- Compiled by Progga Paromita, perfected by Nakshatra Roy

To save all the f*ing microwaves:3

Go get 'em twats!

Cyclotron
● The particle is accelerated between the dees (since an electric field only exists between the two
dees).
● The particle travels with a constant speed once it's inside a dee (since there is no electric field
inside a dee).
● The time for which a proton is in a dee is constant.
● An alternating potential difference between the dees changes direction when the particle is
inside a dee so that the particle is always repelled when leaving a dee and attracted when
entering the other.

● The magnetic field always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the particle.
● As a result magnetic force acts on the particle perpendicular to its velocity.
● It is the magnetic force that provides the necessary centripetal force which causes the particle
to move in a circular path.
● As the particle accelerates between the dees, its velocity increases, which means its kinetic
energy increases and so does momentum. According to p=BQr, if momentum increases, the
radius of curvature also increases. As a result, the particle moves with an increasing radius of
curvature or in an outwards spiral.

For simplification:
- Electric field causes acceleration between the dees
- Alternating pd to attract the particle entering the other dee and repelled when leaving the dee
- No electric field in the dee, constant speed
- Constant time spent in each dee
- Magnetic field acts perpendicular to the motion
- Magnetic force perpendicular to velocity
- Which provides the necessary centripetal force to cause the particle to move in a circular path
- Particle accelerates between the dees, so velocity increases, KE increases (.5 mv^2), momentum
increases (E = p^2/2m), so the radius of curvature also increases (p = Bqr)- outwards spiral

Explain the roles of the electric field and magnetic field in a cyclotron

- In a cyclotron, an electric field is applied across the dees to provide a force on the charged
particle
- This charged particle will experience a force and accelerate, gaining energy
- This electric field is reversed every half cycle while the charged particle is within a dee
 - The magnetic field is perpendicular to the dees.
- This provides a force on a moving charged particle which is perpendicular to the direction of
motion.
- This acts as a centripetal force and results in a circular motion

Describe two similarities and two differences between a cyclotron and a linac

Similarities:

- Both use an electric field to accelerate the charged particles

- The times spent in each dee or drift tube is constant
- The increase in velocity only occurs when the particles are between the dees or drift tubes, the
velocity remains constant within them

Differences:

- The cyclotron uses a magnetic field to provide a circular path, a linac doesn’t
- In linac, the drift tubes get longer but in a cyclotron, the radius of the path increases. So the
increasing speed of the particles is handled in different ways

*Explain why an alternating potential difference of constant frequency is applied to the dees

- The time spent in each dee is constant

- The particle is travelling in the opposite direction, so the direction of the field must reverse
- To reverse the polarity of the PD, while the proton is still in the dee

Linac
● The particle only accelerates when it is between the tubes / in the gaps - because there is an
electric field only between the tubes.
● The particle travels with constant speed once it's inside a tube - because there is no electric
field inside the tubes.
● An AC power supply is used so that the polarity of the tubes can alternate. This is done so that
the particle is always repelled when leaving a tube and always attracted when entering the next
tube.
● The particle spends the same time inside each tube - this is ensured by increasing the lengths of
the tubes (the next tube is longer than the one before it). This is done because the time that is
spent in each tube needs to be consistent with the time taken for the AC supply to reverse its
polarity.
Explain why the drift tubes have a constant length at the other end of the linac

- By the end of the linac, the speed of particles is near the speed of light.
- Any additional energy just increases the mass of the particle, there is no appreciable increase
in speed.
- Since the time spent in each tube is constant and the speed of the particle is constant, the length
of the tube must be constant as well, according to v=d/t.

The advantages of using a higher frequency of ac supply in linacs

- The time spent in the drift tubes becomes shorter

- So it is possible to reach a greater speed of particles with the same length of the tubes

- As there is an electric field between the tubes, the particles accelerate when in between in the
tubes
- Inside the tubes, there is no electric field, so the particles are travelling at a constant speed there
- The length of the tubes is increased consequently so that the time spent by the accelerating
particles in each tube is constant
- An AC power supply is used to alternate the polarity of the tubes. So that the particle is always
repelled when leaving the tube and is always attracted when entering the next tube. The PD has
to reverse within the time taken for the particle to leave each tube, so the frequency has to be
kept constant.

