The Origin and Development Siddha Tradition in the Context of Malaysian Indian

Culture

By

M. Rajantheran1 , Balakrishnan Muniapan2, Manimaran Subramaniam3 & K.Silllalee4

Abstract

This paper explores the origin and development of Siddha philosophy in the context of Malaysian
Indian culture. Although the development of Siddha philosophy has been written by several
scholars in the context of South India, hardly any studies are found outside India. Scant literature is
available on Siddha philosophy from Malaysia; and any related literatures found are generic in
nature and not in-depth. Therefore the purpose of this paper is to expand the literatures on the
Malaysian Siddha philosophy which is becoming relevant in the Malaysian Indian culture focussing
on Tamil Siddhas. The methodology employed for this paper is qualitative in nature and it includes
inputs gathered on Siddha philosophy and Siddhars from various discussions held with many
scholars at conferences, Siddha practitioners in Malaysia and a review of the existing literatures on
Siddha philosophical traditions. This paper is to be considered as the first to explore the current
development of Siddha philosophy among the Indians in Malaysia.

Key words: Siddha philosophy, Indian culture, Hinduism in Malaysia, Tamil Siddhars

1. Introduction

1
Dr M. Rajantheran is a Professor in Indian Studies, Department of Indian Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Science,
University of Malaya (Malaysia). His area of expertise includes Indian Civilization, Early Cultural Relations between
India and Southeast Asia, Indian Epics and Culture and Life of The Malaysian Indians. Prof Rajantheran has published
fifteen books, A Tamil-Tamil-Malay-English Dictionary (forth reprint), chapters in books, journal articles, conference
proceeding and has presented papers at several international conferences worldwide. Email: rajantheran@gmail.com

2
Dr. Balakrishnan Muniapan is a specialist in HRD. He is currently a senior academic at Wawasan Open University,
Penang (Main Campus). He was previously a senior academic at Swinburne University of Technology and Curtin
University (Sarawak Campus). He has also been a Visiting Professor in HRM for universities and business schools in
the Philippines, Vietnam and India. He is an active HRD and Industrial Law consultant in Malaysia and within Asia. He
has more than 50 publications in journals, books and conference proceedings. He has also presented on HRD at
several academic conferences and seminars within Asia, Australia, Africa and Europe. Email: bala.hrm@gmail.com
3
Mr Manimaran Subramaniam is a Lecturer in Sociology of Religion at Faculty of Arts and Social Science, University of
Malaya (Malaysia). His area of expertise includes Sociology of Religion, Culture and Life of The Malaysian Indians. He
is one of the sought after speaker on Indian cultural issues in Malaysia and has appeared in several talk shows
telecasted in Malaysian Astro Vanavil Channel. Mr Manimaran has published three books, chapters in books, journal
articles, conference proceeding and has presented papers at several international conferences worldwide. Email:
manimaran23@um.edu.my
4
Mr K. Silllalee is currently a Ph.D research candidate at the Department of Indian Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social
Science, University of Malaya (Malaysia) who has a keen interest in the field of Hindu religion and culture. His current
research is on how Hindu religion is portrayed in the Malaysian Tamil broadcasting media. He has co-authored five
books- all on various aspects of Hinduism, few academic articles and has presented papers at several international
conferences worldwide. Email: sillla@siswa.um.edu.my
1
SanAtana dharma (Hinduism5 as it is known today) is as wide as the ocean. It has been interpreted
in various ways. There are many schools from different traditions (Low & Muniapan, 2011;
Muniapan & Satpathy, 2010; 2013, Satpathy & Muniapan, 2008; Muniapan & Shaikh, 2007;
Muniapan, 2006; 2007; 2009; 2014). McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" of
Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject: These
are:

1. Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level.
2. Vedic6 Hinduism as still being practiced by traditionalist brahmins (for example shrautins7).
3. Vedanta8 Hinduism, for example Advaita9 (Smartism10), as based on the philosophical
approach of the Upanishads.
4. Yogic Hinduism especially that which is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
5. "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality” based on the notion of Karma, and upon societal
norms such as Hindu marriage customs.
6. Bhakti11 or devotionalism, especially as in Vaishnavism12.
5
Hinduism (also known as Hindu Dharma in some modern Indian languages is religion originated from the Indian
subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also referred to as sanatana dharma, which means eternal religion.
See “The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions”. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term
can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movement (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as
a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, p. 109-123; see
also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian Responses to Religious
Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).
6
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include
numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanisad or Sutra literature. These texts are by many Hindu sects considered to
be shruti (Sanskrit: "the heard"), divinely revealed like the Vedas themselves. Texts not considered to be shruti are
known as smriti (Sanskrit: "the remembered"), of human origin.

7
Śrauta traditions are conservative ritualistic traditions of historical Vedic religion in Hinduism, based on the body of
Śruti literature. They persist in a few places in India today although constituting a clear minority within Hinduism. Śrauta
is a vrddhi derivation of Śruti, just like Smarta is the vrddhi derivation of Smrti. The most famous Srauta community are
the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala.
8
The word Vedanta is a compound of veda "knowledge" and anta "end, conclusion", translating to "the culmination of
the Vedas. See Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy . Princeton
University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989, p. 3
9
Advaita is a type of Hinduism (Vedanta). People who believe in Advaita believe that their soul is never really different
from God. "Advaita" (a = not, dvaita = two, means no-two or non-dual).

10
Smartism (or Smarta Sampradaya, Smarta Tradition, as it is termed in Sanskrit) is a denomination of the Hinduism.
The term Smarta refers to adherents who follow the Vedas and Shastras. They mainly follow the Advaita Vedanta
philosophy of Adi Shankara. But there have been instances when they have advocated or followed other philosophies.

11
Bhakti or devotion signifies an active involvement by the devotee in divine worship. The term is often translated as
"devotion", though increasingly "participation" is being used as a more accurate rendering, since it conveys a fully
engaged relationship with God. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta, while bhakti as a spiritual path is referred
to as bhakti marga, or the bhakti way. Bhakti is an important component of many branches of Hinduism defined
differently by various sects and schools

12
Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or his associated
avatars, principally as Lord Rama and Lord Krishna, as the original and supreme God. This worship in different
perspectives or historical traditions addresses God under the names of Narayana, Krishna, Rama, Narashimha,
2
Within the Yogic school of thought there are several traditions based on geographical locations
from ancient India. One of the Yogic schools of thought which is embedded in Hinduism is the
Siddha philosophy and tradition. Siddhars are known as saints, mainly in the state of Tamil Nadu in
South India.

The Siddhars are also classified as Yogis13 as Siddhars acquire Yogic powers called Siddhis
through their austerities or penance. In Sanskrit “ Siddha” means "one who is accomplished" and
refers to perfected masters of their self. This is usually accomplished only by persistent meditation
and an inquiry into self ( athato brahma jigyasa). A Siddhar refers to one who has attained a Siddhi
(Murali, 2010). A siddhi is a power, a power that can be focused on, acquired through deep practice
and austerity, or can be given by grace to someone who has been so purified as to be enlightened.
Siddhars are considered to be people who are believed to control and transcend the barriers of
time and space by their Yogic powers.

