method also. Stagnation of water
should not be allowed as it may kill the grass.

(d) Manure and fertilizer application: Fertilizing the lawn thrice a year is adequate to maintain
rich greenness and to keep the soil enriched. Application of 50-60g/sq.m of a mixture of N P
K (2:1:1) during Feb-March, June-July and Oct-Nov is quite beneficial spraying of urea @
0.3% is also useful for the growth of grass. At times, well-decomposed compost @1kg/sq.m
area will be sufficient as top dressing.
 Unit 3. Ornamentals Plants

3.2 Indoor gardening:

Indoor gardening refers to beautifying the areas inside the house with plants. Unlike outdoor
gardening, the house plants are grown generally in containers made of earthen pots, ceramic pots
or any container of cheap cost. In some places, the plants are grown on 'totum pole' which is a
support covered with sphangnum moss.

Big sized bottles with, narrow mouth are also sometimes used to grow the house plants and this
technique is popularly known as 'Terrarium'.

Shade loving plants are generally preferred as house plants. The pots should be raised off the
ground and placed on neatly arranged and concealed bricks or on wooden panels. The indoor
garden can be established in the following zones of the houses:

1. Open Zone:

This is available in roof terraces. This zone is very warm especially during summer in inland
plains. Plants like Agave and Catci, which can tolerate reflected heat, can be selected for the
above purpose.

2. Shade of a Tree in Front of a House:

Such places near the eastern side of the building may be considered for growing certain house
plants which can easily come up under shade. Most of the foliage plants like Crotons,
Graptophylium, Eraisthemum, Dracasnca, Asparagus are preferred as potted plants in the area.

3. Varandah of a House:

This area normally gets only diffused light and the air movement is also good. The plants best
suited for growing in verandahs are palms such as Li vision ia, Thrinax, Caryota, Areca tubscens,
Ferns and Begonias etc.

4. Living Room, Drawing Room etc:

In these places, we can keep the plants either near the window or away from it. Near a window
plants with brighter foliage and occasionally herbaceous flowering plants are preferred, while
plants with dropping foliage like Zebrina, Sedum, Mesembranthemum are preferred in the
former cases.

3.2.1 Selection and maintenance of plants based on the arrangement:

  Placement of plant: As a focal point in the indoor, the plants are to be arrange in such a
way that they become the integral part of the whole. It means it maintain the harmony
between the plants.
 Relative size: The relationship between the size of the plant and that of room is
important.
 Number of plant: A simple room is brought to life with one to two specimen plants. Too
many plants crowed the room.

The important plants which are preferred as indoor plants are given below:

a) Foliage Plants :

Dieffenbachias, Philodendron, Aglaoenoma, Monstora, Anthurium, Colocasia, Caladium,

Aloccasia, Maranta, Aralia, Panax, Helicorrium, Begonia, Asparagus and all kinds of ferns.

b) Flowering Plants:

Ixora, Graptophylium, Hibiscus, Eranthemum, Nerium, Zerbrina etc.

3.2.2 Pot culture and hanging basket:

The house plants soon fill the pots with its roots and often need a large pot for satisfactorily
continuing its growth. It is then shifted to a pot a little larger on size with its root and soil intact.
This process is known as 'Repotting* Plants should never be repotted when the soil is in a dry
state. In this condition they should be watered some time before potting is commenced, so that
the surplus water will have to drain away. Soil used for potting should be sufficiently moist to
hold together when pressed in the hand, but not wet.

 Watering: Pot plants require to be watered much more carefully than those growing in
the ground. Applying too little or too much of water is undesirable. When the leaves
droop it is a sign that the plant is either in need of water or suffering from soil stagnation
at the root Always use soft water for watering the potted plants.

 Syringing: It refers to the operation of spraying the plant surfaces through a fine stringe
nose. It is essential to the health of plants, growing under cover where the natural rain
does not reach them. Syringing creates a moist atmosphere, cleans the leaves and thus
assist in promoting their functions.

 All plants growing in a varandah should be frequently turned round in their position so as
to equalize the effect of the light otherwise their growth will be top sided.

 Too much light is just as detrimental as too little and the majority of indoor plants should
not be placed in full Sun. Sun scorch or leaf bum will soon make them very unattractive.
Requirement for light varx with the individual plants. Most flowering plants require
considerable light to bloom, while most foliage plants need diffused light. The only
 exception to this rule is plants that have variegated leaves. When a variegated plant is
placed in a dark corner, the few green cells present in the leaves can not manufacture
enough food to maintain a healthy growing condition. Flowering plants since require
more sunlight for profuse flowering can be better located near the windows.

 The humidity of air in the house or room is very low. Many house plants require a higher
humidity than is normally present It is often difficult to provide the necessary humidity in
the room. The humidity around the plants can be increased by the following ways:
i) Use trays of pebbles in which water is poured to just below the tops of the pebbles.
Place the pots on the pebbles, being certain that the bottoms are not sitting m the water.
ii) Another method is the single plant may be top dressed with sphangnum moss and the
moss kept nicely damp.

Hanging Basket

‘Hanging basket’ refers to the practice of growing plants in certain kinds of plant baskets and
other containers of pleasing design and suspending them, after placing them in wire frames, in
conservatories, corridors, rooms and under shady trees to have great ornamental value. Hanging
baskets are usually made of galvanized wire or wood, as single plant in such baskets, those
which are erect growing, intermediate in size with graceful foliage may be selected. Similarly,
plants which are intermediate or dwarf in growth habit with dropping graceful foliage with or
without bloom are also a fitting material for massing in these baskets. Selected plants should
have a ability to grow and bloom in hanging basket.

It is necessary to prevent the soil in the basket from drying rapidly. For this purpose, the basket is
lined with moss or gunny bag or coconut fibre, and then filled with soil which can hold moisture
for sometime. The soil for hanging baskets consists of two parts: each of leaf mould and rich
loam and one part of well rotten cow dung. The plants in these baskets may be started ether with
seeds or seedlings or cuttings depending upon the species. Regular watering and feeding the
plants with liquid manure are the two important practices to sustain the growth of the plants for
quite a long period.

The following is a selected list of plants suitable for growing in hanging baskets.
Adiantum sp, Asparagus sprengeri, Begania recumbens, Impationts repens, Nasturtium sp. (Tall
Kinds). Nefrolepis ( a kind of form), Orchids such as Vanda, Phalaenopsis, Saccolabium, Pilca
microphylla, Potunia hybrids, Sedum sp., Setercasea, Tradescantia, Verbebna, Vecna variegate,
Zebrina.

3.2.3 Flower arrangement:

There are different kind of flower arrangement among which Japanese floral arrangement is very
popular namely “EKEBANA”. Ekebana convey through symbolisms how nature and art relates
to daily living, it was divided in to three different styles;
  Formal shin style
 Informal style
 Semi formal style

Ikebana can be classified in to different styles such as Bukko, tatebana, shoka, maribana etc.

 Bukka: Simple flower arrangement and considered the early ikebana

 Tatebana: Standing style
 Rikka later refined from tatebana: The standing style of arrangements representing
universe, was arranged in temples.
 Shoka: After rikka, Shoka was developed in which mainly with 3 lines forming a scalene
triangle design with livelier look, originated from rikka
 Maribana style: Ikebana under went further modification where the people came in
touch with western world. The western style of room decoration with many new flower
was introduced in Japanese garden and made impact of ikebana art which gave rise to
well known moribana. It doesn’t need special alcove/niche for display and is less
cumbersome.

Basic point for flower arrangement:

 Fresh flower and foliage

 Proper color combination
 Well proportionate arrangement vase size of flower materials and display place has to be
proportionate with each other
 Good design
 Arrangement of all types of central table should be low. So that they do not obstruct
views from opposite and its should look attractive from all sides
 All artificial aids such as (pin holder oasis or floral aid, wire etc) that are used for floral
construction with leaf, moss or stone should be hidden.

Modern flower arrangement:

Modern florist design incorporates the simple line from the oriented art and the mass
arrangement of European design. Larger flower are used at the centre to create interest and
balance in the design. Color is used more harmoniously, so best color is used to create this effect.
Many flower and foliage have symbolic meaning such as pine branch represent which wisdom,
bamboo represents longevity. Peach blossoms are youth and charm etc. the modern designer this
skill is used to create design that has more depth simplicity and originality.
Shape of floral design:

Flower arrangements are generally more pleasing to the eyes when their outlines create
geometric pattern. The basic shape of the arrangement established the line and created unity of
the design, whether it is tradition or modern. The most common shape used in florist includes
circular type, horizontal type, triangular type, vertical type, crescent etc

Selection of plant materials:

Flower and foliage shape influence the line and form of an arrangement. The shape of flower and
foliage used by florist classified in to four groups:

 Line materials: Line flowers stand tall and have many blossoms close to the stem.
Flower like gladiolus, snapdragon, foliage like gladiolus leaf, palm etc. the line flower
are inserted vertically.
 Focal flower: These are placed close to the centre of the arrangements flowers like rose,
marigold are single stem, compact the flowers that command the attention of viewer.
 Mass flower: Rose, chrysanthemum, carnation, and aster and mass foliage like caladio,
leather leaf, fern etc.
 Filler flower and foliage: They have closer and individual flower on single stem or
flower head they are used to fill space between line and focal flower eg fern, asparagus,
aster, sweet pea, water fern leaf etc

3.3 Flower exhibition and flower judging:

Flower exhibition:
The objectives of flower exhibition are to create interest among the flower grower and general
public. General public is growing ornamental plant and maintaining the beautiful garden.