Particle detector
*Explain the role of electric field and magnetic fields in a particle detector (think of mass spectrometer)

- Electric fields can be used to accelerate charged particles and also deflect charged particles.The
direction of force/ deflection indicates the direction of movement of charge. Magnetic fields
are used to deflect the charged particles in a circular motion. They provide a centripetal force.
The direction of the deflection can indicate the charge on the particle. The radius of curvature
can be used to indicate the momentum, speed and mass of the charged particles based on the
equations r = p/Bq and Bqv = mv2 /r
Mechanism of an AC motor
● AC current in the stator produces a changing magnetic field.
● As a result, the rotor experiences a rate of change in magnetic flux linkage.
● Which causes an EMF to be induced in the rotor and that drives an eddy current.
● Since there is an eddy current, it produces a magnetic field around the rotor.
● When the magnetic field of the rotor interacts with the magnetic field of the stator, a force is
exerted on the rotor and thus it rotates.

The coil rotates; explain how this produces a current in the coil.

- The alternating current generates a changing magnetic field

- Which interacts with the coil, making the coil experience a rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage
- An emf is induced
- Since the coil is in a closed circuit, an eddy current is driven

Mechanism of a DC motor
● When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is generated around it.
● When the magnetic field of the coil interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnets,
a force is exerted on the coil.
● According to Fleming's Left Hand Rule, equal and opposite force is exerted on each side of the
coil, causing the coil to rotate.
Explain why the motor starts to roll when it is placed on the aluminium sheet

NTS: in the case of current interacting with field, check if perpendicular and think of FLHR

EMF induction
● The alternating current generates a changing magnetic field.
● As a result, the second coil experiences a rate of change in magnetic flux linkage.
● Hence, an emf is induced in the second coil.
● Since the coil is connected to a complete circuit, this causes the flow of an eddy current.

***The shape of the Earth’s magnetic field is as though there was a bar magnet at the centre of the
Earth, aligned approximately on the North-South axis. If the plane flies west to east, but above the
equator, the wings do not become charged. Explain why. Visualise the scenario

- The magnetic field will be parallel to the wings

- The motion of the plane will be at right angles to the magnetic field, F= BIl sin θ, sin 90 = 0
- So there is no force acting in the direction of the wings on the free electrons, no emf induced

Assuming that the wings act as a continuous conductor, explain why the wingtips become charged

- the conducting wings are moving at an angle to the magnetic field

- so there is a change in magnetic flux linkage
- and an emf is induced
***

- There is a changing magnetic flux

- Emf is induced
- Emf depends on the rate of change of flux linkage
- When the magnet is at maximum displacement, emf = 0 (refer to the diagram below)
- Emf positive or negative depends on the direction the magnet is moving
- The frequency of oscillation of the spring is equal to the period of oscillation of the spring (1Hz
and 1s)
Explain why the value of emf varies from a maximum value to zero

- Induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage. (faraday’s law)
- Maximum emf is induced when the coil is horizontal and minimum emf is induced when the coil
is vertical.
- When the coil is horizontal, the side of the coil cuts the flux at the maximum rate.
- When the coil is vertical, the side of the coil moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.

***Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

- there is induced emf in a conductor

- which is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage

 - the alternating current produces a changing magnetic field
- as a result, the coil experiences a rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
- hence an emf is induced
- since the coil is connected to a closed circuit, this drives an eddy current that charges up the
battery

When regenerative braking is being used, explain how the magnitude of the generated emf changes as
the driver brakes steadily

- As the rate of rotation of wheels decreases, the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
decreases

- The emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage according to

Faraday’s law
- So the magnitude of emf decreases steadily
 - There would be an identical emf across the second wire
- The total emf in the circuit would therefore be zero and there would be no current through the
buzzer