The origin of the word “ Siddha” was explained by Ramakrishna Rao (2010), a well-known Siddha
scholar. He traced and found the existence of the word Siddha as follows:

1. The word, Siddham denoting to knowledge is used only once in Paripadal14 (20:47),
therefore, its occurrence in other sources are considered.
2. According H. P. Blavatsky, Siddhas belong to fourth root-race datable to 4000 BCE.
3. According to Shvetashvatara Upanishad15 (Chapter I, Verses, 3, 5, 7), the Siddhas are
those who possessed from birth of “superhuman” powers, as also of “knowledge and
indifference to the world”.
4. According to occult teachings, however, the Siddhas are Nirmanakayas or the “spirits” – in
the sense of an individual or conscious spirit – of great sages from spheres on a higher
plane than our own, who voluntarily incarnate in mortal bodies in order to help the human
race in its upward progress.
5. Siddhas are holy saints on the Earth as the celestial yogis in the Heaven, because, their
commander is Kartikeya, who supposed to control them.
6. Puranas also describe Siddhas grouping them with Divine Sages or Devarishis (Vayu
Purana16, Chapter 41: 66-73). In other places, they are mentioned with Caranas. They are
also grouped with Devas, Demons, Pannagas, Yakshas, powerful Gandharvas, Kinnnaras
etc. They are located in Jambu Dwipa17 on the Jarudhi, Kumudhaprabha, Sitanta mountain
Vasudeva or more often "Vishnu", and their associated avatars

13
A Yogi is a Sanskrit term for a male (Yogini for a female) who practices various forms of the path of Yoga. (Siddha is
also considered as a form of Yoga) maintaining a steadfast mind, the process of transcending the lower self.

14
Paripadal is one of the Sangam period literary pieces
15
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is one of the older, "primary" Upanishads. It figures as number 14 in the Muktika
canon of 108 Upanishads. Adi Shankara has called it the "Mantra Upanishad" of the Vedic Shvetashvatara school in
his commentary on Brahma sutras.

16
The Vayu Purana is a Shaiva Purana, a Hindu religious text, dedicated to the god Vayu (the wind god), containing
about 24,000 shlokas.

17
Jambudvipa is the name of the dvipa ("island") of the terrestrial world, as envisioned in the Vedic cosmology, which
3
 peaks and caves.

According to Ramakrishna Rao (2010), Siddhas, Siddhar, Sittar and Cittar, are the words variously
used in English by the Western and as well as Indian scholars but each as specific connotation in
Tamil. Siddhas means the refined monotheistic creed existed. Siddhar means perfected or realized
saints. Sittar implies an expert in occultism, alchemy and so on with magic or superstitious power.
Cittar also connotes the same however exhibiting such powers with mind. It may be noted that the
differentiation arises due to the understanding and interpretation of the Tamil words siddhu
(miracle, supernatural performance, etc) and cittu (connected with mind and mental powers).

In terms of defining the word “Siddha”, it can be done on two perspectives. The first definition is
based on the root word evidence while the other is the internal evidences found in Siddha
literatures. Kandaswamy (2004) made an analysis of the root word of Siddha and revealed the
followings:-

1. Citti - The one who acquired the above eight types of super powers as a result of penance
and austerity.
2. Citta - The one who can control his mind and actions.
3. Cit - The one who had attained the ultimate level of knowledge and wisdom.

However, unlike the Vedanta traditions, not much is known of the Siddha traditions of South India
as it was guarded in secrecy. The Siddha philosophies are usually taught in the traditional manner
by a Siddhar to a spiritually mature disciple. Typically Siddhars were saints, doctors, alchemists18
and mystics all in one. They wrote their findings, in the form of poems in Tamil language, on palm
leaf which are collected and stored in what are known today as palm leaf manuscript, and handed
down through the generations. The Siddhars have over the centuries developed, a vast
knowledge-system, what is now known as siddha medicine, practiced mainly in Tamil Nadu and
also in Malaysia as traditional medicines (Unknown, 2010).

2 General characteristics of Siddhas

The Siddhars are believed to have had powers either major and other minor powers or siddhis.
They are explained in detail in various Yogic as well as religious texts; Tirumantiram 19 668
(Natarajan, 2002) describes the powers as:

1. To become tiny as the atom within the atom (Anima)

2. To become big in unshakeable proportions (Mahima)
3. To become as light as vapour in levitation (Laghima)
4. To become as heavy as the mountain (Garima)
is the realm where ordinary human beings live.

18
An alchemist was a person versed in the art of alchemy, an ancient branch of natural philosophy that eventually
evolved into chemistry and pharmacology.

19
The Tirumantiram, is a Tamil religious poetic work written by Tirumular. It consists of over three thousand verses
dealing with various aspects of spirituality, ethics and praise of Lord Siva. The Tirumantiram is the tenth of the twelve
volumes of the Tirumurai, the key texts of Tamil Savism. It is the first known Tamil work to use the term Shaiva
Siddhanta and the earliest known exposition of the Saiva Agamas in Tamil.
4
 5. To enter into other bodies in transmigration (Prapti)
6. To be everywhere in omnipresence (Vasitvam)
7. To be in all things, Omni-pervasive (Prakamya)
8. To be lord of all creation in omnipotence (Isatvam)

All Siddhars were among the highest disciples of Lord Siva and are considered equal in their
powers and devotion to that Supreme Being. The S iddhars are rationalists and reformists. They left
behind them a vast body of literature, relating to spiritual wisdom, Yoga, medicine, alchemy and
astrology. The supra-natural powers and rare achievements of the Siddhars are vividly portrayed in
many stories and legends.

A prominent Siddhar researcher Govindan (2007) asserted that Siddhas are those who had been
liberated and are one with God. This is consistent with the Advaita or non-duality principle, which
is monistic school of thought from Vedanta (Satpathy, Muniapan & Dass, 2013).

Ganapathy (2004) used the term “Siddhayana” to describe self-realization and the ultimate aim of
Siddhas. The Siddhas are liberated souls and have attained union with the God or mukti20. He
named the liberated state to be the taintless and limitless space, transcending all empirical
knowledge. Several ancient literature evidence shows that Siddhas are those who had attained
complete realisation of themselves (Nyanakkovai, Kallui Cittar Song: 22 & Akappeiy Cittar Song:
72), those under Yogasamadhi (Tirumanthiram 1490), the ones who realise themselves
(Subramaniyar Suttanyanam 100, song: 98) are known as Siddhas (Ganapathy, 2004). One of the
earliest and well known Siddhar, Sivavakkiyar21 says that Siddhars are wise yogis (cited in
Kandasamy, 2004). Based on the above mentioned explanations, Siddhars can be defined as
possessing the following characteristics:

1. The one who had attained ultimate wisdom through penance and yogic practice.
2. The one who had achieved supreme purity and sacredness.
3. The one who had obtained eight types of abilities (super powers) and able to see the past,
present and future.
4. The one who had realized himself.
5. The one who can control his mind and actions.
6. Saints who had attained perfection.
7. The one who realize God is within; not without.
8. The one with God.