 In exhibition the visitors get chance to see all the set materials at a time in one place.
 It promote the marketing channel
 It increases the aesthetic value of the ornamental plants.
 Participitants get chance to share their knowledge each other.

While exhibiting following point should be considered.

 Color: The color should be vivid and bright, whether it is a dark shade or a pastel. Fading
colors on petals or on leaf due to over maturity is undesirable. Foliage color should be
typical of the plant type, whether dark green or variegated.
  Condition: The condition of a plant or flower is based on the appearance of the
specimen. For the condition criteria, mechanical injury, bruising, immaturity, age and
weather damage should be considered undesirable.
 Cultural Perfection: Cultural perfection is a criterion use to evaluate the cultural
techniques used in growing a flower or plant. Proper fertilization, watering, pest control,
disbudding, dividing, removal of spent blooms and quality of potting soil are cultural
techniques that are evident in the appearance of flowers or plants.

 Form: The shape is the true or characteristic form of a plant. Poor form may result from
mechanical injury, insect and disease damage, or poor cultural practices.

 Grooming: Clean plants to remove dirt and residues, as well as dead foliage or flowers.
Grooming should not alter the typical features on the plants.

 Size: The size of a plant should be as large as the variety allows under proper growing
conditions. The stem and foliage should be proportional to the bloom size. Large blooms
are not desirable if they are poor in condition or form.

 Stem and Foliage: The stem supporting the blooms should be strong and in proportion to
the plant. The leaves should be in good condition and in proportional size to the bloom
and stem.

 Substance: The material of which the plant is made should be strong, firm, crisp, and
fresh. Over maturity often brings about a lack of substance, wilting, or thinning at the
petal edges.
 Symmetry: Beauty in a plant escalates due to a balanced proportion of parts on a

Judging:
For small exhibition there should be three judges and for large exhibition there should be 2-3
person for each grower such as for pot plants 2 person, cut flower 2 person, annual flower 2
person, flower exhibition/ arrangement table 2, table decoration 2 person etc

Set pattern for judging:

I. Foliage plant: Culture, quality appearance

II. Annual: Quality and quantity of bloom, general appearance, display and color scheme
III. Cut flower: Quality petal, length of stem, vigor, size decorative effective etc. many
criteria for evaluation of size of flower and form, color and arrangement.
3.4 Bonsai making
The word bonsai is a combination of two Japanese word bon meaning shallow tray and sai
meaning tree. Bonsai is the art of growing and training plants (tree, shrubs and vine) to be
miniature of their nature forms. Bonsai is cultural technique for dwarfing the plants.

Bonsai is thus art of growing tree, proportionately in small container, occasionally in

combination with rocks of many forms. It gives a lordly appearance of the large tree or
landscape. Bonsai makers need an artistic eye and three gardening principles (pruning, training,
and good knowledge of growing plant).

Plant selection: All plants are not suitable small leves are most desirable. It also desirable that
the species which are able to grow in restricted space. Conifers (junipers, pine etc), deciduous
tree (crab apple, plum,), ornamental shrubs ( rododender, azalea, camellia, jasmine etc)

Pruning and training:

Pruning to control the plant size is critical to bonsai culture. Roots and shoots are judiciously
pruned to obtain the plant shape and size to control the rate of development. It is often necessary
to use wire during the training process to force the plant to desire shape and size.

How to start

The first think is to collect the suitable type of plant. Plants for bonsai making may be raised by
seed, seedling, cutting, layering or plants collected from the wild plant. Raised from seed or
seedling will take some time to train as bonsai so that many people starts with layering of large
branches, cutting and grafting. Sometimes wild old plant can be selected if we provide suitable
training. The wild plants and plant grown in nursery should be uprooted with care and grown in
an ordinary pot for a year and then transfer to the shallow container.

Container and soil:

While seedling a container it must be kept in mind for making bonsai. However the choice of
container depends on the personal choice of the grower. The shape may be rounding, oval or
rectangular. A container should also have one or two drainage hole. A bonsai remains in its
container for at least in one year. Chemical reaction of the soils should be close to neutrality.
Good compost will be made up a, two parts of good fibrous loam 1 parts course river sand and 1
parts leaf mould.

Potting and repotting:

The drainage hole are covered with pieces of bricks and other drainage materials and compost
fill in. a straight bonsai is planted in the center of the pot where as of cascades type should be
planted at one side. Some attractive pebbles may be scattered over the surface which will prevent
the soil from becoming hard. After potting the plants should be kept in shade in a few days.
Repotting is the beginning of presenting a plant in a special form. Repotting is simply removal of
the plant either from the ordinary pot or bonsai pot or ground and replacing the plat either first
time in a bonsai pot. Best season of repotting is early spring or monsoon. Even though it can be
done at any time avoiding the summer season. The fast growing plant will need repotting every
year while the slow growing plants may be repotted every 2—3 years.

Training:

Training is mainly done for maintain the best shape with graceful curve of the trunk and neat
arrangements of branches. It is possible through proper training techniques like use of wires. The
method consist of tying the trunk of branches and curving them in the direction or angle desired.
It should be done at younger stage of growth when the trunk and branches are flexible. Copper
wire of different thickness 1.65-2.76mm i.e 12-16 gauze is used for this purpose. After wiring
the plant must be put under shade to overcome the shock at least from a week or more.

General care:

 Watering: Less but frequent watering is preferable since the pot is shallow and small, in
summer some of the pots may require watering both in morning and evening. Even
bottom soaking can be done by dipping in a container filled with water.
 Manuring: Excess of manure may cause vigorous growth. Thus chemical fertilizers
should be avoided. The quantity of fertilizers should be sufficient enough to perform its
normal function without any extra growth.
 Defoliation: All leaves are removed from a tree to force a new branch of foliage. It
encourages new leaves of smaller sizes and gives a fresh look to the plant.
 Pinching: Leaf pinching is done with naroow scissors or with finger are very necessary
for bonsai. Shoot pruning is generally done in plants which are grown for flowering
beauty.

3.5 Post harvest aspect of cut flower and vase studies

All cut flower are actively respiring living beings once they are detached from the mother plants
they are also deprived from the continuously supply of the food materials of food reserves. It can
also say that they are separated from the food producing mechanisms of the plants. The harvested
flowers have to depends on the food and water reserves they have accumulated during the
growth to retain their physiological process. Many chemical changes and modification such as
softening, loss of freshness and rotting of cut flower occurs. Therefore post harvest operation of
cut flower right from harvesting to marketing must be best on this understanding in order to
maintain the freshness and quality of the cut flower.

Two distinct phase of physiology have been identifying flowers on view of their post harvest
handling:
  The stage of bud growth and development of flower to full opening
 The stage of maturation senescence and wilting. The extensions of the vase life of
cutflower actively involve the coordination of two processes. The promotion of growth in
the ist phase and the retardant of the senescence in the 2nd phase.

In post harvest aspects of cut flower first phase should be increased by

 Selection of species/cultivar for quality

 Harvesting: Harvesting is the techniques of detaching flower from the plant in a scientific
way using sterilized equipments. Harvesting should be preferably done in the evening.
Flower retain higher amount of stored carbohydrates, if harvesting is done in the
afternoon. Harvesting of cut flower should not be done at high temperature and high light
intensity. Cut flower should be cut with sharp tools and place immediately in water or in
floral preservatives solution. The angle of cut must be slanting and smooth to absorb
water freely through cut stems.

Post harvest handling chain of cut flowers.

The various post harvest techniques in cut flower can be illustrated as a chain of operation.

Conditioning of flower: Conditioning or hardening is a simple process where the flowers are
kept or made to stand loosely in big container of water so the air circulates around the main
stems. Conditioning is achieved by treating flowers with demineralized water supplemented with
germicides and acidified with citric acid to Ph 4.5-5.0. Flower stems should be placed in warm
water or in preservative solution in jar at depth of 2-4cm and held room temperature and storage
for several hours.

Pre-cooling: Packed or unpacked flowers have to be pre-cooled below storage or shipment.

Forced air cooling is most effective in removing the field heat from flowers. Pre-cooling is done
by forced air cooling or cooling to bring down the temperature to 1 c.