Explain the changes in the graph when the angular velocity of the coil is halved

- Half angular velocity, so takes twice as long to turn, so the period is doubled (2*pi*r/t)
- Half angular velocity, so trTheThe of change of flux halved so emf halved (emf = Blv)
Lenz’s law: the magnetic field due to the induced current produces a force on the
magnet that opposes the motion

Explain the shape of the graph

- The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage. (faraday’s
law)
- Since the magnet accelerates due to gravity, its speed increases during falling, so the maximum
positive value of emf is larger than the negative maximum value since the speed of the magnet is
greater after passing through the coil.
- Since the speed is greater after passing through the magnet, the time for the second pulse is
shorter as well.
- Even though the time taken for the second pulse is shorter, areas of the two parts of the graph
will be the same, since the change in magnetic flux linkage stays the same.
- When the magnet approaches, there is a force on it upwards to oppose its motion according to
Lenz's law. When the magnet leaves the coil, the direction of the current must reverse to attract
the magnet to oppose its motion again. The current is driven by the induced emf. Since the
direction of the current reverses, the emf also reverses. This is why the polarity of the emf
changes.

Explain, using Lenz’s law, how a magnet does work as it enters a coil

- Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced emf is such as to oppose the charge that
created it
- This induced current produces a magnetic field to oppose the motion
- So there is a force on the magnet in the opposite direction to its motion
- As work= force x distance, work is done as the magnet moves
Explain why there was an increased reading on the force meter

- The travelling magnets result in the production of a changing magnetic field

- Which causes a rate of change of flux linkage with the tube, generating an emf
- The tube forms a closed circuit (fully conducting path) (context specific), so current is produced
in the metal
- Which produces a magnetic field
- According to Lenz’s law, the magnetic field due to the induced current produces a force on the
magnet that opposes the motion of the magnet causing it
- The upward force on the magnet, so increased downward force on the tube by N3

- Since the magnet is being moved, the disc experiences a rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage.
- As a result, an emf is induced in it.
 - This leads to an eddy current in the disc as there is a closed circuit.
- Since there is a current in the disc, this generates a magnetic field around it and this magnetic
field interacts with the magnetic field of the magnet and this causes a force on the disc.
- According to Lenz's Law, the disc moves in the same direction the magnet is moving- to oppose
this change.
- So, the student's suggestion is correct.

- The alternating current from the rotating coil produces a change in the magnetic flux
- This results in the coil to experience a rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
- Which induces an emf
- According to Lenz’s law, the induced emf must be in the opposite direction to the applied PD

Capacitor

Explain the shape of the graph

- At t= 0, the capacitor is uncharged, so there is 12V across the resistor

- As the capacitor and resistor are in series, VC + VR = 0, so as VR decreases as VC increases
What happens, in terms of the movement of electrons, when the capacitor charges up?

- During charging, the electrons are moving from one plate to the other plate through the external
circuit
- As the capacitor charges, the rate of flow of electrons decreases until it becomes fully charged,
when the PD across the plates is equal and opposite to the supply PD and there is no movement
of electrons

A capacitor discharges through the resistor, what happens to the current in the resistor

- Current decreases over time

- Exponentially

When the switch is closed, there is a maximum current which decreases to zero over a period of time as
the capacitor charges. Explain why.

- Initially, the PD across the capacitor is zero while the PD across the resistor is equal to the total
emf of the cell
- As the charge on the capacitor builds up, the PD across the resistor decreases, (V=IR), so the
current across it decreases
- When the capacitor is fully charged, there is no flow of electrons, so the PD across the resistor is
zero and hence the current is also zero

Why a voltmeter must have a very high resistance

- So that the capacitor would discharge/ charge would be able to from the capacitor
For capacitors:

Describe how a graph of PD against time can be used to show that the racquet contained a capacitor.
Your answer should not include calculations

- Use values from the graph to plot ln(V) against t

- It should be a straight line with a negative gradient for the capacitor
 - The capacitor is the energy store
- The capacitor separates the charge
- The overall charge on the capacitor is zero

Explain the shape of the graph

- The first part of the graph shows a charging capacitor and the second part of the graph shows a
discharging capacitor
-

A textbook states, “In a circuit with constant resistance, the time to fully discharge a capacitor is equal to
5RC.” Explain why.
Explain how capacitance can be determined using the graph
Conservation Of Momentum
In practice, the LHC uses electric fields to accelerate the particles so that their momentum gradually
increases. State and explain how the magnetic fields in the LHC must change as the momentum of the
particles increases.