The eight super power abilities or 8 (astha) Siddihis highlighted earlier of the Siddhas are of God’s
nature. Therefore, Siddhars are considered equal to God. This is cited by Pambatti Cittar22, one of
the earliest Siddha, in his song, Cittar Vallabam (Nyanakkovai). Here, it is explained that Siddhas

20
Mukti or liberation from material existence is of five types namely sarupya (obtaining the same form as God),
samipya (living in close proximity to God), salokya (living on the same planet as God), sarsti (having the same
opulence as God) and sayujya (becoming one with God by merging into His body or by merging into His brahma
effulgence).
21
Sivavakkiyar (sometimes Civavakkiyar) was a great Tamil Poet who lived in the period preceding the 10th Century
A.D. Sivavakkiyar was an early rebel against the Brahmanic order; he was resolutely opposed to the Caste system and
was opposed to idol worship and temple ceremonies. His rebellion against any kind of orthodoxy meant his work was
left out of the Saiva canonical literature however some of his poetry is well read in Tamil literary compendiums.
5
could perform the actions23 of God.

Almost all the civilisations claim that human body is perishable and is subject to birth, death, old
age and disease (janma, mrityu, jara, vyadhi) (Muniapan & Dass, 2008; 2009). Contradictorily,
Siddhas discovered immortality by not only preaching it but also by practicing it. This action, of
course amazed the world’s renowned scientists (Srinivasan, 2008). The best evidence for this fact
is the life history of Ramalingga Vallalar 24 (Thiruvarutpa 134 Maranamilla Peruvazhvu 1:2310). An
incident happened on 30th January, 1874, Friday at midnight in Mettukuppam, Tamil Nadu, India. At
that time, Vallalar was 51. He entered into one of the rooms of Citti palace and locked himself.
According to historical proofs, he vanished and became light. Prior to entering the room, he gave
instruction to his disciples not to open the door as he would be invisible even if the door is opened.
Despite that, a few days later, a British officer produced official permission to open and inspect the
room. According to the report provided by the officer, the room was found to be empty when
opened (Srinivasan, 2008).

3. Tamil Siddhas

Tamil25 people are also called as Tamilians. They speak Tamil language, with a recorded history of
more than 3,000 years. Tamil people identify themselves with their language, Tamil. The origin of
Tamil community is from Tamil Nadu, South India. Tamil communities are found across the world,
notably Sri Lanka, USA, Malaysia, Canada, Singapore, and the UK. The Tamils are mostly Hindus
with sizable number of Christians and Muslim populations.

22
Pambatticittar is a name of one Siddha. "Pambu" in Tamil means snake. Snakes are emblems of eternity and the
snake skin is supposed to procure invisibility. The practice of casting its skin suggested longevity or even immortality in
the snake. The term "snake" refers to the coiled kundalini. A Siddha who has perfected Kundalini yoga and attained
immortality is a "Pambatti".

23
Create, protect, destroy, hide, bless.
24
?
Ramalingam, is commonly known in India and across the world as Vallalar. He was one of the most famous Tamil
Saints and also one of the greatest Tamil poets of the 19th century known as " gnana siddhar". He spread Suddha
Sanmarga Sangam and through the notion of Suddha Sanmarga Sangam, the he endeavored to eliminate the menace
of caste system. According to Suddha Sanmarga, the prime aspects of human life should be love connected with
charity and divine practice leading to achievement of pure knowledge.

25
Prof. A. Veluppillai in his one of his papers “An Introduction to the History of Tamil People” -
http://tamilelibrary.org/teli/tamil.html defines Tamils as people, having Tamil as their mother tongue. Tamil language is
a member of the Dravidian/ South Indian family of languages. The four southernmost states of India- Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh - are predominantly linguistically Dravidian, each state carved out on the basis
of predominance of the four major Dravidian languages. The Dravidian languages are mother tongues of about a
quarter of the Indian population. Though about 80% of the speakers are found within the borders of these four South
Indian states, a number of Dravidian languages have been identified in other parts of South Asia. Among the tribal
languages of Central India, almost extending to the borders of Bengal, distinct from the Austro-Asiatic family of
languages, many Dravidian languages have been identified. The northern reaches of this family have been located in
isolated settlements in Nepal and Pakistan. The Brahui speakers are found in the hills of Baluchistan, almost on the
borders of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran. So, the Dravidian family of languages is a South Asian family of languages
in one sense. About 22 languages are classified as belonging to the Dravidian family and on linguistic criteria; sub-
division as North, Central and South Dravidian are made. Tamils alone number about 60 million people.

6
In Malaysia, based on April 7, 2013 statistics, 9% of the estimated 29,659,055 Malaysian
population are Indians, which comprise the third largest ethnic group 26. An estimate of 75% of
Indian are made up by Tamils, other Indian communities in Malaysia include the Telugu, Malayalee,
Punjabi27, Sindi and Bengali. The Tamil community is now mostly the fourth and fifth generations in
Malaysia.

Historically, the early Tamils came from Chola Dynasty28 came to Kedah (Kadaram)29, Malaysia
(Nusantara or Malay Archipelago) as invaders (based on archaeological evidence at Bujang
Valley30 in Kedah) and also for trading. The first Hindu (Hinduism31) temple in Malaysia was in the
Bujang Valley at the foot of Gunung Jerai (Mount Jerai 32) The Tamil Sanskrit word for mountain is
Malai. Thus the earlier name of Malaysia is Malaya, which is also based on Himalaya which means
'mountain of snow' as the Sanskrit word for snow is Hi.
26
For details please see Census of Malaysia, Department of Statistics Malaysia’s office website, which is available at
http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/index.php?lang=en

27
Malaysians commonly refer to the Punjabi community as Bengali, which is a misconception since they are actually
from Punjab and not West Bengal. This misconception began because their Malaysian identification cards classify
them as Bengali. The name Punjabi is used to describe both those who speak Punjabi and those who inhabit the
Punjab region in India and Pakistan. There are approximately ninety thousand Punjabi in Malaysia. They first came to
Malaysia in the 19th century as British political prisoners. A second wave was brought in by the British to serve as
policemen for the British Straits Settlement communities and as night watchmen for industries.

28
The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The
earliest datable references to the dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, a northern ruler; the
dynasty continued to reign over varying territory until the 12th century AD.

29
Kedah, in those early days, was known to the Indians as Kedaram or "sceptre" or "tombak" which is used by Hindu
priests and warriors. The Kedah Sultanate is the oldest monarchy from the same family line in the world. The first
Kedah ruler was a Hindu whose name was Maharaja Derba Raja of Kedah, better known as Merong Maha Wangsa.
Subsequently there were 8 more Hindu Maharajahs of Kedah, making a total of nine Maharajas altogether. The ninth
Maharaja was Maharaja Derba Raja XI or Phra Ong Mahawangsa. He was converted to Islam by an Arab from Aceh.
He changed the title of Maharaja to Sultan, and ruled as Sultan Muzaffar Shah from 1136 to 21st July 1179. The
present Sultan of Kedah, HRH Sultan Abdul Halim Muadzam Shah is the 27th Sultan of Kedah, from Sultan Muzaffar
Shah. With the Hindu predecessors, Sultan Abdul Halim becomes the 35th ruler of Kedah.