Pulsing: The absorption of chemical solution containing sugar and germicides through the
lower cut portion of flower stem is known as pulsing. This treatment should be performed under
temperature of 20-25 C at light intensity of 2000lux. Pulsing is of great value in prolonging life,
promoting, opening and improving colour and size of petals of cut flowers. Chemical for pulsing
different cut flowers are Eg Rose: sucrose 4-6 % for 12 hrs, gladiolus sucrose 20 % for 16 hours
or amino-oxy-acetic acid 100Mm for 10 minutes.

Impregnation: Impregnation of cut bases of flowers with high concentration of silver nitrate or
nickel chloride, or cobalt chloride for 10-15 minutes greatly improves longevity of several
flowers.
Grading: Damages or diseased blooms have to be discarded. Diseases flower will contaminate
others. Hence only good quality flower should be stored. Grading has done based on the size,
flower quality and also based on the standards recommended for various cut flowers.

Bunching: flowers should be bunched before storage and tying should be firm but not too tight.
If flowers are too tightly crowded in storage, mould growth is favored and rapid cooling is
retarded.

Wrapping; just before packing the flower in cartoons, flowers are wrapped individually in thin
polythene sleeves. Eg Anthuriums are wrapped individually in thin polythene covers.

Packing: Packing is done to protect flowers from physical damage, water loss and external
conditions during transport. Packing can take many forms from flowers cups up to sleeves,
boxes, bulk bins, and sea and air container. Corrugated card box provide cushion found to be
effective packing materials.

Cold Storage: low temperature treatment during storage of cut flower reduces the entire
metabolisms of the tissues, slows down the respiration, transpiration, ethylene production and
activities of fungi and bacteria. There are two types of storage namely

 Wet storage, where flowers are kept during storage with their bases in water for short
period and
 Dry storage, fresh flowers are harvested in the morning, graded and sealed in plastic bags
or boxes for longer period

In general temperate flowers for example roses , chrysanthemum, carnations are stored at 0-1 c
where as subtropical , gladioli, jasmines, glorisa and tropical anthuriums, cattleyas, vandas and
all other tropical orchids are stored at 4-7 c and 7-15c respectively. A 90-95% relative humidity
is necessary during storage to minimize the moisture loss and to prevent wilting.

Use of floral preservative: Floral preservatives usually contain water to maintain turgidity,
sugar as an energy source (sucrose), a biocide to inhibit growth of microorganism (silver nitrate,
8-hydroxy quinoline citrate) and an acidifying agent (citric acid) to reduce the pH to 3.0-3.5.

Unit 4. Introduction of nursery:

4.1 Definition of nursery

Nursery is a place where seedling /sapling, tree shrubs and other plant material are grown and
maintain until they are placed in permanent place.
Or
Nursery is a place in an orchard or a locating kept for growing handling and seedling of the
horticultural plants. Therefore nursery is a place where one can produce true to type plant by
gaining technical's skills, maintaining plants properly and by careful planning like orchard
establishment .Establishment nursery is permanent venture and any mistake made initially cannot
be full fill easily in the lateral stage.

4.2 Importance of nursery:

 The young plant can be easily maintained in the nursery.
 Propagation of plants by asexual means require specials skills and care of plant before
transport in the field which can be easily done in nursery.
 Many plants do not require response to direct sowing in the field.
 Cutting of different horticulture plants for rooting are first planted in the nursery for
better care and management.
 For hardening of seedling graft /layer nursery is a pre-treatment layer.

Type of nursery:
There are two types of nursery.
i) Home nursery.
ii) Commercial nursery.

i) Home nursery: It is a small area in the garden in which the plants are grown to meet the
demand growers own garden .The main objective of such nursery is to provide the quality
planting material .It is costly planting materials and are high quality.

2) Commercial nursery: The main aim of such nursery is to earn money on the investment.
Such nurseries have large area and costly nursery practices are usually avoided. Commercial
nursery also divided into two types.
a) Rural nursery: This type of nursery is located in village near some highway .The size of rural
nursery is large because land and labor is not a problem in rural area. The planting material such
nursery is sold out at a cheaper rate.

b) Urban nursery: This type of nursery is located in a town or a city .The size of nursery is
usually small because land is costly and not available .The planting material is also costly in that
type of nursery because the cost of releasing planting materials is high due to costly labour and
other management practices.

Nursery can be classified based on the business.

1) Whole sale nursery: In the whole sale nursery the plants are produce in large quantity mainly
to sell the retail nursery .This nursery are usually located rural area where the land and labour are
available at cheaper rate.
2) Retail nursery: The retail seller purchase plants from whole sale nursery and must be located
near the town or a city. These nurseries also kept goods like fertilizer, seeds, tool etc required for
raising the garden plants.

3) Landscape nursery: The landscape nursery should be located near a popular town because
urban people require the local scape plant for beautifying their house.

4) Mail order nursery:

It is a specialized whole sale nursery it depends primarily on a catalogue display of the stock
for sell. Customer order from the catalogue and receives the plant through mail or parcel price.

5) Agency nursery: The agency nursery sells its stock agent or sell represented in number.

4.4 Status of nursery in Nepal:

The floriculture production in Nepal fulfills around 90% of national demand and rest is met by
important. The floriculture enterprise in developed during the last 19 years from a very limited
number of established nursery in an around the Kathmandu valley. Today there are large
numbers of nursery men. Seriously involve in this business specially in the major urban areas of
Nepal like Chitwan , pokhara , Dhading , Janakpur and so on . In the ornamental plants has not at
been met .Thus the floriculture produce lies within the country.
In general both the agrotechnic and quality of the product are poor. The nursery man donot
follow proper technique in the production of ornamental plant which is basically done on the
basis of size of the plant. Majority of nursery produce indoor plant, ornamental shrubs and cut
flower also. Seeds for seasonal flower are important from Japan, Holland, and Netherland,
Denmark etc.
Majority of Nepalese nursery man are non technical profession however about 12% of them
hence had certified to diploma degree in agriculture and forestry .The main consumer of flower
product in Nepal are hotel ,hospital and general consumer .Some of the important item for sale in
Nepal are cut flower ,cut foliage ,potted plants ,indoor plant ,bonsai etc some of the attempts to
exports flower produce in the Bangladesh ,India etc .

Some facts 2011/2012

Hotel -60 -70 billion
Nepal - 2000 million
Number of nursery in Nepal - 635
Number of cut flower whole sale - 6
Number of cut flower grower -
Export = 11.2 million
Major cut flower grown in Nepal =
Rose , gladiolus, the mum , carnation, drayman etc
Unit: 5...Nursery media
For propagation of plants either by vegetative or sexual methods several media are used. The
media used should have the following characteristics:

5.1 Characteristics:

I. The media must be sufficiently firm so as to facilitate the holding of seeds or cuttings in
place.
II. It should not shrink excessively when dry i.e. its volume should be constant when dry or
wet.
III. In order to avoid watering at frequent intervals, the medium should be fairly retentive of
moisture.
IV. It should be porous enough to permit aeration and drain out excess moisture.
V. It must be free from weed seeds, nematodes and various pathogens.
VI. It should be free of high concentration of salts
VII. It should be capable of being steam pasteurized or chemically treated without harmful
effects.
VIII. It should be of consistent quality from batch to batch.
IX. It should be readily available and of acceptable cost.
X. The medium should have a PH level suitable for the plant to be propagated.

5.2 Properties and use of media:

Soil: Generally speaking soil containing more than 35% of clay is unsuitable for growing plants.
Loam soil is best which contains 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% cent clay, sandy loam contains
about 15% clay while clayed loam has about 30% clay soil alone is seldom used as a medium for
growing plants. It is usually mixed with farm yard manure / compost with varying proportion.

Sand: Sand varies is size (0.05 to 2 mm in diameter) and shape. Permeability and porosity of
sand medium are related to the size and shape of sand grains. Sand contains practically no
mineral nutrient. Quartz sand comprising mainly silica is most suitable for propagation purpose.
Commercially sand is available in various grades and sizes. Usually the type of sand used for
plastering is most suitable for propagation of plants by cuttings sand should be washed,
fumigated or heat treated before use to kill micro organism.

Vermiculite: A expanded micaceous material which is spongy, porous and light in weight (90-
150 kg per cubic meter). Chemically it is a hydrated magnesium aluminum iron silicate. It is
neutral in reaction with good buffering properties and insoluble in Water. It is able to absorb
large quantities of water 40-54 liters per cubic meter. It has a relatively high cation exchange
capacity and thus can hold nutrients in reserve for later release. It contains magnesium and
potassium. Vermiculite is graded into four types, depending on the particle size. No 1 grade
containing particles of 5-8 mm dia, No. 2 grade from 2-3 mm, No 3 grade from 1-2 mm and No
4 grade from 0.75 mm to 1 mm in diameter No 2 grade is known as a horticultural grade.