- p= BQr
- as the magnetic flux density increases, the momentum of the particles increases

Principle of conservation of momentum

- total momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision
- provided no external forces are acting on the system

The relationship between the resultant force acting on an object and the momentum of an object

- the force is equal to the rate of change of momentum (2nd law of motion)

- With a stationary target, there is an initial momentum, whereas, with colliding beams, the total
initial momentum is zero.
- So, no movement for the particles after the collision for the Large Hadron Collider, since total
momentum after the collision must also be zero in order to conserve momentum.
- Therefore, all the energy goes to the creation of the particles.
- According to E=mc2, since all energy gets converted into mass, so more mass of particles in the
Large Hadron Collider.

Suggest why the electron beam continues along a path of decreasing diameter with decreasing intensity

- Due to electron collisions, the momentum of the electrons decreases, so according to p=Bqr, the
radius of the path also decreases- decreasing the diameter
- The electrons are absorbed by helium, so the intensity of the beam decreases
 - For colliding particles, the total momentum before the collision is zero.
- Since momentum is conserved in this process, for colliding particles, total momentum after a
collision must be zero as well.
- Since total momentum after collision is zero, this allows all of the energy to be used to create
new particles.
- Since more available energy to create new particles, new particles of greater mass can be
created.

Explain why the electron and positron tracks in the photograph show a decreasing radius

- Ionisation of the particle causes the particles to lose energy

- As the energy is lower, the momentum of the particles decreases (E = p^2/2m), according to p =
Bqr, the radius also decreases.

De Broglie
Explain why high energy particles are required to investigate the structure of nucleons

- High energy, so particles have a large momentum

- High momentum, so that de Broglie wavelength is small according to Λ= h/p
- So the wavelengths have approximately the same size as nucleons
Particle path, charge detection and
explanation

- The curvature at Q is greater than that at P, so the charged particle moves more slowly at Q.
- The particle must be travelling from left to right.
- The current is towards the left from position Q to P.
- So, the particle is negatively charged.

Explain why the electron moves in a helical path

- The electron moves with a constant velocity in the horizontal direction

- So there is a circular motion in the vertical direction due to the perpendicular component of
velocity
Take a magnetic field. The force on a charged particle will be perpendicular to the motion of the particle and the
field. That provides a centripetal force (please, NOT centrifugal). The centripetal force produces a circular motion
and the component of motion along the field converts that into a helix.

Describe how the path would be different if the electron entered the magnetic field at an angle less than
70 degrees.

- The circles would have a smaller radius

- The distance between adjacent loops would increase

State the charge on the particle

- Negative (magnetic field into the page, force downwards, current right to left, charged particle
travelling away from the left, so must be repelled from the negative terminal)

Describe and explain the shape of the particle’s path in the magnetic field

- The path is circular

- Because the (resultant) force acting on the particle is always perpendicular to the motion of the
particle

In the LHC, a magnetic field allows charged particles to move at a constant speed in a horizontal circular
path of the required radius. By reference to the force acting on the charged particles, explain how this is
achieved.

- The magnetic field is perpendicular to the motion/ velocity of the charged particles
- So the magnetic force acts as the centripetal force

-
- r is constant, so is B, Q and m, so the speed will also be constant
 - between the plates exists a uniform magnetic field. This exerts a force on the positive ions
downwards
- as a result, the positive ion accelerates downwards
- the positive ion has a constant horizontal velocity
- once it is outside the plates, there is no electric field acting on it, so it continues its path (in a
straight line)

State and explain how the path of the ions in just the magnetic field would be different from the path in
just the electric field.