30
The Bujang Valley rests at the foot of Gunung (Mount) Jerai, a major navigational landmark for ships coming from
India. For sailors traveling from India without hugging the coast Gunung Jerai would have been a welcome sight after
sailing for weeks without seeing any land. At various times in history the Indians knew the kingdom as Kalagam
(according to a 2nd century Tamil poem), and later on Kadaram or Kataha. The Chinese Monk I-Tsing (I-Ching) who
traveled to India in the 7th century to visit the University of Nalanda would have known Bujang Valley at Qie-zha
(sometimes spelled Chieh-Cha or Kie-tcha). Arab traders knew of the same place as Kalah or Kalahbar.
31
Hinduism (known as Hindu Dharma in some modern Indian languages is religion orginated from the Indian
subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also referred to as sanatana dharma, which means eternal religion.
See “The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions”. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term
can be traced to late 19th century Hindu refrom movement (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as
a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, p. 109-123; see
also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian Responses to Religious
Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).
32
Mount Jerai or formerly Kedah Peak is the highest mountain in the Malaysian state of Kedah with the height of
1,217 metres (3,993 ft).

7
Although the Tamils have a rich history in Siddha traditions, Siddhas however are not bound by any
religion, race or faith. They have projected themselves in various parts of the world (Marshall
Govindan, 2007). According to some scholars such as Kandasamy (2003) and Marshall Govindan
(2007), Lord Buddha and Lord Jesus are also bound by the characteristics of Siddhas.

The Tamil siddhas, are a unique group of thinkers, were great Yogins and Jnanis. They lived in the
company of nature and evolved the native system of traditional known as " naattu maruthuvam".
They attached much importance to the physical as well as the psychical perfection. They adopted
the method of Kundalini Yoga33 to realise the oneness of the individual Self with the Universal Self,
leading to eternal bliss (Ganapathy, 2004). Ganapathy (2009) asserted that it is very difficult to give
a trustworthy biographical account of the Tamil Siddhas as very little about their lives is known or
recorded in history. A verse from the sage Agastya says that most of the Siddha works were lost in
the floods (pralaya) and what we have now as Siddha poetry is only a small collection of verses
which have been washed ashore and preserved.

In terms of Tamil Siddha literatures, Ganapathy (2009) is also in opinion that the literature of the
Tamil Siddhas spans many centuries and it is probable that certain details of the life-history of them
are changed, modified, and many times distorted, to suit the ethos, the occasion, the period and
the time when they were narrated and recorded. Hence it is not possible to say anything definite
about the life, date, i.e., the biography of the Siddhas. To trace the life history of the Tamil Siddhas
is as difficult as tracing the path of birds in the sky. Just as boats do not leave any mark on the
seas or rivers where they sail, the Siddhas have not left any autobiographical details in their
poems. In a number of cases factual information such as dates of birth, or at least the periods in
which they lived, the real (original) names of the Siddhas, the villages where they were born, and
the castes and religions in which they were born and the places where they lived and attained
liberation (samadhi) cannot be obtained.

In the culture of Tamil Siddhas, there is a practice of dividing the Siddhas based on Thirumoolar
and Agasthiyar tradition (Kandasamy, 2004). There are 18 prominent Tamil siddhas and scholars
find it difficult to categorize the 18 Siddhas accordingly as a conclusion could not be reached
(Sivapalan, 2006). The 18 Siddhars are Agastyar, Bogar, Korakkar, Kalanginathar, SattaiMuni,
Tirumoolar, Nandhi, Therayar, Konganar, MachaMuni, Karuvoorar, Patanjaliyar, Edaikaadar,
KamalaMuni, Punnakeesar, Sundarandandar, Romarishi and Pulipani.

4. Period of Siddhas
Ramakrishna Rao (2010) in his critical study of the chronology of the Siddhas asserted that the
dates of Siddhars have been a crucial subject in the Tamil literature and argued that the concept of
Siddha and Siddhars can be traced back to Sangam34 period (500 BCE - 500 CE or 300 BCE - 300
33
Kundalini yoga is a physical and meditative discipline within the tradition of Yoga, associated with the subdivision of
Hatha yoga, but also closely associated with Raja Yoga, Tantra, Ashtanga, Kriya Yoga and the sutras of Patanjali. It
describes a set of yoga exercises and meditations which are also sometimes referred to as Kriya Yoga or simply kriyas.
Kundalini yoga is sometimes called "the yoga of awareness" because it awakens the "kundalini" which is the unlimited
potential that already exists within every human being.

34
Sangam literature comprises some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals with love, war, governance, trade
and bereavement. However many of the Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam period had been lost.
8
CE) and it is closely linked with the development of Saivism 35 philosophy, Tantras36, science and
technology in South India.

It is a known fact that most of the ancient Tamil literature belongs to the Sangam period,
considered by many as the golden age of Tamil civilization. However, many of these had been lost
and the available literature currently is just a fraction of the material produced (Muniapan &
Rajentheran, 2011). Rao (2010) is in opinion that it is difficult to ascertain the exact period of the
Siddhas. Among his reasons include the following:

1. Followers of Siddhars assert that Siddhars cannot be brought into the framework of time
and place and hence chronology.
2. Tradition and mouth to mouth propagation of information about them vary from person to
person and authority to authority.
3. Followers generally assign ancient dates to their Siddhars and believe that they still live
even today.
4. The hagiographical, apocryphal and mythological type of legends, incidences and other
details prevalent about the Siddhas and recorded in the literature mar the critical study of
their lives.
5. The mystical, transcendental, spiritual, miraculous and other narratives attributed to and
associated with the Siddhas also do not help. Even demythologization could not help to
bring them in historical setting.
6. Except, the peculiar, mysterious, puzzling, obscure, esoteric Siddhar literature, the other
evidences available are scanty and they do not support to decide their chronology.
7. The movements of Siddhas from one country to another, particularly, that of Bogar,
Punaikannar, Romamuni, Cattaiyar, Ramanandar and others are recorded only in the
literature and not in other sources for cross verification.
8. Even the available literature is shrouded with mystery, as different versions give different
narratives and incidences.
9. The Siddha literature is not placed within the accepted or standards Tamil literature and
patronized by Kings, elites and others.
10. Contemporary, archaeological, numismatic, epigraphically evidences are also scanty.

Some scholars are in opinion that the period of Siddhas can also be divided into two categories,
namely Literature period and Spiritual period. According to scholars in Literature, Siddhas period
began from 5th century A.D., which is from the period of Thirumoolar (Unknown, 2010). Based on
Tolkappiyam (Puratthinai: 75, Ceiyuliyal Cootthiram: 165), which was written before Christ, the
existence of the word ‘Arivar’ (the wise one) is found which refers to Siddhas. As such, it is evident
that Siddhas exists prior to 5th century A.D. Besides their palm scripts also serve as proofs that the

35
Shaivism is one of the oldest of the four sects of Hindusim. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas," and also
"Saivas" or "Saivites," revere Lord Siva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator,
preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal, and Sri
Lanka, mostly. Notable areas of the practice of Shaivism also include parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Singapore,
and Indonesia.
36
Tantra is a religious philosophy according to which Shakti is usually the main deity worshipped, and the universe is
regarded as the divine play of Shakti and Shiva. The word Tantra also applies to any of the scriptures commonly
identified with the worship of Shakti. Tantra deals primarily with spiritual practices and ritual forms of worship, which
aim at liberation from ignorance and rebirth. Tantrism has influenced the Hindu and Buddhist, religious traditions.
9
Siddhas existed before Christ.