There are certain disadvantages of vermiculite. They are very flaky stick to the hand of workers
and to the surface of tools when saturated. When saturated, holds too much water for the
development of normal seedling of certain species. Not durable as sand and perlite, can be easily
compressed and breaks apart when handled in a wet condition.

Sphagnum Moss: Commercial sphagnum moss is the dehydrated young residue or living plants
of acid bog algal plants in the genus sphagnum such as S. papillosum, S. capaillaceum and S.
palustre. It is relatively sterile (pathogen free), light in weight and has a very high water holding
capacity being able to absorb 10-20 times its weight of water. It contains small amounts of
minerals, has a PH of about 3.5 to 4, may contain specific fungi static substances, including a
strain of streptomycin bacteria, which can inhibit damping off of seedlings. The material is
generally shredded by hand or mechanically before it is used in a propagating or growing media.

Compost: It is the product produce from the biological decomposition of bulk, organic wastage,
under control cultivation which takes place in pits, bin. Compost prepared largely from leaves
may have high soluble salt contain which will inhibits plant growth. Compost is not only organic
matter but nearly all the essential treatment and a large percentage of major elements needed by
plants in a slowly available form. The usually recommended rate is the compost not more than
30% of the volume of the mix.

Mixture for container growing:

After the appropriate potting mixture has been determine the next step is to pit the plant. There
are different types of container used in propagation. Such as propagation block, flates, clay pot,
plastic pot, fibre pot, polythene bag, wood container etc. now a day consumers towards the
container growing then the open ground production because container grown plants give the
instant effect as well as planting at any time of the year. Nursery man is now widely adopting the
techniques plants in container. The containers growing have the following advantage.

 Such plant are not frequently damage during and long distance transport
 Fruit plants and ornamental plants which require greater care and management are highly
suitable for growing in container
 Container used for raising of plants can be reused
 Most of the container have higher durability
 The mortality rate of container grown plant is very less
 Plant in container look attractive and helps to phase good price in the market.
  Unit 6...Nursery container
 6.1 Clay pot:
 Familiar red clay pot, clay flower pot is long used for growing young plant, heavy porous
and less moisture readily. Easily broken and rarely used in commercial production. After
continue used there is accumulation of toxic salt, require cooking in water before reused
and be steam sterilizer.
 6.2 Plastic pot:
 Very popular for rooting cutting, seedling production and tissue culture, plantlets
acclimatization has more advantage. They are non-porous, non usable, light as well. Each
container is divided in to a number a number of separate units, once rooted the cutting
can be pushed out by applying pressure to the base of each unit.
 Plastic pot can not be steam sterilize but some of the plant pathogen can be eliminated
by a hot water deep (70 C) for 3 minutes without damage to the plastic.
 6.3 Polythene bags:
 Small polythene bags with holes in the bottom for drainage may be filled with a porous
rooting media and placed in the propagating bench. Polythene bags are widely used
Europe, Australia, and almost all over the world. They are considerable less expensive
then the plastic container. They are usually in black color but some are black on the
inside and light color on the outside.
 Unit 7. Nursery structure
 7.1 Hot bed:
 A hot bed consists of three parts, the frame, the cover and the heating system. In general,
the frame is made of wood, steel, aluminum or concrete. The frame may extend 30-45cm
above the surface of the ground on the backside and 15-30cm in the front, thus giving a
slope. The cover is made of glass or plastics. Hot beds are heated artificially below the
propagating medium by adopting different heating systems like hot air, hot water and
electricity. Thermostatically regulated electrical heating system provides a precise control
of temperature. Hot beds are used for propagating cuttings and sowing of seeds in the
cold season.
 7.2 Green house:

 A green house is a framed structure with polythene or glass cover in which crops could
be grown under controlled environment and which is generally large enough to permit a
person to work within it to carryout cultural operation easily. In a green house suitable
growing conditions are created as per requirement of the plant species, varieties, which
suit them best. There is various types of green houses however they can be mainly
grouped in three. They are span type, three fourth span types and lean to type. Green
houses are heated by hot water or by steam or direct heating by electricity. Thermostat is
also used to regulate the heating system, which can be set for required temperature and
time. Maximum and minimum thermometer is also there to note down the temperature.
There are also ventilators to regulate the temperature, to freshen and dry the air. In a
green house there are three ventilators at the top (near ridge bar) in the middle (at the
 staging level) and at the lower side (beneath the staging level) the order in which the
ventilators are opened is top vents first then side and then the lower one. To note down
the relative humidity, there is wet and dry bulb thermometer or hygrometer.

 7.3 Plastic Tunnel:

 A plastic house is a framed structure with UV stabilized low density polythene or other
transparent plastic film in which plants could be grown under controlled condition (Green
house) or partially controlled environment. The plastic house may be.

 7.3.1 Low Tunnel Type: Very small sized polythene/plastic house used for raising
nursery plant. One meter wide, less than one meter in height and of convenient length
(generally of five meters)

 7.3.2 House type: Bigger in size where a person can work within to carryout
cultural operation easily. Two meter wide, 1.75-2.25 meter in height and 25
meter in length.

 7.3.4 Pit type: The structure is made under ground 5' width, 3' depth and of convenient
length. In extreme cold condition to protect the plants against snow and cold wind during
winter. such pit type plastic house are made.




Unit.8…Propagation from seeds

8.1 Merits:
 It is easier and cheaper method then asexual method.
 Sexually raised plants are long life, extensive root system as compared to the asexually
propagation
 Some important plants do not response well in sexual means and are generally
propagated by seeds.
 Hybrids are developed easily from seeds.
 Seedlings are mostly free from virus and disease.
 Seed can be kept for longer duration for further use.
 Occasionally sexual propagation may lead to the production of chance seedling.

Demerits:
 Most of plants are heterozygous in nature or we can not get true to the mother plant.
 Plant raised from seed take longer time to come an bearing.
  Plants are generally tall and spreading type so it is difficult to intercultural operation.
 Some seeds loose their viability very soon.
 The fruit obtained from seedling trees are lower category.

8.3 Seed: Germination and viability

A seed consist of an embryo and its stored food supply (endosperm) surrounded by protective
seed covering.
The process of seed germination starts with the imbibition of water by seed coat and
emergence of growing root tips of embryo. It ends when the embryo has developed in to a
seedling which is out of bounds of seed coat.
The water that is imbibed during germination softens the seed coverings and causes hydration
of protoplast. Enzymes become active now and begin to digest reserve substances like fats,
proteins and carbohydrates in the storage tissues such as cotyledons, endosperm to simplier
substances. These compounds are then translocated to the growing points of the embryonic axis
to be used for growth and the production of new plant parts.
The initial growth of the seedling follows one of the two patterns. In the first type; epigeous
germination, the hypocotyls elongates and raise the cotyledons above the ground. In the second
type, the hypogeous germination, the lengthening of the hypocotyls does not raise the cotyledons
above the ground and only the epicotyls emerge.

There are four environmental factors which affect germination: water, oxygen, light, and heat.

1. Water: The first step in the seed germination process is the absorption of water. Even though
seeds have great absorbing power due to the nature of the seed coat, the amount of available
water in the germination medium affects the uptake of water. An adequate, continuous supply of
water is important to ensure seed germination. Once the seed germination process has begun, a
dry period will cause the death of the embryo.

2. Light: Light is known to stimulate or inhibit germination of some seed. The light reaction
involved here is a complex process. Some crops which have a requirement for light to assist seed
germination are Ageratum, Begonia, Browallia, Impatiens, Lettuce, and Petunia. Conversely,
Calendula, Centaurea, annual Phlox, Verbena, and Vinca germinate best in the dark.
Supplemental light can also be provided by fluorescent fixtures suspended 6 to 12 inches above
the seeds for 16 hours a day.

3. Oxygen: Respiration takes place in all viable seeds. The respiration in dormant seed is low,
but some oxygen is still required. The respiration rate increases during germination, therefore,
the medium in which the seeds are placed should be loose and well-aerated. If the oxygen supply
during germination is limited or reduced, germination can be severely retarded or inhibited.

4. Heat: Favorable temperature is another important requirement for germination. It not only
affects the germination percentage but also the rate of germination. Some seeds germinate over a
wide range of temperatures, whereas others require a narrow range. Many seed have minimum,
maximum, and optimum temperatures at which they germinate. Generally, 18o to 24oCelsius
Temperature is the best for germination of many plant seeds.

Seed viability:

Seed viability means the presence of life in the embryo, while longevity refers to the length of
time up to which the seeds will retain their viability. Viability can be tested by germination test,
excised embryo test and tetrazolium test. Among them, the tetrazolium test is more reliable and
easy to do. One percent aqueous solution of 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride ( pH 6-7) is
taken in a petridish and water soaked seeds are placed in it and kept in dark, warm place. A
viable seed takes red colored strain while a non-viable seeds remain colorless.

