Applications of Laplace

Transforms
• Introduction
• Circuit Element Models
• Circuit Analysis
• Transfer Functions
• State Variables
• Network Stability
• Summary
 Introduction
• To learn how easy it is to work with circuits in the s
domain.
• To learn the concept of modeling circuits in the s
domain.
• To learn the concept of transfer function in the s
domain.
• To learn how to apply the state variable method for
analyzing linear systems with multiple inputs and
multiple outputs.
• To learn how the Laplace transform can be used in
stability analysis.
 Circuit Element Models
• Steps in applying the Laplace transform:
– Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s
domain (a new step to be discussed later).
– Solve the circuit using circuit analysis technique
(nodal/mesh analysis, source transformation, etc.).
– Take the inverse Laplace transform of the solution
and thus obtain the solution in the time domain.
 s-Domain Models for R and L
For a resistor, di (t )
For an inductor, v(t )  L .
 v(t )  Ri (t ) dt

 V ( s )  L  sI ( s )  i (0  ) 
 sLI ( s )  Li(0  ) (a)
Lv(t )  LRi (t )
1 i (0  )
 V ( s )  RI ( s ) or I ( s )  V ( s)  (b)
sL s

Time domain (a) (b)

 s-Domain Model for C
dv(t )
For a capacitor, i (t )  C .
dt

 I ( s)  C  sV ( s )  v(0  ) 
 sCV ( s)  Cv(0  ) (a)
1 v (0  )
or V ( s )  I ( s)  (b)
sC s

Time domain (a) (b)

 For inductor: For capacitor:
V (s)  sLI (s)  Li(0 )  1 v (0  )
V ( s)  I ( s) 
sC s

1 i (0  )
I ( s)  V ( s) 
sL s I (s)  sCV (s)  Cv(0 )
 Summary
• Impedance in the s domain.
– Z(s)=V(s)/I(s)
• Admittance in the s domain.
– Y(s)=1/Z(s)=I(s)/V(s)

Element Z(s)
Resistor R
Inductor sL
Capacitor 1/sC
*Assuming zero initial conditions
 Example 1

(1) Transformation to the s domain :

3
 1  I2  3
 u (t )  s  8s 2  18s
 s
 Z (1 H)  sL  s 3
 1 1 3  Vo ( s )  sI 2  2
 3
Z ( F)   s  8s  18
 sC s
3 2
(2) Applyingmesh analysis : 
2 ( s  4) 2  ( 2 ) 2
 1  3 3
 s  s  1 s I 2  0
  1  I   3  4t 
   vo (t )   e sin 2t u (t )

 3 I1   s  5  3  I 2  0  2 
 s  s
Example 2

vo (0)  5 V

Cvo (0)
 Example 2 (Cont’d)
a

Applyingnodal analysis at node a : Applyingthe residue method,

10 ( s  1)  Vo Vo Vo A  ( s  1)Vo ( s) |  10
 2  0.5   s  1
10 10 10 s
B  ( s  2)Vo ( s ) |  15
25s  35 A B s  2
 Vo   
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2  vo (t )  (10e t  15e  2t )u (t )
 Example 3

i(0)  I 0

V0
I ( s )( R  sL)  LI 0 0
s
LI 0 V0 sI 0  V0 L
 I ( s)   
R  sL s ( R  sL) s ( s  R L)
V0 R I 0  V0 R
 
s sR L
 V  V L
 i (t )   I 0  0  e t /  0 ,  
 R R R
 i (0)  i ()e t /  i ()
 Circuit Analysis
• Operators (derivatives and integrals) into
simple multipliers of s and 1/s.
• Use algebra to solve the circuit equations.
• All of the circuit theorems and relationships
developed for dc circuits are perfectly valid in
the s domain.
 Example 1
10
Vs 
s
iL (0)  1 A
vC (0)  5 V
 10u(t )

By using nodal analysis we have

V1  Vs V1  0 i (0) V1  v(0) s 
   0
10 3 5s s 1 (0.1s )
40  5s 35 30
 V1   
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2
 v1 (t )  35e t  30e  2t u (t )
 Example 2
Solve example 1 by using superposition.
30 30 30
V1   
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2
 
 v1 (t )  30e t  30e  2t u (t )
10 10 10
V2   
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2
 
 v2 (t )  10e t  10e  2t u (t )
5s 5 10
V3   
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2

 v3 (t )   5e t  10e  2t u (t ) 
v(t )  v1 (t )  v2 (t )  v3 (t )
 
 (30  10  5)e t  (30  10  10)e  2t u (t )
 35e t

 30e  2t u (t )
 Example 3
Assume that no initial energy is stored.
(a) Find Vo(s) using Thevenin’s theorem.
(b) Find vo(0+) and vo() by applying the
initial- and final-value theorems.
(c) Determine vo(t).

