Chapter 6

The Condensed Phases of Matter

Sections 6.1.1-6.1.5
• A liquid is called volatile if it evaporates readily without having to heat it.
ex. Alcohol, acetone, and gasoline
• Liquids vaporize giving a definite vapor pressure. Addition of more liquid will not increase the vapor
pressure.
• The vapor pressure of every liquid increases as the temperature is raised, but at the same
temperature it is always the same. (temperature is the only factor that affects vapor pressure)
• When the vapor pressure becomes equal to the pressure just above the surface of the liquid,
bubbles of vapor can form anywhere within the liquid. At this temperature, the liquid boils.
• The normal boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure is
exactly one standard atmosphere, 760 mm Hg.
• The normal boiling point of water is 100oC while that of ethanol (alcohol) is 78.5oC. (to be
memorized)
• If the atmospheric pressure drops to 750 mm Hg (as it might just before a storm, or at higher
altitudes) water boils at lower temperature: 99.6oC because at 99.6oC the vapor pressure of water
is750 mm Hg.
• Solids and liquids are called the condensed phases.

Heats of phase change Molar heat of vaporization Molar heat of fusion

Definition It is the energy required It is the energy required to change one mole
to change one mole of a of a substance from solid to a liquid at the
substance from liquid to same temperature.
gas at the same
temperature.

Energy consumed in energy is consumed to break
down bonds (phase change)
instead of raising the
temperature.
Type of the reaction Endothermic
H2O(l) + 42 kJ → H2O(g)
(Vaporization reaction)
energy is consumed to break down bonds
(phase change) instead of raising the
temperature, but less bonds are required to be
broken so it is usually smaller than molar
heat of vaporization
Endothermic
H2O(s) + 6.0 kJ → H2O (l)
(melting reaction)

Type of opposite reaction Exothermic Exothermic

(same amount of energy in H2O(g) → H2O (l) + 42 kJ H2O(l) → H2O (s) + 6.0 kJ
opposite direction) (Condensation reaction) (solidification of freezing reaction)

For water (memorize these 42 kJ/mol 6.0 kJ/mol

amounts)
General concept a pure substance that has a a pure substance that has a higher melting
higher boiling point will point will have a higher molar heat of fusion.
have a higher molar heat of
vaporization.
Sections 6.1.6-6.1.7

• The kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
• At constant temperature, the average kinetic energy remains the same. Thus, if we have an ice-
water mixture at 0oC, with some water molecules in the gas state above them, the average kinetic
energy of a water molecule in any of the three states is the same (same K.E. in all 3 states).
• The potential energy of the particles is highest in the gaseous state and lowest in the solid state
(energy is absorbed form solid to liquid and from liquid to gas).

Lowest K.E. H2O(s) + 6.0 kJ → H2O (l) + 42 kJ → H2O(g) Highest K.E.

and P.E. and P.E.
• If a molecule on the surface is given a sufficient push from below, it may be able to escape.
The molecule that leaves the surface jumps out with a lot of kinetic energy, energy that is stored as
potential (the same amount of energy is released when particles come back together again to form
solids and liquids).
• The average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules decreases. The liquid cools down.
• When liquid evaporates the vapor, pressure starts to rise. Eventually, molecules come back at the
same rate they are escaping. The net number of liquid molecules in the gaseous phase remains
constant. No more cooling takes place because the rate at which molecules leave and cool the
liquid is equal to the rate at which the molecules come back and heat up the liquid. We reach
equilibrium. It is this “maximum” or “equilibrium” pressure that is called the vapor pressure of the
liquid at the given temperature.

• When we sweat on very humid days our bodies do not cool down (state of equilibrium between
evaporation and condensation).
• Sometime a hot liquid does not boil. The liquid is said to be superheated.
• To prevent superheating in the laboratory, we add a few boiling chips.

Sections 6.2.1-6.2.3

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture that contains more than one compound. e.g. air; seawater.

Types of solutions Gaseous solutions Liquid solutions Solid solutions

according to the final
phase of the solution
regardless of the source)
Examples - Air (gas-gas) - Sea water - Solid solutions of metals are
- All gas mixtures (solid-liquid) called alloys.
are homogeneous; - alcohol and Bronze and steel are alloys
hence all gas water (liquid- - Blue crystals of copper sulfate,
mixtures are liquid) water and copper sulfate form a
solutions - Crude oil homogeneous mixture with five
(liquid-liquid) water molecules to one CuSO4:
CuSO4.5H2O.
General concepts 1. A solution is heterogeneous with respect to change of phase, while a
pure substance is homogeneous with respect to change of phase.
2. At the same pressure, a pure substance has always distinct physical
properties, whereas solutions have varying physical properties that
depend on the percentage composition of the solution.