8.4 Seed dormancy:

In certain case the seeds do not germinate rapidly, seed remains suspended and they are said to
be rest stage even when they are provided with all conditions required for germination. Such
seeds are known as dormancy of seeds; the dormant seeds do not germinate because of any
conditions associated either with the seeds itself or with existing environmental factors such as
temperature and moisture.

Causes of seed dormancy:

1. Physical cause of dormancy:

 Due to hard seed coat.
 Due to seed coat impregnated with waxy materials.
 Due to the seed coat impermeable to water and oxygen
 Due to the mechanical resistant to embryo enlargement.
2. Physiological cause of dormancy:
 Due to the presence of germination inhibitors in the seed like ABA, Phenolics, alkaloids
etc.
  Due to the partial development of embryo in seed
 Due to the physiologically immature embryo in seed.

Breaking seed dormancy:

1. Seed Scarification:

Seed scarification involves breaking, scratching, or softening the seed coat so that water can
enter to stimulate the seed germination process. There are several methods of scarifying seeds. In
acid scarification, seeds are put in a glass container and covered with concentrated sulfuric acid.
The seeds are gently stirred and allowed to soak from 10 minutes to several hours, depending on
the hardness of the seed coat. When the seed coat becomes loose, the seeds can be removed,
washed, and planted. Another scarification method is mechanical. Seeds are filed with a metal
file, rubbed with sandpaper, or cracked with a hammer to weaken the seed coat. Hot water
scarification involves putting the seed into hot water at a temperature of 75o to 100oCelsius.

2. Seed Stratification:

Seeds of some trees and shrubs of the temperate zone do not germinate unless they are exposed
to chilling temperatures. This can be accomplished artificially by a practice called stratification.
The following procedure is usually successful. Put sand or vermiculite in a clay pot to about 2-3
cm from the top. Place the seeds on top of the medium and cover with 1 cm of sand or
vermiculite. Wet the medium thoroughly and allow excess water to drain through the hole in the
pot. Place the pot containing the moist medium and seeds in a plastic bag and seal. Place the bag
in a refrigerator. Periodically check to see that the medium is moist, but not wet. Additional
water will probably not be necessary. After 10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag from the refrigerator.
Take the pot out and set it in a warm place in the house. Water often enough to keep the medium
moist. When the young plants are about 5-7 cm tall, transplant them into pots to grow until time
for setting out seeds.

3. Alternating temperature: Dormancy of positively photoblastic seeds can be overcome

by alternating the temperature of 15 C and 25 C.

4. Light: The dormancy of positively photoblastic seeds can be broken by exposing them
to red or white light.

5. Germination stimulating compounds: Seed treated with kinetic, gibberellins, potassium

nitrate, thiourea, ethylene etc, induce germination.

8.6 Preparation of seed bed:

Raised beds are generally constructed for raising seedling. It is always better to construct bed
with side walls made of brick. For annuals, vegetables and herbaceous plants, the beds may be of
6mx1.5mx30cm in size. Seedling of trees and shrubs may be raised on similar raised bed or in
bed of greater depth. A shallow groove can be made on the upper surface of the brick- work for
spreading insecticides to repal ants etc. before filling the bed with soil, a layer of sand (15cm)
should be placed as drainage layer. But in tree seedling beds, a layer (15cm) of bricks, bats (2cm
diameter) followed by a layer (15cm) of coarse sand should be placed. Rest to be filled up with
the compost consisting of 2 parts loamy soil, and one part each of sand and leaf mould. For
protected tender seedling from scorching, arrangements of shade should be made over the beds,
either by polythene tunnels or by dry grasses.

8.7 Seed bed treatment and sowing:

The soil contains millions of different kinds of microorganisms, many of these are helpful to the
plant, but some are diseases causing. To obtain diseases free nursery mix, it should be often
sterilized, either with the use of heat or chemicals. Different treatment are follows foe seed bed
treatment.
 Burning straw on the top of the seed bed: This method thoroughly sterilizes the thin
top layer of the seed bed, often to not more than 5cm deep. The deeper layers are not
sterilized; thus the soil should not be disturbed after sterilization. Raw heat may cause the
loss of nitrogen or convert this into toxic ammonia. To avoid toxic effects, the seedbed
should not be used immediately after sterilization.
 Solarization: This is done by covering the seed bed with transparent plastic sheets for
three weeks. The heat of the sun increases the temperature of the soil by killing
pathogenic microorganisms and weed seeds. To avoid the harmful effects as toxic
chemicals which may released during heat sterilization, the sterilized soil should not be
used immediately after sterilization.
 Use of sub soil: Sub soil is used when the soil sterilization can not be done. Sub soil is
relatively sterile and used in soil mix too. The soil is obtained from the depth of 1m.
 Hot plate sterilization: The soil does not come in direct contact with the fire and thus
exposed to lower temperature. The soil mix is moistened; so that the steam generated by
the heated soil serves as the sterliant in addition to the effect of plate. The soil is
constantly stirres to ensure even heating. Sterilization completed when the soil in has
dried up

Seed selected for sowing in plastic portrays and bed must be generally true to type and of good
quality (high germination above 95%) and do not contain of other cultivars or weed seeds etc.
seeds are usually planted/sown at a shallow depth after pressing the media with finger in a gentle
way into the potting plugs or cells which are filled with artificial media. The actual depth of
sowing depends on the crop and the size of seeds. After sowing the seeds a thick layer of
vermiculite is given to cover the seeds for better germination as this media is having water
holding capacity. After sowing of seeds in portray are kept in the germination room at optimum
required temperature for early and better germination. Sowing seeds in beds can be done using
different methods such as broadcasting, drilling or line sowing.

8.8 Care and maintenance of seedling:

1. Hardening off: This is a process in which seedling due to be planted in the near future
are hardened off or conditioned for survival in the field by gradually reducing water,
shade, shelter etc to with stand the harsh condition of the nursery plantation.
2. Nutrition: Proper nutrition has profound influences on the growth of nursery plants,
liberal manuring with well decomposed organic in nursery business. A light and frequent
dose of nitrogenous fertilizers at the rate of 25 kg per ha may be applied to obtain quick
growing seedling.
3. Weeding: Weeds posses’ severe threat to the young seedlings in the nursery bed. Weeds
being wild in the nature grow vigorously and get established earlier than the crop plant.
Often the seedlings are crowded over by the weeds if they are not controlled initially. The
nursery bed should be kept free from weeds by shallow hoeing. This also helps in better
aeration of the soils. The roads and irrigation channel also should be made free from
weeds to avoid the chances of spread of weed seeds.
4. Shading: Nursery beds may be provided with a shade of thatch, mats, split bamboo,
polythene or tin sheets etc. erected on temporary or permanent structures such as
wooden/concrete posts in permanent nurseries a shade of polythene, canvas, tin, cement
sheets etc, may be supported on permanent structure.
5. Irrigation: It is necessary for the proper growth and well being of the nursery plants; a
light irrigation is needed even for the hardiest species. The best time for watering nursery
beds in early in the morning where frost or damping off is feared or late in the afternoon.
Polythene bags containing plants should be adequately watered.
6. Lifting of seedling: It is desirable to lift the plants with ball of earth intact while the
deciduous plants can be lifted bare-rooted during dormant condition. Light irrigation
should be given, if required before lifting the seedlings.
7. Protection against pests and diseases: The reputation of nursery depends on the supply
of genuine, healthy and diseases free plants. Once the seedlings are affected by pest and
or diseases, their growth is arrested and they turn pale and weak. The tender seedling are
susceptible to various pests and diseases but the degree of susceptibility varies with
species and age of seedlings. These are to be controlled by application of insecticides and
fungicides.

8. Clipping, Cutting: To give proper shape in the nursery plants regulate clipping and
shearing of plants is very important, it makes them healthy and attractive.
 9. Defoliation: It is the practices of removing the dry leaves of plant. It reduces water losses
takes place to transplant.

10. Pinching: Pinching involves the removal of growing points of shoots of a plant along
with some induce bushy growth.
11. Mulching: It is the practices placing some materials in a nursery or container.

8.9 Packaging and marketing:

The type of packing depends on the size of stock and type of plants. The transplants lifted
bare rooted are packed with their roots in moist sphagnum moss and wrapped with moist
paper. The ball of earth is wrapped with coconut leaves or rice straw and packed in basket.

Marketing:
Marketing of the commodities has been a problem in Nepal because there is no proper
marketing channel for marketing nursery plants. When one has produced the plant these are
to be sold. Nursery man sometimes get good price in the market but not always because the
price depends upon the supply and demand. If the supply of the commodities is high it is
likely to give fewer prices to the grower in the market. However nursery man should give
emphasis on quality materials, uniform size attractive packing materials free from insect pest
etc. to get higher price for his plant materials.