- The magnetic field produces a force that is perpendicular to the velocity of the ion
- Hence the magnetic force will act as the centripetal force, creating an upward path for the ions
- The electric force is uniform, so the force will always act downwards

How a magnetic field can be used to deflect the ion into a circular path

- the magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of the motion

- so the force acting on the ion must be perpendicular to the direction of motion
- which will act as the centripetal force, creating a circular path/ motion for the ions
By considering the electric field at X due to A and due to B separately, explain the direction of the electric
field at X.

- At X, a positive charge experiences a force due to A, away from A

- At X, a positive charge experiences a force due to B, towards B
- The vertical components of X due to A and B, cancel each other out as they are in the opposite
directions
- The horizontal components of the force due to A and B are in the same direction, therefore, the
resultant electric field is in the horizontal direction

A textbook states, “An electric field line shows the path a free positive test charge follows.” Discuss the
accuracy of this statement for a free positive test charges placed at point A and point B

- Field lines show the direction of the force on a positive test charge.
- So, field lines show the direction of acceleration (F=ma) of the test charge.
- At point A, if a test charge is at rest, it will indeed follow the path of the straight line, so it is
true in this case.
- At point B, the curved line indicates acceleration is always changing its direction, but the
statement is not true, since velocity is not in the direction of acceleration. (contradictory point:
explanation:- resultant force is towards the right, acceleration is changing direction, but velocity
is not in the direction of acceleration, it’s horizontal)
Explain the shape of the electron-positron tracks

- the charges are opposite, so they spiral in opposite directions

- both particles have the same mass, so they have the same radius of curvature
- the magnetic force is perpendicular to the direction of motion, so a centripetal force acts on the
charge
- they have a decreasing momentum, due to ionization
- so according to r=mv/Bq, the radius of curvature also decreases

State two ways in which the diagram shows than an anti-muon must also have a positive charge

- There is no other charged particle produced (conservation of charge)

- It is in the same direction of curvature as the pion track

Explain how the diagram shows that the anti-muon is travelling in a clockwise path

- Following the clockwise path, we can see that the radius of the spiral path is decreasing
- According to p=Bqr, the momentum of the particle is decreasing
- Due to the transfer of energy from the anti-muon as a result of ionisation and electromagnetic
radiation
Diagram:

- Path in the opposite direction

- With a greater radius

Explanation:

- Opposite charge as the anti-helium has the opposite charge

- The nucleus has a greater mass, so according to r= p/Bq, the radius of curvature will be larger

Explain how the image can be used to deduce that the charge on the pion is negative

- The radius of curvature of the pion is in the opposite direction to the curvature of the proton
- The curvature is due to the magnetic field. The charge of the proton is positive, the pion is in the
opposite direction so the pion is negatively charged
State the properties of a positron that shows it is the antiparticle to the electron

- The mass of the positron is equal to the mass of an electron

- The charge is equal and opposite to that of an electron
- The lepton number of a positron is equal and opposite to the lepton number of an electron

Deduce the direction of the magnetic field

- As the radius of curvature is less above the lead plate, as the curvature is higher
- This is because moving through the lead plate, the particle moves more slowly due to the loss of
energy
- Using FLHR, the direction of the magnetic field is into the page

Rutherford’s Experiment

- Most of the alpha particles are undeflected/ undeviated

- As they did not interact with any matter to be affected,
- A few particles were deflected by small angles
- Indicating there is a charge at the centre of the atom and that only a few particles came close to
them enough for the charge to be affected
- A very small portion of the alpha particles was deflected at angles greater than 90 degrees
- So there must be a high concentration of mass and charge at the centre of the atom.
- Alpha particles are positive, so travelling close by a positive nucleus would make the particle
experience a force away from it which will cause a slight deviation in its pathway
- If the particle approaches the positive nucleus directly, then it would experience strong
repulsive forces and will be deviated back to its original path
- If the alpha particles are travelling nearby a negative nucleus, the particle would experience a
force towards it and the pathway will be slightly deviated
- If the particle approaches the negative nucleus directly, then the particle would experience a
strong attractive force towards the nucleus. The particle will be deviated around the nucleus and
will also return to its original path
- All the possible paths that were observed in the experiment are consistent with both types of
the nucleus and so the suggestion is correct