On the Spiritual level, it is said that Thirumoolar had written 3000 songs by producing one each
year. As such, it is impossible to claim that he belongs to 5 th century A.D. On the other hand, one of
the 18 Siddhas, Boogar cited that Agasthiyar is a Siddha who had lived on for four yugas37 (Boogar
7000: 5757). As such, even now it is quite difficult to determine the period of Siddhas (Sivapalan,
2006).

Despite that, there have been claims that Siddhas from ancient period appearing and blessing the
deserved ones in the present days. According to Kamalakannan (2006) in his book entitled,
Chathuragiriyil Korakka cittar, he was blessed by the appearance of Korakka cittar before him.
Ramalingga Vallalar is also said to have appeared and bestowed blessings after taking upon the
light form (Marshall Govindan, 2007).

Generally speaking the blessings and appearance of the siddhas are only prevalent to those who
are practicing the Siddhas philosophy. Even then, the Siddhas would definitely bless those who
follow the Siddha principles as well as abide by dharma (righteousness). This is an evidence of
their immortality and existence.

5. Tamil Siddha philosophy

The Tamil Siddhas were against the text religion and whenever possible criticized the rituals and
religious practices. They uphold the principle of being united with nature (Marshall Govindan,
2007). They discovered the secret of life and delivered the message in the simplest way possible to
people (Shanmugavadivu, 2007). The siddhas denounced the caste system. Though the caste
system was created by the society, during that time, caste system was embedded into the religious
practice of the society. As siddhas were against such practices, they were portrayed as rebels and
outcast of the society. Society also looks at the siddhas as people who go against the Vedas.
Therefore, the temples gave priority to the Nayanmaar (the top of all the Lord Siva devotees) and
the Aalvaar (the top of all the lord Vishnu devotees) and denied any recognition to the siddhas.
Only Thirumoolar who practiced Saivite was given recognition and accepted among the Saivites
and uplifted as one of the Nayanmaar but not as a siddha (Marshall Govindan, 2007). Some of the
Siddhas great Samadhi38 has currently become well known temples.

In South India, among the well-known temples, Konkana Siddha’s Samadhi in Thirupathi,
Idaikaattu Siddha’s Samadhi in Thiruvannamalai, Boogar and Pulippaani Siddhas Samadhi in
Palani, Paambatti Siddha’s Samadhi in Marudhamalai, Sundarananthar Siddha’s Samadhi in
Madhurai and Karuvoor Siddha’s Samadhi in Karuvoor (Kamalakkannan, 2006).

The Tamil society appreciates and welcomes the knowledge of Siddha practice and Siddhas
37
Yuga is the name of an 'epoch' or 'era' within a cycle of four ages. These are the Satya Yuga (or Krita Yuga), the
Treta Yuga, the Dvapara Yuga and finally the Kali Yuga. According to Vedic cosmology, life in the universe is created,
destroyed once every 4.1 to 8.2 billion years, which is one full day (day and night) for Brahma. The lifetime of a
Brahma himself may be 311 trillion and 40 Billion years. The cycles are said to repeat like the seasons, waxing and
waning within a greater time-cycle of the creation and destruction of the universe. Age of Satya Yuga 7,28,000 years.
Age of Treta Yuga 12, 96,000 years. Age of Dvapara Yuga 864,000 years and Age of Kali Yuga is 432,000 years.

38
Samadhi – A level equivalent to God.
10
medicine introduced by these Siddhas. Siddhas who lived centuries ago left valuable knowledge on
papyrus/ palm leaves for the current community. The Siddhas effort had attained extreme devotion
for the Siddhas among the Malaysian Hindu community and is spreading widely as the practice is
also being updated regularly by Siddha philosophy practitioners from India.

6. The development of Hinduism and Malaysian Indians

In describing the origin and the development of Siddha philosophy in the Malaysian Indian culture,
it is essential to explore the development of Hinduism as the Siddha philosophy is embedded in
Hinduism.

Hinduism is a minority religion in Malaysia. An estimated 9% of the total population of Malaysia is

ethnic Indians, of whom almost 89% are practicing Hindusim. Most of the ethnic Indians are Tamils
from the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Hinduism was prevalent in Malaysia (Nusantara) prior to
the arrival of Islam in the 15th century. Traces of Hindu influence remain in the Malay language,
literature and arts. Although this not recorded in the present version of Malaysian history, it is a
known fact the Indians and the Hindus have made great contribution Malaysia especially in terms
of culture.

Although early Indian came to Malaysia (Nusantara) as invaders and for trading, the majority of
Indians who came to Malaysia in the end of 19th century and beginnings of 20th century were non-
professional villagers (Sandhu, 1969). Apart from this group, there was a minority group migrant
from India who settled for civil service and trade industry. This group found their settlement in the
urban areas. Generally the urban people followed the text religion or ‘The Great Tradition’. On the
other hand, the group that settled in plantation estates performed their religious practice based on
popular religion as well as “Little Tradition’ that they inherited. They build temples for Goddess
Amman, mother Goddess i.e Mariamman, Muthu Mariamman and Karumariamman. Malaya
attained its independence in 1957. As the British were returning home, they sold off the estates on
lots as there were not any financially strong people to buy off the estates from the British. As such,
many estate workers lost their jobs and were displaced. In search of jobs, many were forced to
look for jobs in the cities (Janaki Raman, 2009). These people started their own temples in the
cities as well and most of the temples built by them were devoted to Goddess Amman.

The introduction of New Economic Policy (NEP) in the 1970s, development in education system,
economy, politic, jobs, business opportunities and so forth further contributed for rural migration to
urban and cities (Arasaratnam, 1994 & Ravindran, 1970). Further development in the 1980s and
1990s demanded for labourers in the areas such as construction, maids and building roads. As the
locals were not keen in these areas, employers gave priority to the immigrant workers as they
neither demanded high wages nor facilities. The current situation sees foreign workers in estates
especially from Indonesia, Bangladesh, India, Nepal as well as Burma.

As such, presently, majority of Indian Malaysians have settled in urban and cities. Though Indians
have gained from the government’s economic policies, these gains are quite insufficient as it is not
reaching the majority of Indians. Despite the fact, development in the lives of Indians in Malaysia
did contribute towards the progress in the religious aspect as many are showing keen interest in
knowing the substance and essence of their religious practice. Due to this, many religious
movements started booming in Malaysia (Rajantheran & Manimaran, 1994).

11
7. The development of Siddha philosophy in Malaysia.