Unit 9.Vegetative Propagation

9.2 Method of Propagation

9.2.1 Cutting

Advantage:

 It is simple and cheap

 Much technical skill is not required
 Economical and rapid multiplication is possible wit with in short period of time
 Plant are uniform not much genetic changing
 Much space is not required

Disadvantage:

 The desirable benefit on single variety cannot be exploited

 Root system is poor
  Short life time then seed propagation.

Anatomical and physiological basis:

In propagation through cutting it’s highly essential that proper root and shoot system should
develop. In fact regeneration of a plant part in to an entire plant structure basically depends on
two fundamental properly of a plant cell. One is to totipotency and second is differentiation. The
roots may be developing stem roots leaf cutting but they all have internal origin in their parents’
structure. Thus internal origin of root is called endogenous and is found in most of the plant
species. Adventurous root and shoot usually arise within the stem near vascular tissues and
outside the cambium. It depends upon species because entirely different structure of the stem:
callus formation and rooting, present of performed root initiation, stem structure and rooting of
the major anatomical basis of rooting. Many physiological factors more often are related to
rooting of cutting these are:

 Hormonal factor: Various PGRs such as IBA, NAA, and ABA influence rooting of
cutting however of these Auxin are non to have greatest effect on root formation in the
cutting
 Role of vitamin: Endogenous optimum level or exogenous application of vitamin
promote root initiation process in the cutting, thiamine, niacin, etc stimulate the rooting
process.
 Presence of buds and leaf: The leaf produce carbohydrates which are translocated down
ward in the base of stem where it promotes root initiation. Similarly leaf and buds are
powerful Auxin produce.
 Rooting co-factor: Many rooting co-factor have been isolated from cutting different
plants this co-factor are naturally occurring substances and act synergistically auxin
(IAA) for root formation of cutting.
 Indigenous rooting inhibitors: In addition to root promoting substances certain indigenous
root inhibiting substances are also present in some plants species and they play the
important role rooting of cutting.

Different techniques:

Stem Cuttings: Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings. Some can be
propagated any time of the year, but stem cuttings of many woody plants must be taken in their
dormant season.
a) Hard wood cutting: Most of the plants are propagated by this method. Hard wood cutting
should be about 12-20 cm long with at least 2-3 nodes. Basal end of the cutting should be
slanting and just below the basal nodes while the top cut end should be straight and 2-3
cm above the last nodes. It is planted straightly or slantingly keeping about 3/4 th of the
length buried.
b) Semi-hard wood cutting: It is generally from evergreen species during summer from new
shoots just fluish or growth has taken place and the wood is partially mature.
 c) Soft wood cutting: It is also known as green wood cutting; these cutting are taken from
woody plants prior to lignifications when tissues are still relatively soft.
d) Herbaceous cutting: Cutting made from herbaceous plants such as Geranium,
chrysanthemum etc.

Root Cuttings: Root cuttings are usually taken from 2 to 3 year old plants when they have a
large carbohydrate supply in their dormant season. Root cuttings of some species produce new
shoots that form their own root systems, while root cuttings of other plants develop root systems
before producing new shoots. It may be made from true roots of any plant species. Root cutting
of about 10-25 cm long is planted horizontally in the soil and the adventous buds will sprout to
produce.

Leaf Sections: This method is frequently used with snake plant and fibrous rooted begonias. Cut
begonia leaves into wedges with at least one vein. Lay leaves flat on the medium. A new plant
will grow at the vein. Cut snake plant leaves into 5cm sections. The lower cut is slanted and the
upper cut to identify the top. Insert the cutting vertically. Roots will form fairly soon, and
eventually a new plant will appear at the base of the cutting. These cuttings will rot if kept too
moist.
Leaf Cuttings: Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few indoor plants. Leaves of most
plants cannot be used for propagation.

 Whole leaf with Petiole: Detach the leaf and 0.50 to 1.50 inches of petiole. Insert the
lower end of the petiole into the medium. One or more new plants will form at the base of
the petiole. The leaf may be cut off from the new plants when they have their own roots.
The petiole can be reused.
 Whole Leaf without Petiole: This is used for plants with sessile leaves. Insert the cutting
vertically into the medium. A new plant will arise from the auxiliary bud. The leaf may
be removed when the new plant has its own roots.

Tip Cuttings: Detach a 2 to 6 inch piece of stem, including the terminal bud. Make the cut just
below a node. Remove lower leaves. Dip the stem in rooting hormone. Gently tap the end of the
cutting to remove excess hormone. Insert the cutting deep enough into the media to support it. At
least one node must be below the surface, e.g. Coleus, Carnation, etc.

Medial Cuttings: Make the first cut just above a node and the second cut just below a node 2 to
6 inches down the stem. Prepare and insert the cutting as you would insert a tip cutting. Be sure
to position the cutting with the correct side up. The correct side can be inferred with the help of
the axial buds which are always situated above the leaves.

Cane Cuttings: Cut cane-like stems into sections containing one or two eyes or nodes. Lay
horizontally with about half of the cutting below the media surface with the eye facing upward.
Cane cuttings are usually potted when roots and new shoots appear, but new shoots from
dracaena and croton are often cut off and re-rooted in sand.

9.2.2 Layering:
Layering is the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the mother plant in all
forms of layering, the rooted branches is removed from the parent plant when enough roots have
formed to enable it to lead an independent existence.

Advantage:
 It is easy to perform
 Any clone which cannot be easily rooted by stem cutting any be made to through layers
 Desired size of plants (big or small) can be obtained by layering.

Disadvantage:
 Layering is limited to certain types of plant which produces low-layering branches
 Number of new plants which can be produced by layering from mother stock plant is low
as compared to cutting
 Although the operation is simple after care of it is essential which require daily watering
to maintain a very good growth.
 Special plants forms have to be erected special provisions have been made for constant
watering of the layers shoots in case, where branches or shoots at high level are to be
layered.

Physiological basis:

Layering is an important method of propagating clonal materials. It is very much akin to cutting
except that the branch is not severed from its branched tree until the new roots have developed.
In this case there are greater chances to success because the shoot is allowed to grow on the tree
until the new roots have been formed and established in the soil. The physiological reasons for
girdling the shoot below the leaf bud is that rooting substances Rhizocaline, always moves
downward through the bark and is therefore checked by this process. It accumulates at the upper
rim of the girdle near the lowest bud and thus helps in the formation of a callus and then of
fibrous roots. Further it has also been reported that if the upper rim of the girdle is treated with
hetero-Auxins, the number of roots increased thereby raising the percentage of success. Such
hormone applied to the upper rim of the girdle either in the form of power or as paste prepared
by mixing them with lanolin.

Technique of layering:

1. Ground layering: In this method the rooting of layers takes place in the ground media in pot
containing any rooting media.

 Tip Layering: Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep. Insert the shoot tip and cover it with soil.
The tip grows downward first, then bends sharply and grows upward. Roots form at the
bend and the recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip layer and plant it in
monsoon. This method is successful with purple and black raspberries and trailing
blackberries.
 Simple Layering: Bend the stem to the ground. Cover part of it with soil, leaving the last
6 to 12 inches exposed. Bend the tip into a vertical position and stake in place. The sharp
 bend will often induce rooting, but wounding the lower side of the branch or loosening
the bark by twisting the stem may help. This method is successful with plants like the
Rhododendron and Honeysuckle.

 Compound Layering: This method works for plants with flexible stems. Bend the stem
to the rooting medium as with simple layering, but alternately cover and expose stem
sections. Wound the lower side of the stem sections to be covered. This method is
successful with heart-leaf philodendron and pothos.

 Mound (Stool) Layering: Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the ground in the dormant
season. Mound soil over the emerging shoots in spring to enhance their rooting. This
method is successful with gooseberries and apple rootstocks

2. Air layering: Air layering is used to propagate some indoor plants with thick stems or to
rejuvenate them when they become leggy. Slit the stem just below a node (2.5-3.0 inch).
Surround the wound with wet sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic paper around the sphagnum moss
and tie it in place. When roots are penetrate the moss, cut the plant off below the root ball. Use
this method for croton, rubber tree etc.

9.2.3 Grafting and budding:

It is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant in to an or placing it upon another in
such a way that a union will be formed and the combination will continue to grow as one plan.
The grafting contains the upper portion termed as Scion and the lower portion called root stock.

Advantage for grafting and budding:

 Plant propagated on their own roots may be weak, susceptible to pest and diseases, or to
any adverse environments condition or not adoptable to a particular soil or climate. For
many plant species rootstock are available which tolerate all the above cases and hence
they may be exploited as a rootstock through grafting or budding.
 For converting poor trees in to more desirable ones by top working.
 For overcoming pollination problems, self fertile varieties may be grafted over self-sterile
trees
 For fancy purposes, different types of scion may be grafted in the same plant.
 To modify the growth of the plant as dwarf one by employing suitable dwarfing
rootstock.
 Occasionally the roots, trunk or large limbs of trees are severely damaged by winter
injury, cultivation implements, central diseases or rodents. But use of bridge grafting or
inarching, such damage can be repaired and the tree saved.

