Cells

Cell Function Adaptation

Leaf palisade cell Carries out - Packed with chloroplasts containing light-
photosynthesis absorbing pigment (chlorophyll)
- Regularly shaped, closely packed cells form
continuous layer → efficient absorption of sunlight.

Root hair cell Absorbs water and - Long 'finger-like' projection → large surface area
minerals from the for absorption
soil into the plant - Covered in small hairs to increase surface area

Sperm cell Fertilises egg cell - Head contains genetic information, nucleus and an
(female gamete) enzyme to help penetrate the egg cell membrane.
- Middle section packed with mitochondria for
energy
- Tail (flagellum) moves the sperm to egg

Egg cell Female gamete- - Large cell compared to sperm

develops embryo - Possesses yolky cytoplasm = food source for
once fertilised by developing embryo before placenta develops
sperm

Contain - Thin outer membrane to let oxygen diffuse through

haemoglobin to easily
carry oxygen to - Bi-concave disc shape increases surface area →
the cells. allows more oxygen to be absorbed efficiently +
more flexible framework (can squeeze through
Red blood cell smallest capillaries)
- No nucleus → whole cell full of haemoglobin.

Guard Opens, closes and - Changes shape easily

cell regulates size of - Swells when filled with water
leaf pore

Ciliated Possesses cilia to - Mucus produced by goblet cells trap particles

epithelial trap dust, dirt and - Cilia waft particles back up the throat to be
cell microbes as we swallowed
inhale

Pollen cell Male gamete- - Tiny grain formed by meiosis (has half the genetic
fertilises ovules information)
(female gametes) - Hard protective outer coat to survive bad
conditions
- Shape and surface of outer coat adapted to
dispersal method (smooth and sticky if insect,
large surface area if wind)
 Cells

Structure Function

Nucleus Contains genetic material which controls cellʼs behaviour

Cell membrane Controls what passes in and out of cell

Cytoplasm Where chemical processes (controlled by enzymes) and anaerobic

respiration occur

Mitochondrion/a Site of aerobic respiration

Cell wall (made of cellulose) To strengthen and give support to cell

Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll to enable photosynthesis to take place

Vacuole Stores cell sap. Involved in cell support

7 characteristics of living organisms

Movement
Respiration - release of energy from food
Sensitivity (to stimuli)

Growth
Reproduction
Excretion - production + release of waste from cells
Nutrition
 Cell

nerve

Organ
Tissue

function
function

Organism
organisms

leaf, flower

the organism
Organ system

tissues working

skeletal system
nervous system,
E.g. blood, bone.

perform specific
- Made up of cells
cells, palisade cells

a specific activity

basic life processes

- Basic unit in living

specific function for

similar in structure

tissues: connective,
E.g. blood cells, bone
Levels of organisation

working together to
- Made up of tissues
Humans have 4 basic

which can carry out all

epithelial, muscle and

- Entire living organism

E.g. heart, brain, skin,
and function working
together to perform

together to perform a

E.g. circulatory system,

- Group of two or more
- May serve a specific

Organism Cells Cell structure Mode of nutrition Other facts Examples

Plants Multic- - Chloroplasts Photosynthesis to make Store carbohydrates as starch or glucose - Pansy
ellular - Cellulose cell wall glucose - Oak tree

Animals Multic- - No chloroplasts - Ingestion - Nervous coordination - Dog

ellular - No cell walls - Cannot - Ability to move - Fly
photosynthesise - Store carbohydrates as glycogen
Cells

Bacteria Unicel- - Cell wall - Some photosynthesise - Lactobacillu

lular - Circular chromosome - If not, they feed off s bulgaricus
instead of nucleus living or dead - Pneumoco-
- Some can photosynthesise organisms ccus

Fungi Multic- - Many nuclei in hyphae Saprotrophic nutrition - May store carbohydrates as glycogen - Mucor
ellular - Chitin cell walls (excretion of digestive - Body organised into mycelium made up of - Yeast
enzymes then thread-like hyphae
absorption)