Although the Siddha philosophy has been in existence for long time, the development of Siddha
philosophy emerged in the beginning of 20th century in Malaysia. This is due to four major aspects:

1. Siddha medication.
2. Religious movements or societies.
3. Movies.
4. Individual effort and practices.

7.1. Siddha medication

Malaysians were firstly introduced to siddhas through siddhas medication and treatments. Some
researchers suggest that siddha medications were firstly introduced in Malaysia in the 7 th century.
This is due to the archaeological findings in the form of artefacts at Bukit Batu Pahat in Lembah
Bujang, Kedah. The authors themselves had visited the site. Even then, there is not much
evidence to proof that these artefacts were indeed used for siddha medications. In the process of
research, it had been discovered an unproved assumption that when the King Rajendra Chola 1
attacked Kedah in the 11th century (1012-1044) (Subramaniam, 1989), siddhas medication
practitioners had followed him.

This current study discovered that a man called Periya Thambi provided siddha medication service
in the 1870’s in Malaysia. This piece of information was gained from the descendent of that family,
Seenivasan, a siddhas medical practitioner. He is the grandson of Annasamy, who served as a
siddha medical practitioner to the royals at Tanjai palace in Kumbakonam, South India. Periya
Thambi came to Malaya at the age of five who belongs to the Sivaraja Yogi tradition from Tamil
Nadu, India. Later, it is said that he had approximately 50 students learning the trait from him. Even
at that time, apparently he used a van to provide medical services to the people. He passed away
in 1943 at the age of 95.

The most important student of Periya Thambi was his son, Ganapathy who served as a
Headmaster of a Tamil school in Rawang in the state of Selangor, Malaysia. According to one of his
disciple and son in-law, Mr. Seenivasan, Ganapathy attained Samadhi in 1986 and his followers
are performing ‘Guru’ pooja and prayers for him, till now. He operates a clinic in Old Town, Petaling
Jaya, Malaysia and provides medical services to the needy people. On 13 th February, 2009, Mr.
Seenivasan gave a valuable talk to the student of University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur on Siddhas
medication. According to him, there were other siddha medical practitioners during Periya Thambi’s
period but he could hardly recall them. Through this piece of information, it is found that there are
many more siddha medical practitioners in Malaysia besides Periya Thambi, during that time.

Subsequently, based on Tamil newspapers in the 1960’s, it is found that siddha clinics of R.M.K.
Velusamy from Palani, India had been running their medical practices through their branches in
Penang and Kuala Lumpur (Tamil Nesan, 18/06/1960 and Tamil Murasu, 21/07/1960). Apart from
this, some individuals in estates had also used herbs and provided Siddha treatment based on
their personal knowledge. At that point of time, awareness on Siddha medication was higher
compared to Siddha philosophy among Malaysian Indians.

12
7.2. Early societies and movements related to Siddhas philosophies

After some form awareness on s iddha principles, people were slowly introduced to siddhas / cittars
philosophy through the emergence of some movements and societies that operated on small scale.
As such, Ramakrishna Mission was initially established in Singapore in 1896. Later in 1904 they
expanded their operations in Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur by initiating Vivekananda Ashram. 1949
marks the beginning of Sutta Samajam by Swami Sathyanandha in Puchong. Theiveeka Vazhkai
Sanggam (Divine Life society) initiated in the year 1936 by Swami Sivanandha in Rishikesh took a
strong root in Malaysia in 1953 (Ramasamy, 1988). This centre teaches yoga exercise and
meditation based on siddha principles. Apart from this, in the same year, the editor of Tamil Murasu
press Muthu Valliappa invited Paranjothi Mahaan to Malaysia. His presence was used to form
Paripoorana Nyana Sabai. Later, this movement grew and took form of World Peace Temple
(Ulaga Samadhana Alayam) in 1969. Even at time, exercise of raising Kundalini was taught to the
followers (www.gpmahan.com). Besides this, in 1955, K. Ramanatha Cettiyar and Swami
Sathyanandha jointly started a spiritual society named Arul Neri Thirukoottam (Ramasamy, 1988).

Above mentioned movements and associations preached the Siddha principles as one of their
component of teachings. Despite that, the fact remains that majority of Malaysian Indians were
residing in estates at that time. As such, according to various researches, they were more keen
and comfortable in worshipping Mariamman, sub-deities such as Madurai Veeran, etc. These
people were not exposed to Siddha teachings which were mostly confined to the town folks
(Rajantheran, 1997; Subramaniam, 1995).

7.3. Siddha philosophers and followers

Despite the fact that people were not fully aware of Siddhas, there was some information on
Siddha realised by the Malaysian Indians. The information reached the people through yogis and
sages who lived at that period. A yogi by the name of Jeganatha Swami who lived and attained
Samadhi in Tapah, Perak is a prominent example of Siddha awareness in Malaysia. Many yogis
had appeared in various places and preached Siddha principles to the people at that period. These
yogis took upon yogis, holy men (sadhus), and sages’ teachings, lived by the principles of the
teachings and preached the same to the society.

Some individuals who were well versed on Siddhas philosophy and principle performed
ceremonies such as guru pooja, pournami pooja and amavasai pooja. They also guided people
who came to them for advice on Siddha principles. These people were not associated with any
Siddha society or body but they had been dwelling with Siddha philosophy for many years and
became spiritual masters. This was also one of the ways as to how people were made aware
towards Siddha philosophy.

7.4. Siddha philosophy and movies

Apart from these great people, it is undeniable that in 1950’s Tamil movies played a crucial role in
creating awareness on Siddha philosophy and principles. Movies as a media are considered to be
a powerful tool as far as Tamil community is concerned (Muniapan and Dass, 2009; Jalarajan &
Muniapan, 2012). Characters such as Vasistar (Vasistha), Agasthiyar (Agastya), Visvamitrar
(Visvamitra), Viyasar (Vyasa), and Kalaikottu Munivar known as Rishyasirunggar in movies based
13
on stories from great epics such as Ramayana and Mahabaratha gave some form of Siddha
knowledge to people. Following this was the production of movies entirely devoted to Siddhas such
as Agasthiyar, Pattinattar, Arutperumjothi, Arunagirinathar and Sri Ragavendra. Through these
movies, society gets more information and awareness on siddhas life. Despite that, research found
that, though people became aware of Siddha, they merely looked at them as sadhus, sages and
people who had attained God’s blessings and were not looking at the Siddhas as someone they
could be devoted to.

The post 2000 years can be considered as the Golden Era for the development of Siddha
philosophy in Malaysia. This is the time when the prime media, Astro Vanavil station started
broadcasting Mega serials based on Siddhas. Among them were Rutraveenai, Annamalai,
Sivamayam and Adhu Mattum Ragasiyam. Of these serials, Sivamayam is a serial totally
dedicated to Siddhas. Scenes from this particular serial depict on appearance of Siddhas to
commoners in times of need and help them to overcome obstacles. This creates an awareness
and realisation on Siddhas among the people. Besides, this effort also increases bakthi (devotion)
on Siddhas among the viewers. In the same serial, a character known as Kuranggucittar had
attracted many viewers in Malaysia. The particular character’s physical appearance had brought
about different perception held on Siddhas physical appearance among Malaysians. Finally, a field
research carried out during 1st World Conference on Siddha Philosophy reveals that a sizeable
number of the participants were drawn to the interest of Siddha principles because of the
Sivamayam serial.