Disadvantage:
 One of the requirements for a successful graft union is the close matching of the callus-
producing tissues near the cambium layers.
 Grafting is generally confined to dicotyledons.
  These plants have vascular cambial layer existing as a continuous tissues between the
xylem and phloem.
 For grafting and budding, it should be borne in mind that the plants to be combined are
capable of uniting.
 Generally the more closely the plants to be grafted are related botanically, the more
favorable is the chances of the graft union being successful.

Physiological basis:

Different techniques:

 Whip or Tongue Grafting: This method is often used for material 0.25 to 0.50 inch in
diameter. The scion and rootstock is usually the same diameter, but the scion may be
narrower than the stock. Make a single 2.50 inch sloping cut at the top of the rootstock
and a matching cut on the bottom of the scion. On the cut surface, slice downward into
the stock and upward into the scion so the pieces will interlock. Fit the pieces together;
then tie and wax the union.

 Cleft Grafting: Cleft grafting is often used to change the cultivar or top growth of a
shoot or a young tree. Collect scion pieces 3 to 5 inches long that have one or two buds.
Cut the limb or small tree trunk to be reworked perpendicular to its length. Make a 2 inch
vertical cut through the center of the previous cut, being careful not to tear the bark and
keep this cut wedged apart. Cut the lower end of each scion piece into a wedge.
Prepare two scion pieces 3 to 4 inches long and insert the scions at the outer edges of the
cut in the stock. Tilt the top of the scion slightly outward and the bottom slightly inward
to be sure the cambial layers of the scion and stock touch. Remove the wedge propping
the slit open and cover all cut surfaces with plastic paper.

 Bark Grafting: Bark grafting can be used on large limbs. Collect scion wood about 0.50
inches in diameter when the plant is dormant; store the wood wrapped in moist paper in a
plastic bag in the refrigerator. Saw off the limb or trunk of the rootstock at a right angle
to itself. In Monsoon when the bark is easy to separate from the wood, make a 0.50 inch
diagonal cut on one side of the scion and a 1.50 inch diagonal cut on the other side. Leave
two buds above the longer cut. Make a cut a little wider than the scion through the bark
of the stock and remove the top third of the bark from this cut. Insert the scion with the
longer cut against the wood and nail the graft in place with flat headed wire nails. Cover
all wounds with aluminum foil and clear polyethylene plastic.

 Inarching: In this method the root stock are taken to the branches of a mother tree used
for scion and are allowed to join without detaching scion from the mother plant.

 Veneer grafting: In this method slanting cut or incison is made by removing a flip of
bark along with wood on stock and on the bottom of the scion slanting cut is made from
both sides and then attached to stock.
Budding:
The process of attaching pieces of bark consisting of bud to the stock for regenerating new plants
is termed as budding.

Different techniques:

It is also practiced various methods among them important are briefly discussed below:

Patch Budding: Remove a rectangular piece of bark from the rootstock. Cover this wound with
a bud and matching piece of bark from the scion. If the bark of the rootstock is thicker than that
of the scion, pare it down to meet the thinner bark so that when the union is wrapped the patch
will be held firmly in place.

Chip Budding: Slice downward into the rootstock at a 45° angle through 0.25 inch of the wood.
Make a second cut about 1 inch long upward from the first cut. Remove a bud and attending chip
of bark and wood from the scion, shaped so that it fits the rootstock wound. Fit the bud chip to
the stock and wrap the union with a polythene strip.

T-Budding: When the bark is slipping, make a vertical cut through the bark of the rootstock
while avoiding any buds on the stock. Make a horizontal cut at the top of the vertical cut (in a T-
shape) and loosen the bark by twisting the knife at the intersection. Remove a shield-shaped
piece of the scion, including a bud, some bark and a thin section of wood. Push the shield under
the loosened stock bark and wrap the union, leaving the bud exposed.

Ring budding: The bud is prepared by taking a ring of bark 3.0 cm in length with the bud in the
center. In the rootstock, two circular cuts 1.5cm a part are made and these are connected with a
vertical cut and the ring of bark is removed. The prepared scion bud with the ring of bark is fitted
in the exposed portion of the rootstock and tied as usual.

Flute budding: This exactly same as ring budding, the difference being that the ringed bark can
be removed easily in the form of a flute. Here the stock plant is topped off at 25cm height and at
the top about 2.5 to 3.0cm of bark is removed leaving the wood exposed. The bud in the form of
a flute is then lifted in the rootstock and scion exactly be same otherwise the contact between
them will not proper.

Unit 10: Meaning and concept of mist and micro propagation

Micro-Propagation:

Micro-propagation means propagation of plants from very small plant parts called as explants
(piece of plant may be cell, tissue, or even organ), tissue grown aseptically in the test tube or
container under controlled nutritional and environmental conditions. In vitro plantlets, which are
free of pathogens, are used as initial material in such propagation programs. The methods used in
these micro propagation programs mainly depend on their production volume and the available
infrastructure.

The various application of micro propagation are as follows:

 Rapid rate of multiplication of plant clonally
 Production of diseases free and diseases resistant plants.
 Production of haploid through anther culture
 Nitrogen fixation.
 Wide hybridization through excised embryo and ovule culture.

Limitation:
 The facilities required are very costly, it needs technical skill manpower.
 Establishment of laboratory raised plants in the field is very difficult task.

Procedure of Micro Propagation

1. Sterilize Petri dishes and prepare the laminar flow chamber by disinfecting the internal
surfaces with alcohol. Sterilize the tools with an instrument sterilizer and place them on a sterile
dish.

2. Open the tube, take off the plantlet and place it on a Petri dish with the help of Forceps.

3. Remove the leaves and cut the nodes.

4. Open a tube containing fresh sterile medium and place a node inside, trying to plunge it
slightly into the medium with the bud up. Close the tube.

5. Seal the tube with a gas-permeable plastic tape and label it correctly. It is recommended to
place two explants in 16 x 125 mm tubes, three in 18 x 150 mm tubes, five in 25 x 150 mm
tubes, and 20-30 in magenta vessels.

Micro propagation by using explants

Concept of mist propagation:

The rooting soft wood leafy cutting under spray or mist technique widely used in a nursery men
and other plant propagators throughout the world. A method of propagation water is
continuously sprayed in the form of mist to leafy cutting/ herbaceous cutting in rooting stage to
reduce water loss through transpiration. The aim of misting is to maintain continuously film of
water on the leaves thus reducing transpiration and keeping the cutting turgid until rooting takes
place. Mist also prevents diseases infection in cutting by way of washing of fungal spore before
they attack the tissues. While the leaves in this process must be kept continuously moist but its
important that only minimum water should be used because excessive water leach out nutrients.
Mist propagation unit are especially for propagation difficult root species and herbaceous
cutting. The optimum pH of water to be used in mist unit 5.5-6.5. Alkaline water blocks the
nozzles and inhibits growth of roots similarly development of blue and green algae growth is
very common in mist propagation. After rooting in the mist hardening of rooted cutting is
important for better success in the yield.
Unit 11.Care and maintenance of a sexually propagated plants:
11.1 Transfer to containers and nursery bed:

A small trench is dug at one end of the germination bed. The first row of plants is then pushed
in to the trench along with a mound of soil with the help of a shovel. Thus the plants are
dislodged from the nursery bed with out damaging the root system. The transplanted beds are
watered immediately after the plants have been transplanted in them. The nursery stock may be
planted out in the field, either with naked roots or in containers. The various types of container or
brick that may be used are:

 Polythene bags: These comprise of cylindrical tubes made of polythene. A mixture of

FYM and fine soil in the ratio of 1:1 is filled in these bags and seedling placed them.
 Basket: Basket made of bamboo strips or tamarix are used as plant container. While
transplanting they may buried in the pit together with the seedling.
 Earthen pot: They are made of burnt porous clay in various sizes to provide requisite
amount of soil and root space to different kinds and sizes of plants.3/4 size pot are
preferred for growing almost all kinds of indoor plants and annuals.

11.2 Training and pruning while in nursery:

Training and Pruning in Nursery

Training and pruning are two inter-related operations required in the nursery and field. Training
is primarily done to give proper shape to the plants, while pruning is mainly concerned with the
productivity or vitality of the plants. Both these practices involves the judicious removal of the
undesirable plant parts like branches, limbs, twigs, flowers, shoots or roots etc.

Training
Training may include operations leading to staking or supporting to a nursery plants and it also
primarily done to give proper shape to the nursery grown plants. Training is primarily carried out
in plants to provide the plant a mechanically strong framework, to expose maximum leaves to
light for the photosynthetic process, for easy detection of diseases and pests and facilitate pest
management and to ensure full sanitation by the removal of diseased parts or twigs and proper
application of pesticides for elimination of the pest and disease.