- The plum pudding model believed that an atom will have an equally distributed mass/ charge
throughout
- Alpha particles are expected to go straight through
- However, during the experiment, a small number of particles were seen to be deflected at
large angles
- So it can be deduced that the model of the atom consists of a very small nucleus
- With a concentrated mass
- And a concentrated area of charge
Muons

- Muons are travelling at a speed close to the speed of light

- So the relativistic effect increases the particle lifetime for the observer (time dilation)
- Hence, the muons travel further than what is normally expected before decaying

> The speed of the muon is very close to the speed of light. / The muon is travelling at relivisting speeds.
> Time taken = Distance / Velocity = 1600 / 0.994 ( 3.0x10^8) = 5.35 x 10^-6s.
> The muon would’ve decayed before reaching the bottom of the mountain had it not been travelling at
relativistic speeds.

> But, since the muon is travelling at relativistic speeds its lifespan increases, due to time-dilation.

> Most of them reach the ground since most of them have a lifetime close to the average lifetime value.
Explain what can be deduced from the tracks about the mass and the charge of the muon

- The muon track curves the same way as the electron track so the muon must also have a
negative charge
- The muon has a higher radius of curvature than the electron, so its mass will be greater than
that of an electron
- But its radius of curvature is lower than that of a proton, so its mass will be less than that of a
proton

Difference between muons and mesons

- A muon is a fundamental particle which falls under leptons.

- A meson is a baryon made up of two fundamental particles called quarks.

Circular motion
When an object moves in a circular path at constant speed, a resultant force is required. State why a
resultant for is required and the direction of this force.

- The direction is changed, so the object is accelerating

- The force is acting towards the centre of the circle
 - There is a horizontal component of lift (Lsin θ)
- Which acts as a centripetal force (force is perpendicular to the velocity of the plane)

The tension in the chain varies as the sphere moves in the vertical circle. State the position, X, Y or Z, at
which the tension will be a maximum and the position, X, Y or Z, where it will be minimum. Explain your
answers

- the centripetal force is the resultant force

- Tension maximum at Z and minimum at X
- at Z, F= T –W
- at X, F= T + W

In a drum, how does the spinning separates water from the wet clothes

- The necessary centripetal force for the clothes to move in a circular motion is provided by the
reaction force from the inner surface of the machine
- The reaction force on the water is not sufficient to provide the centripetal force
- So the water continues its motion in a straight line

- If the aeroplane is vertical, there is no horizontal component

- For the plane to be in a circular motion, there must be a horizontal component of the velocity
acting as the centripetal force, so the first student is incorrect
- If the radius is increased, according to , the force acting on the aeroplane will increase
as the angular velocity remains the same
- The horizontal component of velocity will increase, so T sinθ will increase, which will increase
the value of θ (basically F increases, which increases T sinθ, but T cannot increase: the tension
has to remain constant. So the value of θ increases.)
 - Hence second student is correct

A banked track will cost more to build. Suggest whether there are any significant advantages that would
justify the cost.

- Higher speeds can be used

- A smaller track can be used
- The kart is less likely to skid
- The maximum centripetal force is larger

The speed of the rubber bung is increased. Explain why M now moves to a higher position.

- The tension of the string has to be kept constant

- For a circular path, the T= F= mv2 /r, so if the v is greater, the r must also be greater to keep the
tension constant
- The length of the string is fixed, so to increase the radius, M must move upwards
Particle Physics

- Due to conservation of charge, the charge on omega is -1, as before the interaction the total
charge was 0
- Omega has three quarks that are needed for the strangeness of -3

The composition of a proton is known, omega has a strangeness of 3, so 3s quarks. We know K- has a
strangeness of -1. -1 before the interaction, -3 after the interaction, so after the interaction, there must
be two antistrange quarks( one for each kaon) to balance the strangeness.