Section 6.3
Methods of separating mixtures
1. Filtration
2. Selective solubility
3. Sublimation
4. Distillation or simple
distillation
5. Fractional distillation
6. Separatory funnel
7. Adsorption
8. Chromatography
Definition & use Examples
- used to separate two solids in Mixture of water and sand
powder form - find a solvent to
dissolve one but not the other
- filter the solution to separate one
solid
- the other remains in the solution.
- second solid is obtained by heating
the solution, evaporating the pure
liquid, and leaving the pure solid
behind.
- Residue is the solid left on the filter
paper.
- Same as previous but a solvent that Mixture of salt and sugar by
dissolves one of the solids but not the adding alcohol
other is used Mixture of sand and salt by
adding water
when some solids are heated, they - Ammonium chloride NH4Cl
pass directly from the solid state to - dry ice (solid carbon
the gaseous state without passing dioxide)
through the liquid state. - Iodine
The process of obtaining a pure liquid - obtaining pure water from
by boiling the solution and sea water
condensing the vapors is called
distillation.
Obtained pure liquid is called
distillate.
Whenever two liquids with boiling Mixture of ethanol and water
points that are close together are to
be separated, fractional distillation
can be used.
A fractionating column is used which
consists of a long vertical tube
containing obstacles (like protrusions
or glass beads), and cooled only by
air.
To separate two immiscible liquids Oil and water
Molecules of certain gases and liquids - Silica gel (a form of silicon
tend to stick to the surfaces of certain dioxide, SiO2) adsorbs water.
solids. - Charcoal is used to purify
The adsorbed substances can easily be materials colored by
removed by heating the adsorbing impurities, like raw sugar. If a
solid. solution of brown sugar is
shaken with powdered
charcoal
then filtered, the filtrate will
be
colorless
Chromatography is a technique used - Ink
to separate different compounds, - crushed green leaf

9. Crystallization
especially those that can be easily
destroyed by heat or chemicals.
If a mixture is filtered and the solvent - Salt, sugar, or copper
in the liquid phase is allowed to sulfate from its solution
evaporate, crystals of the required
substance will form.
Agitation caused by boiling or by
stirring helps the formation of
crystals.
If the solution is too clean, no
crystallization starts, and the solution
will become supersaturated. If a small
seed (a small crystal) is added to the
solution, crystallization will start.

Section 6.4 Solute and solvent

Components and concentration of Calculations (rules are used How to prepare 1M solution
solutions, and solubility according to the question
givens)
- A solution has two components, the 1. C = n/V, where C = the 1. weigh 1 M of the required
solvent and the solute. molar concentration, n= compound
- A liquid solution from a solid and a number of moles, V= 2. in a volumetric flask (1L)add
liquid, usually the liquid component the volume in L (dm3) a small amount of water
solvent. 2. n = m/M, where m= mass (about 200 ml), add the
- An aqueous solution is a solution in in g, M= molar mass previously weighed salt.
which the solvent is water. 3. C1V1=C2V2, in this rule you 3. dissolve the salt by swirling
- The molar concentration (molarity) don’t have to convert units the flask.
gives the number of moles of solute per
as long as you are using the 4. after the salt is completely
dm3 (liter) of total solution.
same unit on both sides dissolved, add more water till
- Molarity is a property of the solution, if
level of solution reaches the
you take out of the same bottle, 1.00 ml,
etched mark.
100 ml or the whole content of the bottle,
N.B. if the flask was initially
the molar concentration is the same.
filled with water till the
- When a fixed amount of liquid has
etched mark and then salt
dissolved all the amount of solid it can at a
was added the volume will
certain temperature, the solution is said to
increase and might go beyond
be saturated.
the etched mark
How to define solubility of different
compounds:
a) soluble if its solubility is more
than 0.1 M.
b) slightly soluble if its solubility is
less than 0.1 M
c) very slightly soluble if its
solubility is less than 10-3 M.
d) Insoluble, or of negligible
solubility if its solubility is so
low as to be of no interest to
us, e.g. glass has negligible
solubility in water.
Section 6.5.5 Distance and electrical forces
- The nucleus of an atom is positively charged (contains positively charged particles protons),
while electrons surrounding the nucleus are negatively charged.
- As the distance, r2, between the nucleus and electrons increases the electric force, F, between
them decreases.
1
F.r2 = constant ⇔ F ∝ 2
𝑟
F1r21 = F2r22
Section 6.6
Covalent compounds Ionic compounds
Molecules Ions
Non-metals only Metals and non-metals
Formed by sharing electrons Formed by transfer of electrons
- metal lose electrons to form
ve
ca ions
- non-metal gain electrons to form

egative
a Nion
Example: Example:
Sugar Salt
C6H12O6(s) C6H12O6(aq) NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Exceptions: States:
Acids (s) solid
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (l) liquid as a state
(aq) dissolved in water
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) (g) gas

Their solutions don’t conduct electricity except the Their solutions conduct electricity because
exceptions above (acids) charged ions are present in the solution.

Galvanic (voltaic) cell: an electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous reaction generates a flow of current.