Pruning
Pruning is an operation for the removal of live or dead branches and pest and disease infested
branches from nursery plants to check spread of pest and disease in nursery plants. Pruning is
primarily done in nursery plants to promote and maintain healthy plant growth, through the
removal of diseased or insect infested plant parts, dead branches or excess branches, to improve
marketable quality of nursery stock, through the promotion of uniform shape, clean and even
growth and to make plants more compact for display and transport.
Care to be taken During Training and Pruning
Ensure that cuts are sharp and clean and care is taken to prevent main branch breakage and
tearing.
Prevent contamination of healthy tissues when pruning out diseased tissues through proper
cleaning of tools between successive cuts.
While pruning out diseased branches, cut beyond the diseased tissues. Many diseases grow
internally, as well as externally.
Application of Bordeaux paste on cuts and wounds is a beneficial

11.3 Hardening of nursery plants before sale:

Small shade net houses are required for hardening of nursery plants. Young, pampered
seedlings that were grown either indoors or in a greenhouse will need a period to adjust and
acclimatize to outdoor conditions, prior to planting. This transition period is called "hardening
off". Hardening off gradually exposes the tender plants to wind, sun and rain and toughens them
up by thickening the cuticle on the leaves so that the leaves lose less water. This helps prevent
transplant shock in which the seedlings have a stunted growth or they die from sudden changes
in temperature. Hardenings off time depend on the type of plants grown and the temperature
fluctuations

11.4 Packing and marketing

It is defined as placing the nursery plants or propagating materials into a suitable container for
maintaining their viability and vitality during storage and transport. Packing of nursery material
is to be done from time to time. Emphasis should be given on packaging while transporting
plants over a longer distance. To have a better price of the products, a nurseryman should pay
high attention to the packing of the planting material.

Advantages of Packing
Packaging protects the planting material from hazards caused during transport and prevents
them from microbial and insect damage. It minimizes the physiological and biological changes
taking in the planting material during transportation.
Packing must maintain the natural condition of seedling of nursery plants and
improve the shelf life of seedlings.
Necessary information like name of seedling, name of nursery, age of seedling, etc.
can be attached with packing boxes

Characteristics of Ideal Packing Material

It should be cheap, easily available and highly suitable for the material to be packed.
It should deliver the plants conveniently without affecting the quality and look attractive to the
indenters.
It should ensure protection against drying out and mechanical injury. It must be convenient and
economical to handle.
It should be well adapted to transport, loading with security and economy in volume and
weight.

Care of Planting Material during Packing

Packing of seeds or plants or bulbs etc. should be done carefully so as to supply the
planting material in safe and sound condition.
During placing of the planting material into a package avoid bruising. Due care of
grafted and budded plants should be taken to avoid the breakage of joint of the graft

The transplants lifted bare rooted are packed with their roots in moist sphagnum moss and
wrapped with moist paper. The ball of earth is wrapped with coconut leaves or rice straw and
packed in basket

Marketing of Nursery Plants

Marketing is planning and organizing the systems in such a way that will make consumers
believe that they are buying something special, meets their needs and also supplying the right
amount of product when the customers want to buy it. Customer perceptions are not just about
price and quality, but may also include status, enjoyment, attractiveness, convenience, health.
Producers should decide which factors are special for their product and emphasis these in their
promotion.
 Direct Marketing
This is sales by the nurseryman direct to the consumer. Different studies show that many
consumers prefer direct contact with the nurseryman/seller compared to an impersonal service,
although the latter are in some cases more efficient. One of the main advantages of direct sales to
consumers is the opportunity to reduce marketing costs and add value to the product so as to
increase the profit margin. Nurseryman need to be aware of existing marketing tools in order to
maximize sales.

 Retail Outlet
In most cities municipal ordinances regulate places and areas where nursery plant retail outlets
operate. In selecting a location the three main factors to consider are: good visibility,
accessibility and proximity to buyers.

 Street Selling
Although this method of marketing is frequently seen in developing countries like India, Nepal,
selling and peddling is generally not allowed by most municipalities. Ambulatory selling is
undertaken in vehicles either drawn by motor, animal power or humans and plants is peddled
from home to home. Street selling has the same characteristics and limitations as ambulatory
selling. As scales are unavailable, plants is generally sold by units.

 Nursery Markets

A nursery market is a form of direct marketing that is located in or within proximity of a

community where growers sell directly to numerous customers. Cash sales and the possibility of
selling under or oversize units that cannot be marketed through other marketing channels are the
main benefits of this system for nurseryman.

 Regional Markets

Regional markets exist in many developing countries where buyers and sellers meet to trade.
This system provides many small-scale nurserymen with the opportunity to sell their plants at a
fair price.

 Nursery Stall Sales

Nursery outlets attract many customers. This form of direct marketing has the advantage of
adding value. It should be located on relatively busy roads. The main access routes to cities are
probably the best places for these types of markets. However, they can also be located in other
areas such as tourist areas

 Export of Nursery Plants

Some exports require an export License before you can ship your plants. Some foreign countries
have standards that you should be aware.

11.5 Insect pest and diseases management:

A nursery man adopts various methods to protect seedling from the pests. This activity is called
as is the applied control or pest control. Traditionally pest control means the use of chemical
pesticides. In the present day context, pest control includes the use of all those methods which
are employed for preventing pests and diseases without disturbing environment.

Methods of Pest Control

Important methods of pest control are briefly described below:
1. Cultural Method:. Some of the important cultural methods are: Crop rotations, Tillage
methods (deep summer ploughing), High seed rate, Water management, Manipulation of date of
Sowing and Trap cropping.
2. Physical Method: Various physical methods are: Temperature manipulation, Moisture
manipulation, Light manipulation, and Use of sound.
3. Mechanical Method: Some of them are, Screens, traps, nets and suction devices, Hooking
devices with iron rod in the hole bore by the insect, Banding with grease or polythene sheets on
stem, Covering of seedling with net; and trenching and water barrier-ant pans.
4. Legal or Regulatory Method: This refers, to the legal restrictions proposed by the Central
and State Governments to check the spread of pests. The regulations such as Inspection and
quarantine and Destructive Insect Pests Act can be enlisted under this heading.
5. Resistant Varieties: Use of resistant varieties help in avoiding or tolerating or recovering
from pest attack. Resistant varieties have been identified against various pests in a number of
crops.
6. Biological Method: This method refers to the use of natural enemies of pests viz. parasites,
predators and microbes or pathogens (bacteria, virus, nematodes, fungi, protozoa etc.) so as to
suppress the pest species. Biological control program can be carried out in the following ways:
conservation and encouragement of indigenous natural enemies, importation of exotic natural
enemies and mass rearing and releases of parasites/predators and microbes.
7. Chemical Control: The use of chemicals for the control of pests is known as chemical
control. Pesticides are the chemicals used to kill or repel or attract or sterilize pests.Pesticides are
without any doubt an effective means of killing pests quickly and on demand. No other control
method provides users with an immediate and visibly effective means of pest control. Over the
years, the indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted in a number of serious detrimental effects
on the environment.
8. Use of Botanical Pesticides: These include the use plant products with a potential to control
pests. Many plant products (leaf, extracts, oils and cakes) have the property of inhibiting the
development of pests and diseases. The plant extracts and oils are sprayed on the crops. Neem
oil, neem cake and other neem based formulations have been found effective against pests.

Method of Disease Control in Nursery

1. Chemical Control: The pesticide chemicals that control plant diseases may be used in
different ways, depending on the parasite to be controlled and the circumstances required
for parasitic activities.
2. Seed Treatments: Chemical treatments of seed may be effective in controlling plant
pathogens in, on, and around planted seed. Seed treatment is protective when it prevents
penetration of soil-borne fungi into seedling stems. Seed treatment is of two types; viz., physical
and chemical. Physical treatments include hot-water treatment, solar-heat treatment, etc.
Chemical treatments include the use of fungicides and bactericides
4 Soil Treatments: Soil-borne plant pathogens greatly increase their populations as soils
are cropped continuously, and finally reach such levels that contaminated soils are unfit
for crop production. Formaldehyde or captan applied against sclerotia-producing fungi
that cause seedling blights, stem rots, and root rots of many nursery seedlings.Other soil-
treatment fungicides are vapam and "Vorlex". Soil treatments are made at the time of
planting are most effective against parasitic attacks that come early in the growing
season.

5 Protective Sprays and Dust: Protective fungicides prevent germination, growth and
penetration. In order to use protective fungicides effectively, the farmer must not only
select the right fungicide for the job but also apply it in the right amount, at the right
times and in the right way. Too little fungicide fails to control disease; too much can
prove toxic to the plants to be protected. The nurseryman and applicator, therefore, must
always follow use instructions to the latter. Timing of applications is also critical.