Protoct- Unicel- - Some are like animal cells - Some engulf food Microscopic - Chlorella
ists lular - Some have chloroplasts - Some photosynthesise - Plasmodium

Viruses N/A- No cellular structure Parasitic - Can only reproduce inside living cells - Influenza
Partic- - Infect all organism types virus
les - Protein coat - Tobacco
- One kind of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) mosaic virus
 Cells
Diffusion
- Movement of molecules from a higher to a lower concentration until equilibrium is reached
- Gases move through plasma membranes by diffusion
- Factors affecting rate:
- Distance: e.g. membranes in lung are very thin
- Concentration gradients: the steeper the gradient, the faster the diffusion rate (e.g.
Blood removes oxygen quickly from lungs to maintain gradient)
- Surface area: the larger the surface area, the faster the rate (e.g. Small intestine has
millions of villi to increase surface area)
- Temperature: particles have more kinetic energy when hotter so move quicker
- Examples:
- Gas exchange in the alveoli: oxygen diffuses from alveoli (high concentration) to blood in
capillaries (lower concentration of oxygen)
- Absorption in the villi: villi are thin with very good blood supply, allowing diffusion of
broken down nutrients into bloodstream to be transported around body
- As blood travels around body it provides oxygen + glucose for cells and removes waste
(Carbon dioxide)
Osmosis
- The movement of water from a region of high water potential to a region of low water
potential through a partially permeable membrane

Cell Descript ion Cell Descript ion

Turgid = cytoplasm pushes hard
against cell wall and vacuole fills up
(from being placed in hypotonic
solution) - gives plant support
through turgor pressure
Cell in isotonic solution. No net
movement as water potentials are
equal/solutions are at equilibrium
Haeolysis = In hypotonic solution, cell
swells and bursts, leaving the
membrane behind (‘ghost’)
Cell in isotonic solution → it is in
equilibrium
Crenation = in hypertonic solution the
cell shrinks

Flaccid = cell is limp due to reduction

of pressure inside the cell Potato Treatment Water in well?

Raw Water No
Plasmolysed = cell has lost water Raw Sodium chloride Yes
causing the cell membrane to pull in well
away from the cell wall + shrunken
vacuole and cytoplasm. Solution Cooked Sodium chloride No (boiling
enters between wall and membrane in well killed it)
 Cells
- When answering a question about osmosis, state:
a) Where the highest water potential is
b) Direction of movement
Experiment Descript ion
c) Through partially permeable membrane
d) Resulting in increase/decrease of mass Water enters visking
tubing (proven by
increase in mass)

- Experiments
a) Egg placed in water gains mass, but egg
Water from visking tube
placed in salt solution loses mass (from (artificial cell) moves by
water lost by osmosis) osmosis into sugar
b) Visking tubing solution (mass of tubing
decreased)
c) Potato halves placed cut-side down in
tray of water
d) Uncooked potato chips (soaking in distilled water beforehand) left in boiling tubes of 10%
sodium chloride solution for different amounts of time (3, 6, 9, 12, 15 minutes). Chips
were weighed before and after being put in salt solution. Results show continual loss of
mass, but rate of water loss decreases over time.

Active transport
- The active movement of molecules across a cell membrane from an area of low concentration
to an area of high concentration (against the concentration gradient) using energy from
respiration and a protein carrier
- Necessary when solutes needed in organism are at higher concentration within the cell
- In plants: mineral salts (e.g. Nitrates [proteins for growth], magnesium [to make chlorophyll])
for making proteins + growth at higher concentration within root cells than dissolved in water
around soil particles.
- In humans: after food has been digested for some time by villi in ileum, concentration of food
molecules (simple sugars, amino acids, vitamins, minerals) inside villi increases → impossible for
more food to diffuse into villi → actively absorbed into villi

Other
- Effects of waterlogged soil on roots: Water forces air pockets out of the soil → roots have no
oxygen so must respire anaerobically → insufficient energy to actively transport minerals into
plant for healthy growth