=10u(t)
 Example 3: (a)
=0
 10  50
Voc  VTh  5  
 s  s
To find Z Th , use Z Th  Voc I sc
Applyingnodal analysis :
10 (V1  2 I x )  0 V1  0
   0 V1
s 5 2s
V1
and I x 
2s
100 V 50
 V1  , I x  I sc  1 
2s  3 2 s s (2 s  3)
Voc 50 s
Z Th    2s  3
I sc 50 s (2 s  3)
5 5  50  125
Vo  VTh    
5  Z Th 5  2 s  3  s  s ( s  4)
 Example 3: (b), (c)
Solution (b) : Solution (c) :
125 125 A B
Vo ( s )  Vo ( s )   
s ( s  4) s ( s  4) s s  4
 The initial - value theorem gives  Applyingthe residue method,

vo (0)  lim sVo ( s )  lim

125
0  125
s  s  s  4  A  sVo ( s )|s 0  4  31.25
 125
 B  ( s  4)Vo ( s )|   31.25
 The final - value theorem gives  s  4 4
 4t
125 125  vo (t )  31 . 25 (1  e )u (t )
vo ()  lim sVo ( s )  lim 
s 0 s 0 s  4 4
 Transfer Functions
• The transfer function H(s) is the ratio of the output
response Y(s) to the input excitation X(s), assuming
all initial conditions are zero.

From convolution integral : y (t )  x(t ) * h(t )

Y (s)
 Y ( s)  X ( s) H (s) or H ( s) 
X ( s)
 x(t ) : excitation or input
 y (t ) : output

h(t ) : unit impulse response of the network
 H ( s ) : the Laplace transform of h(t )
 Transfer Functions (Cont’d)
• Two ways to find H(s).
– Assume an input and find the output.
– Assume an output and find the input (the ladder
method: Ohm’s law + KCL).
• Four kinds of transfer functions.
Vo ( s) I o ( s)
H ( s)  Voltage gain  , H ( s)  Current gain 
Vi ( s) I i (s)
V ( s) I ( s)
H ( s)  Impedance  , H ( s )  Admittance 
I (s) V (s)
 Example 1
Q : If y (t )  10e t cos 4t u (t ) when x(t )  e t u (t ).
Find the transfer function and its impulse response.

Solution :
1 10( s  1)
X (s)  , Y ( s) 
s 1 ( s  1) 2  4 2
Y ( s) 10( s  1) 2 4
 H (s)    10  40
X ( s ) ( s  1)  4
2 2
( s  1) 2  4 2
 h(t )  10 (t )  40e t sin 4t u (t )
 Example 2
Q: Find
H(s)=V0(s)/I0(s).

Solution :
By current division,
( s  4) I 0
I2 
( s  4)  (2  1 2s )
2( s  4) I 0
V0  2 I 2 
s  6  1 2s
V0 ( s ) 4s( s  4)
 H ( s)   2
I 0 ( s ) 2s  12s  1
Example 2 (The Ladder Method)
Let V0  1 V,
By Ohm' s law, I 2  V0 2  1 2
 1  1 4s  1
V1  I 2  2    1  
 2s  4s 4s
V1 4s  1
 I1  
s4 4 s ( s  4)
Applying KCL gives
2s 2  12 s  1
I 0  I1  I 2 
4 s ( s  4)
V0 1 4s ( s  4)
 H (s)    2
I 0 I 0 2 s  12 s  1
 Example 3
Find
(a) H(s) = Vo/Vi,
(b) the impulse response,
(c) the response when vi(t) = u(t) V,
(d) the response when vi(t) = 8cos2t V.
 Example 3: (a), (b)
Solution :
By voltage division,
1
Vo  Vab
s 1
1 || ( s  1)
Vab  Vi
1  1 || ( s  1)
( s  1) ( s  2) 1 s 1 Vi
 Vi  Vo  Vi 
s  1 2s  3 2s  3
1  ( s  1) ( s  2)
Vo 1 1 1
s 1  H (s)   
 Vi Vi 2s  3 2 s  3 2
2s  3
 h(t )  0.5e 3t 2u (t )
 Example 3: (c), (d)
Sol : (c) Sol : (d)
1 8s
vi (t )  u (t )  Vi ( s )  vi (t )  8 cos 2t  Vi ( s )  2
s s 4
Vo ( s )  H ( s )Vi ( s ) Vo ( s )  H ( s )Vi ( s )
1 A B 4s A Bs  C
      2
 3 s
2 s s   s
3 
 s 
3 2
 s  4  s 
3 s 4
 2 2  2 2
1 1 24 24 64
A , B A , B , C 
3 3 25 25 25
24   1 4 2 
1

 vo (t )  1  e
3
 3t 2

u (t ) V  Vo ( s )    2
s

25  s  3 2 s  4 3 s  4 2


24  3t 2 4 
 vo (t )    e  cos 2t  sin 2t u (t ) V
25  3 
 State Variables
• The state variables are those variables which, if
known, allow all other system parameters to be
determined by using only algebraic equations.
• In an electric circuit, the state variables are the
inductor current and the capacitor voltage since
they collectively describe the energy state of the
system.
 State Variable Method
 z1 (t )   y1 (t ) 
 z (t )   y (t ) 
z(t )   2  y(t )   
2

     
   
 m 
z (t )  p 
y (t )