Suggest why a photon leaves no track

 - photon causes no ionisation

- Electrons are leptons, which are fundamental particles

- Protons and neutrons are baryons, which are not fundamental particles
- As they are made of a 3 quark combination, which is a fundamental particle

The experiment at CERN involved colliding protons. Explain why very high energies are required for
the experiment.

- There are electrostatic forces of repulsion between the forces of similar charge
- High energies are required to allow the protons to get close to each other
- As mass-energy is conserved,
- High energies are needed for the creation of high mass particles according to E= mc2 where c2 is a
large multiplying factor
“Sometimes the Higgs boson decays into four electrons.” Discuss this statement

- The initial charge of the Higgs boson is zero. If after the decay, there are four electrons, the
charge will not be conserved
- The path shows two different directions of curvature
- So to conserve charge, there must be 2 electrons and 2 positrons

- According to Fleming's Left Hand Rule, the force acts on the electron into the page.
- Since the force acting on the electron is always perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
electron, this results in the electron following a circular path.
- There is no downward force acting on the electron, so the vertical motion of the electron is
unaffected. It keeps moving downwards.
Hence, the electron moves in a circular path, spiralling downwards.
 - There must be a symmetry of the model. So the number of types of quarks must be equal to the
number of types of leptons
- There are 6 types of leptons, so there must also be 6 types of quarks

*can be answered in terms of generation of quarks and leptons: same number of generations, 3
generations for both

State why the gamma photon has no track

- Gamma particles have no charge and therefore do not cause ionisation

A stationary anti-neutron decays by emitting a positron. Explain how energy is conserved in this decay.

- The mass of products is less than the mass of the antineutron, so the products have kinetic
energy
- Mass-energy is conserved, E = mc2

Explain the pattern of results in the table

- The higher the proton number, the greater the angle of deflection
- Because the greater the proton number, the higher the charge (density)
- So the metal will experience a greater repulsive force, so more deflection
Annihilation and pair production
Why two electrons cannot be produced by pair production

The initial charge of the system was zero, so to conserve charge, the final charge must also be zero

After production, the positron and the electron move off in different directions. Suggest what happens
to the electrons and the positron after this.

- The electron is absorbed by an atom/ energy of the electron reduces due to ionisations
- The positron will meet an electron and annihilate

Standing Waves
- Waves travelling in opposite directions meet each other and superposition occurs
- At points where the waves are in phase, constructive interference takes place
- So maximum amplitude is observed.

- At points where the waves are in antiphase, destructive interference takes place
- So minimum amplitude is observed.

Miscellaneous
Once the aeroplane has reached a constant speed, there is no further buildup of charge. Explain why.

- The buildup of charge creates an electric field

- This creates a force in the opposite direction to the magnetic force, so acceleration does not
occur

(context-specific) An advert for the ride states that “children feel more comfortable on the ride than
adults.” Suggest why children might feel more comfortable on this ride

- The child’s weight is less than an adult

- Since the acceleration is the same, the smaller the mass of the rider, the less resultant force will
be experienced by them
Suggest a reason for the total kinetic energy after a collision not being the same as it was before

- Elastic potential energy is stored in the buffers/ spring (see below)

Elastic collision – where kinetic energy is conserved

Explain why ER is zero at A and decreases with distance at large distances from A

- At A, fields are equal and opposite in direction

- , so as the radius increases, the value of E decreases

Explain why it is not possible for the student to rotate the mass so that the string is horizontal

- The force of the weight is always acting downwards

- There must be a component of tension in the vertical direction because if the string is horizontal,
cosθ= 0, so Tcosθ= 0 which is not possible

Magnetic field- a region where a force is exerted in a current-carrying conductor/ moving charge

- the battery is charged frequently

- so the bus gains enough charge to travel to the next cable
- the batteries can be smaller as they don’t need to store a large amount of charge

State why the current produced in the coil cannot be used directly to charge a battery and why a diode is
used

- The diode ensures the current flows in one direction

- A battery needs a dc supply and the current produced is in the form of ac

- although the speed is constant, the velocity is changing since the direction is changing
- hence the ISS is accelerating
- so by newton’s second law of motion, there must be a resultant force acting on ISS
Describe how the results can be used to determine the magnetic flux density by a graphical method.