8. The palm leaves and awareness of Siddha philosophy

Palm leave scripts played a major role in introducing Siddhas to Malaysian Indians. The palm
leaves were read to predict the future of the individuals and therefore drew a lot of people towards
it. Just by scanning the thumb print, the details of one’s past, present and future is told. The culture
of reading palm scripts among the people started in the 70’s and strengthened in the 80’s. People
truly felt that Siddhas came in person to solve their problems through the scripts. As such, Siddhas
principle grew and attracted the society. It’s not too much to say that the palm scripts provided a
means to think about Siddhas to a lay person. Apart from this, many societies associated with
Siddhas provided services such as knowledge and education on Siddha philosophy to people. By
doing so, people were attracted to the Siddha practice and became members of these societies.
Even then, these people were showing their devotion towards the Siddhas by worshipping their
images rather than focussing on their precious philosophies. Regardless of all this, it is evident that
Siddhas philosophy spread among people through the palm leave scripts.

9. The strengthening of Siddha philosophy

Siddhas philosophy that slowly took place among the society was strengthened and made popular
by various Siddhas movements and societies that were operating here in Malaysia. Among the
societies that played major role were Agasthiyar Sanmarka Sanggam initiated in 1992 in Dengkil
(Tamilmani Subramaniam, 2005/2006) and in the same year Agasthiyar Sanmarka Gurukulam by
Swami Tharmalingam (Vishnnu Krishnan, 2006/2007). Principally, these societies were guided by
some of similar societies in India. Apart from that, the societies also survived and performed charity
activities through donations collected from people. Some of the money collected from the
donations is also given to the societies in India. Besides that, activities such as providing food to
14
the devotees during Thaipusam festival by Agasthiyar Sanmarka Gurukulam in Batu Caves also
enhance Siddhas awareness among people.

Apart from these societies, a society that operates under the name of Vallal Perumaganar
Ramalinga Swamigal spreads Siddha principles that are based on Vallalar to the people.
Furthermore, these societies also perform ‘guru pooja’ to strengthen followers’ devotion and
conducts talks on Siddha philosophy to increase followers’ knowledge on cittar. This is also
considered as a way of promoting Siddha philosophy in Malaysia and increase awareness and
curiosity on Siddhas. As the pinnacle to the society’s services and efforts, an International
conference on Vallalar was organised in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 28 th and 29th June, 2008.
Various researchers from Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, South Africa and England
submitted their papers and participated in this conference. More than 300 research papers were
presented at this conference.

Another interesting point is that people from all walks of life and different religion took part in this
conference. Dr. Kader Ibrahim, a well-known Muslim scholar presented keynote address for this
conference. Among the activities for the conference was slide show on life history of 29 Siddhas
which prepared by Silllalee (co-author of this paper) as well as exhibition of herbal/ Siddha
medicines conducted by Dr. Sarangabani. According to feedback received, audiences were
attracted to those activities. The exhibition covered all aspects from medicines to palm leaves. Both
activities enhanced peoples’ knowledge on Siddha philosophies.

10. Conclusion

As far as Malaysian Siddha philosophy tradition is concerned, it is a heritage from Tamil Nadu,
India. The Siddhas eulogized by the Malaysian society are Tamil Siddhas and the Siddha literature
is written in Tamil language. Moreover, Siddha societies and movements in Malaysia are mostly
comprised of Tamilians and focuses on Indian culture.

Apart from that, after the year 2000, Siddha serials screened on Astro channel were all in Tamil
language. As such, though Siddha philosophy is general and applicable to all races and religion,
due to the above mentioned factors, Siddha philosophy is still or even widely considered as a
philosophy for Tamilians.

Historically, Siddha philosophy, which was once introduced through Siddha medicinal practice
which only covered a limited group of people, is now spreading vastly through a powerful medium,
which is movie. Movies are undeniably the best way to inform the society on Siddha philosophy
immaterial to their age. The effect of the Siddha philosophy awareness is currently reflected
through prayers, talks and announcements made through various media.

Almost every day, materials on Siddhas and the philosophies are highlighted in the three main
Tamil daily in Malaysia. Subsequently, plenty of books devoted to Siddhas and Siddha philosophies
are being published, imported and sold in Malaysia. As a result, more people are becoming aware
of the Siddha and Siddha philosophies through their readings. Besides that, many individuals,
private organisations and associations organise pilgrimage to holy places related to Siddhas in
Tamil Nadu, India.

15
Finally, this research concludes that currently, the year 2010 marks an evidently high level of
involvement and awareness of Siddhas and Siddha philosophy among Malaysian Indians and it is
expecting a further growth and development.

References

Arasaratnam Sinnapah (1994). Indians in Malaysia and Singapore. New York: Oxford University
Press. (Rev. Ed.).

Blavatslcy, H.P. (1971). The Secret Doctrine, Vol. IV, p. 208, Adyar: Theosophical Publishing
House.

Ganapathy, T.N. (2004), Tamizh Siddhar Marabu, Chennai: Ravi Publications.

Ganapathy, T.N. (2009), Tamil Yoga Siddha Research Project: The Basic Difficulties (Part 4) ,
available online at http://www.babajiskriyayoga.net/english/articles/art20-tamil-yoga-siddha-
research-project-4.htm

Jalarajan, S.R .and Muniapan, B (2012), Music, Song Lyrics, Philosophy and Human Values:
Exploring Poet Kannadasan’s Contribution to Tamil Community Worldwide, Journal of Arts,
Science & Commerce, Researchers World, Volume 3, Issue Number 4(2), October, pp. 1-12.

Janaki Raman, M. (2009). The Malaysian Indian Dilemma: The struggles and agony of the Indian
community in Malaysia. Klang: Nationwide Human Development and Research Centre.

Kamalakannan. P. (2006). Sathuragiriyil Koraka Cittar. Chennai: Vanathi Publications.

Kandasamy, S.N. (2003). India Thattuva Kalanjiyam. Vol. 3. Sidhambaram: Meiyappan

Publications.

Kandasamy, S.N. (2004). The Yoga Siddha Avvai. Canada: Babaji’s Kriya Yoga and Publications.

Low, Patrick and Muniapan, B. (2011), Organizational Development and the Hindu Trinity: Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva on Leadership, Culture and Change, International Journal of Indian Culture and
Business Management Volume 4, Number 5, pp.491–505.

Manimaran Subramaniam. (1995). Agama dan kepercayaan di kalangan penganut Hindu: Satu
kajian kes di daerah Kuala Selangor. Masters Dissertation, University of Malaya (Unpublished).

Marshall Govindan. (2007). The wisdom of Jesus and the Yoga Siddhas . Canada: Babaji’s Kriya
Yoga and Publications.

McDaniel, J (2007), Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion,
Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53

Muniapan, B., (2007). “Transformational Leadership Style Demonstrated by Sri Rama in Valmiki
Ramayana”, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, Volume 1, Number

16
1, 2007 pp. 104-115

Muniapan, B. (2006), “Can the Bhagavad-Gita be used as a Manual for Management Development
of Indian Managers Worldwide?”5th Asia Academy of Management Conference, Asian
Management: Convergence and Divergence, Tokyo, Japan, 19- 21 December, 2006.