 The state equation can be arranged as

x  Ax  Bz (KVL & KCL)  dx1 (t ) dt   x1 (t ) 
dx (t ) dt   x (t ) 
where x   2  2 
     
 x1 (t )     
 x (t )  the state vector  n
dx (t ) dt 
  n 
x (t )
x (t )   2   representing n
  
  state variable s x  Ax  Bz
 xn (t )
xi (t ) : outputsof integrator s y  Cx  Dz
 State Variable Method (Cont’d)
x  Ax  Bz
y  Cx  Dz
 Assuming zero initial conditions
and applyingthe Laplace transform, where 
sX(s )  AX(s )  BZ(s )
( sI  A)X(s )  BZ(s )
 X(s )  ( sI  A)1 BZ(s )
I : the identity matrix
Y( s )  CX(s )  DZ(s)
 C( sI  A)1 BZ(s )  DZ(s)
Y( s)
 H( s)   C( sI  A) 1 B  D
Z( s )
A  systemmatrix
 B  input coupling matrix
 C  output matrix
 D  feedforwad matrix
 In most cases, D  0 .
So the degree of the numerator of
H( s ) is less than the degree of the
denominato r of H( s ).
 H( s )  C( sI  A) 1 B
 Transfer Function/Matrix
H( s )  CsI  A  B
1

 sI  A 
1

1

sI  A
N( s) N( s)
 H( s )  
sI  A D ( s )
where D( s )  sI  A  det sI  A 

 Eigenvalue s of A  Poles of System

How to Apply State Variable Method
• Steps to apply the state variable method to circuit
analysis:
– Select the inductor current and capacitor voltage as the
state variables (define vector x, z).
– Apply KCL and KVL to obtain a set of first-order
differential equations (find matrix A, B).
– Obtain the output equation and put the final result in state-
space representation (find matrix C).
– H(s)=C(sI-A)-1B
 Example: LRC Circuit
* Defining the state variables by
x1  VC  eo , x2  I L  Ceo (1)
and the input and output variables by
u  ei , y  eo  x1 (2)
x2
(1)  x1  (3)
C
KVL : Lx2  Rx 2  x1  u (4)

 1  0 
(3)  x1   0   x 
  C
 
1
   1 u
(4)  x2   1  R   x2   
 L L L
 x1 
and y  1 0 
 x2 
 Network Stability
• A circuit is stable if its impulse response satisfies
lim h(t )  0
t 

• Two requirements for stability: H(s)=N(s)/D(s)

(1) Degree of N(s)  Degree of D(s).
If (1) is not satisfied,
N (s) n 1 R( s)
H ( s)   k n s  k n 1s      k0 
n
(n  1)
D( s ) D( s )
H ( j )  H ( s) s  j  lim H ( j )   (unacceptable)
 
 Network Stability (Cont’d)
(2) All the poles (pi) must lie in the left half of s plane.

 N ( s) 
h(t )  L1  H ( s )  L1  
 ( s  p1 )( s  p 2 ) ( s  p N 
)
 A1
1 A2 AN 
L     
 ( s  p1 ) ( s  p2 ) ( s  pN ) 
N N
  Ai e u( t )   Ai e( i  ji ) t u( t )
pi t

i 1 i 1
s plane

For complex poles, let pi = i  ji . stable

 e( i  ji ) t  e i t e ji t  e i t
 h(  )  0 only if  i  Re[pi ]  0
 Network Stability (Cont’d)
• A circuit is stable when all the poles of its transfer
function H(s) lie in the left half of the s plane.
• Circuits composed of passive elements (R, L, and C)
and independent sources either are stable or have
poles with zero real parts.
• Active circuits or passive circuits with controlled
sources can supply energy, and can be unstable.
 Example 1
Vo 1 sC
H (s)  
Vs R  sL  1 sC
1L
 2
s  s R L  1 LC
 p1, 2     2  02
 R For R, L, C  0 :
  2 L   Re[ p ]  0 (stable)


1, 2
where 
0  1 For R  0 :
 LC   Re[ p1, 2 ]  0 (unstable)

 Example 2
Applyingmesh analysis gives Find k for a stable circuit.
  1  I2
 Vi   R  sC  I1  sC  0
  

 R  1  I  I1  kI  0
 sC 
2
sC
1

 1  1 
R   The characteri stic equation :   0
Vi    sC  sC   I1 
    The single pole is given as
 0    k  1   R  1   I 2 
  sC   sC  k  2R
p
The determinan t is R 2C
2 For stable operation,
 1  1  1 
  R    k   k  2R
 sC  sC  sC  p 0
2
sR 2C  2 R  k RC
  k  2R
sC
 Summary
• The methodology of circuit analysis using Laplace
transform
– Convert each element to its s-domain model.
– Obtain the s-domin solution.
– Apply the inverse Laplace transform to obtain the t-domain
solution.
 Summary
• The transfer function H(s) of a network is the Laplace
transform of the impulse response h(t).
Y ( s)
H ( s)  , Y ( s)  X ( s) H ( s)
X ( s)

• A circuit is stable when all the poles of its transfer

function H(s) lie in the left half of the s plane.