- the force on the wire is found from the readings on the balance using F=mg
- the length, L, of the conductor inside the magnetic field is measured
- the current, I, is gradually increased and a graph of F/IL is plotted
- according to F= BIL
- the gradient of the graph will give the magnetic flux linkage, B

Why a data logger is used

- higher sampling rate

- simultaneous readings of multiple variables
- no human reaction error
- experiments can be carried out over a long period of time
The non relativistic equation for kinetic energy, , does not apply for high energy electrons.
Explain how the graph shows this.

- the graph should be a straight line showing a linear relationship

- but here v2 is not proportional to EK

How a hot metal filament and a positively charged anode produces a beam of electrons

- Thermionic emission of electrons from the hot metal surface

- And then the electrons are accelerated by the electric field between the anode and the filament

Magnetic field strength- is the force per unit positive charge (E = F/Q = V/d)

Explain why the alpha source was placed in a lead box with a single small hole.

The alpha particles are absorbed by the lead and so the opening of the box will be the only direction the
alpha particles travel in.

Suggest why there are no field lines inside the sphere.

- There is no charge inside the sphere as there is no field, the resultant force on the charge would
be zero
Sketch a graph to show how the electric field strength varies with distance from the centre of the sphere

- The angle of the coil to the magnetic field varied from 90 degrees to zero
- So the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage varied from maximum to zero

- It would not be possible to be precise about the fraction of a partial rotation, so a fixed number
is better
- Where there will always be a whole number of rotations

Sketch the electric field in the following gap

Discuss the suitability of this method of measurement

- The camera allows magnification

- But as the scale isn’t against the object being measured, there will be parallax errors
- Difficult to align the ruler with maximum distance between the sides of the circle
- (context-specific) the resolution of the metre rule is small relative to the measurement, so the
percentage uncertainty is low

Explain how you could use the video recording to determine the velocity of the ball before it was hit by a
force

- Measure the distance moved by the ball from a fixed scale in the video recording
- Obtain the time from the recording and use velocity= distance/time

A force is required to rotate the coil. Explain why the size of the force increases when a lamp is
connected to the output of the generator

- Energy is transferred to the lamp from the generator

- So extra work is done which requires an increase in force
 - Why open communication is necessary

- Leads to peer review

- Helps to validate new scientific theories
- Allows scientists to comment on other’s work
- Allows scientists to learn from other people’s work
- Widens public education
- Fosters an interest in science
- Transparency to the public

The benefit of investing in complex experiments such as those involved in particle physics

- New data is required to confirm an existing theory

- New data is required to refute an existing theory
- To further our understanding of particle physics

- For the light intensity to decrease to zero, the PD has to be decreased. From the graph, we can
see that decreasing the PD, decreases the current which increases the resistance of the LED (V =
IR)
- As time constant = RC, the time constant will increase
- So it will take longer for the light to switch off
This felt like a tough question to understand, to break it down:

1.we’re increasing the angle

2. Would there be the same magnitude of maximum acceleration of the higher angle?

Think this way, the alpha particle always has KE, some of the KE is converted to EPE. But not all of it that
may be potentially possible, so the particle has a fixed distance that it can get close to the nucleus, the
minimum r is greater, so the less resultant force acting on the alpha particle and hence the acceleration
has a smaller magnitude

- The alpha particle does not ever have zero KE

- So not all the of the energy has been transferred from the KE to the electric potential energy
store
- It does not get as close to the nucleus
- And the maximum resultant force acting on the particle from the nucleus is less, so maximum
acceleration is less

- The blades exert a downward force on the air

- The air exerts an equal upwards force on the blades according to N3
- This upwards force equals the weight of the helicopter
- The resultant force is zero, so according to N2, there is no acceleration and hence the
helicopter maintains a constant height
POST EXAM NOTE:

MAKE SURE TO REVISE AS CONTENT AND CALCULATIONS BEFORE YOU GO.