Muniapan, B., (2005), “The Philosophy of Bhagavad-Gita and its Relevance to Human Resource
Development in the 21st Century”, International Conference on Cultural and Religious Mosaic of
South and Southeast Asia: Conflict and Consensus through the Ages, 1stSouth and Southeast
Asian Association of Study of Culture and Religion (SSEASR) Conference under UNESCO, New
Delhi, India, 27– 30 January

Muniapan, B., (2009). “The Bhagavad-Gita on Leadership for Good Governance and Sustainable
Development”,15th Annual International Sustainable Development Research Conference, "Taking
up the Global Challenge: Analyzing the Implementation of Innovations and Governance for
Sustainable Development", University of Utrecht, Utrecht, 5-8 July 2009.

Muniapan, B (2014). “The Roots of Indian Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Practice from a
Vedantic Perspective” in KCP Low, SO Idowu and SL Ang in Corporate Social Responsibility in
Asia, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp.19-34.

Muniapan, B and Satpathy, B. (2013), The “dharma” and “karma” of CSR from the Bhagavad-Gita,
Journal of Human Values, Vol.19, No 2 October, pp.173-188.

Muniapan.B. and Satpathy.B, (2010). Ancient Indian Wisdom for Managers: The Relevance of
Valmiki Ramayana in Developing Managerial Effectiveness, International Journal of Indian Culture
and Business Management, Volume 3, No 6, 2010, pp 645-668.

Muniapan, B. and Shaikh, J.M. (2007).‘Lessons in corporate governance from

Kautilya’sArthashastra in ancient India’, World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and
Sustainable Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp.50–61.

Muniapan, B., and Dass, M. (2008). “Corporate Social Responsibility: A Philosophical Approach
from an Ancient Indian Perspective” International Journal of Indian Culture and Business
Management, Volume 1, Number 4, 2008, pp. 408- 420.

Muniapan, B., and Dass, M. (2009). An Indian Leadership Perspective from Literature Works of
Poet Kannadasan, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, Volume 2,
Number 4, 2009, pp. 326-340.

Muniapan, B. and Rajantheran, M (2011), Ethics (Business Ethics) from Thirukurral and its
Relevance for Contemporary Business Leadership in the Indian Context, International Journal of
Indian Culture and Business Management Volume 4, Number 4, pp.453–471.

Murali, R. (2010). Concept of Siddhas, Available online at http://rahulmurali.tripod.com/id30.html

Natarajan, B. (2002), Tirumantiram: A Tamil Scriptural Classic Tirumular, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna
17
Math.

Ramasamy, Rajakrishnan. (1988). Sojourners to citizens Sri Lankan Tamils in Malaysia 1885 –
1965. Kuala Lumpur: Sri Veera Trading Sdn. Bhd.

Rajantheran, M. & Manimaran, S. (1994). Perayaan orang India. Shah Alam: Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.

Rajantheran, M. (1997). Religion and other beliefs among Malaysian Indians . Shah Alam: Fajar
Bakti Sdn. Bhd.

Rajesh Rajamanikam. (2007/2008). Malaysia Sri Agasthiyar Arul Nyana Peedam. University
Malaya. Thesis from Indian Studies Department, University of Malaya (Unpublished).

Rao, K.V.R., (2010), A critical study of the chronology of siddhas, This paper is available online at
http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/essays/siddhas.asp

Ravindran, K, Jain. (1970). South Indians on plantation frontier in Malaysia. New Haven: Yale
University Press.

Sandhu, Karnail Singh. (1969). Indians in Malaya. Cambridge: The University Press.

Satpathy, B. and Muniapan.B. (2008). “The Knowledge of “Self” from the Bhagavad-Gita and its
Significance for Human Capital Development”, Asian Social Science”, Vol. 4, No. 10, pp. 143-150.

Satpathy, B., Muniapan, B.and Dass, M. (2013) ‘UNESCAP’s characteristics of good governance
from the philosophy of Bhagavad-Gita and its contemporary relevance in the Indian context’, Int. J.
Indian Culture and Business Management, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp.192–212.

Sivapalan, G (2006) The Siddha Worship in Malaysia: An introduction. In: 32nd All India
Sociological Conference, 27-29 December 2006, Chennai, India. (Unpublished). Available online at
http://eprints.um.edu.my/29/1/Govindasamy.pdf

Sivapalan,G. (2007).The Siddha Worship In Malaysia, Journal Of Indian Studies,Vol.10.

Sivapalan,G. (2008). The Social Conciousness of Tamil Siddhars/Tamil Cittargalin Samuthaya

Cinthanaigal, Proceeding Second World Conference On Siddhar Principles 2008,Siddhar
Printers:Chennai,hlm.41-52

Sivapalan,G. (2009). The Philosophy of Siddhar and Sufis: A Comparison study , The 3rd SSEASR
Conference Abstract Book. The 3rd SSEASR Conference Organising Committee: Bali, Indonesia.

Sri Thevanatha Swamigal. (2003). Pathinettu cittargal vazhvum vaakkum. Chennai: Narmadha
Publications.

Srinivasan, C. 2008. The philosophy of Sage Ramalinga Swami: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur:
Uma Publications.

Subramanian, N. (1989). India Varalaru. Chennai: New Century Book House Pte. Ltd.
18
Tamil Murasu. (21/07/1960).

Tamil Nesan. (18/06/1960).

Tamilmani Subramaniam. (2005/2006). Sri Agasthiyar Sanmarka Sanggam Dengkil . University

Malaya. Thesis from Indian Studies Department (Unpublished).

Uma Selvaraju. (2007/2008). Sri Agasthiyar Nyana Peedam. University Malaya. Thesis from Indian
Studies Department (Unpublished).

Unknown (2010), Siddars of South India: Journey beyond Enlightenment , Available online at
http://www.nandhi.com/siddhars.htm

Vishnu Krishnan. (2006/2007). Malaysia Sri Agasthiyar Sanmarka Gurukulam. University Malaya.
Thesis from Indian Studies Department (Unpublished).

www.gpmahan.com

Bibliography

“The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions”. (2000), Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University
Press.

Devanathan, N. & Ramanathan. A. (2004). Nyanakkovai ena vazhanggappadum cittar padalgal.

(12th ed.). Prema Parasuram, Chennai

J. Zavos, (2001). Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in

Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, p. 109-123.

Jurnal Pengajian India. Vol. 9. (2006) (Ed.). S. Singaravellu, M. Rajantheran. Kuala Lumpur:
Penerbit Universiti Malaya.

Nilakanta Sastri, K.N. (1963). Development of Religion in South India, Madras: Orient Longman

R. D. Baird. (1987). "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian
Responses to Religious Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press.

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy .
Princeton University Press; Princeton.

Ramachandran, S. P. (1993). Subramaniyar Nyanakkovai. Chennai: Thamarai Publications.

Sando, K. & A. Mani. (2006). Indian community in South East Asia. Singapore: Institute of South
East Asian Studies.

Selvakumar Ramachandran. (1994). Indian plantation labour in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul

19
Majeet & Co.

Singaravelu, S. (2005). History of Hinduism in Malaysia. (Ed.). M. Kamal Hassan & Ghazali bin
Basri. The Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Religions and beliefs. pp. 86-87.

Sri Thevanatha Swamigal. (2003). Pathinettu cittargal vazhvum vaakkum. Chennai: Narmadha
Publications.

20