Current direction outside the cell

from positive to negative and from
+ - negative to positive inside the
battery while direction of electron
movement is always the opposite

Cathode as it
Anode as it
attracts the
attracts the Na+
anions Cl- cations

Molten NaCl
How to write formula of ionic compounds:
- first you get the charge of each ion according to its place in the periodic table for simple ions, while
complex ions are to be memorized (table TB p. 47)
- Do your cress cross: example write the formula of magnesium chloride

Mg2+ Cl-

MgCl2
Naming ionic compounds: the name of the cation is given first followed by the name of the anion. There is
no need to indicate the number of ions of each kind. For example, Na2CO3 is called sodium carbonate.

Reaction of ionic compounds (salt) with water:

- write the equation that expresses dissolving solid ionic compound (formed of metal and non-metals) to
become in an aqueous state:
MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

- balance your equation: balance the charges on both sides by adding a coefficient beside the required ion

MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

- note that the charge of any compound is zero

Precipitation:
- The formation of solid from a solution is called precipitation:

Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)

Adding 2 salt solutions with the formation of a precipitate (3 forms of equation):

1. Total molecular non-ionic solution: Adding sodium chloride solution to silver nitrate solution with
formation of silver chloride solid (precipitate)

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

(switch both metals to get the products)

2. Overall ionic equation: split all (aq) species into ions

Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3–(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
3. Net ionic equation: cross out all repeated ions on both sides of the equation
Cl–(aq) + Ag+(aq) → AgCl(s)
This reaction includes only the species that participated in the reaction which are called predominant
reactive species
4. Always balance your equation.

Section 6.8
Types of solids Molecular solids Ionic solids Metallic solids Network
solids
Melting point Low High High High
Boiling point Low High High High
Dissolve in water To form molecules To form ions and
(doesn’t conduct conduct electricity (also
electricity) except their molten form
acids as HCl conducts electricity)
(conduct electricity)
 formula Molecular formula Empirical formula as No molecules just atoms strongly
they exist in the form of bonded to each other.
a lattice structure

Find the concentration of ions in an aqueous solution

Example: If 1.42 grams of sodium sulfate is dissolved in water and diluted to
0.500 dm3. Calculate the concentrations of Na+(aq) and SO42–(aq).
Solution: Find the concentration of sodium sulphate: n=m/M= 1.42g/142 g/mol=0.01 mol
C=n/V=0.01 mol/0.5 dm3= 0.02M
Write your balanced equation and the ration of each ion to the original compound
Na2SO4(aq) →2Na+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
1M → 2M + 1M
[Na+(aq)] = 2[Na2SO4] = 0.04 M and [SO42–(aq)] = [Na2SO4] = 0.02 M
Find concentration of ions in mixed aqueous solutions if no reaction take place
Example: 1.00 dm3 of solution which contains 0.100 mole of iron(II) chloride, FeCl2(aq), was mixed with
1.00 dm3 of solution which contains 0.100 mole of sodium chloride, NaCl. Calculate the concentrations of
all ions in the resulting solution. Assume that volumes of these solutions are additive.
Solution: note that n is the given value
Solution 1 Solution 2
–
FeCl2(aq) → 2+
Fe (aq) + 2Cl (aq) NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
1 mol → 1 mol + 2mol 1 mol → 1 mol + 1 mol
n1(before mixing)=n2(after mixing) n1(before mixing)=n2(after mixing)
0.1=C2Vt(total volume after mixing) 0.1=C2Vt(total volume after mixing)
3
0.1=C2.2dm 0.1=C2.2dm3
C2=0.05 M C2=0.05 M
According to ratios from balanced equation the According to ratios from balanced equation the
concentration of ions will be concentration of ions will be
[Fe2+(aq)]=0.05 M [Na+(aq)]=0.05 M
[Cl–(aq)]=0.1 M [Cl–(aq)]=0.05 M
–
Since Cl (aq) was provided from both solutions then its final concentration will be 0.1 M + 0.05
M=0.15M

Find concentration of ions in mixed aqueous solutions if a reaction takes place

Example: Suppose 1 liter of 0.5 M BaCl2 is mixed with 1 liter of 0.2 M K2CrO4.
Assuming BaCrO4 has negligible solubility, calculate the concentrations of all ions present when
precipitation stops
Solution: note that C (molarity) is the given value
Solution 1 Solution 2
–
BaCl2(aq) → 2+
Ba (aq) + 2Cl (aq) K2CrO4(aq) → 2K+(aq) + CrO42–(aq)
1 mol → 1 mol + 2 mol 1 mol → 2 mol + 1 mol
n1(before mixing)=n2(after mixing) n1(before mixing)=n2(after mixing)
C1V1=C2Vt(total volume after mixing) C1V1=C2Vt(total volume after mixing)
0.5*1=C2*2L 0.2M*1L=C2*2L
C2=0.25 M C2=0.1 M
According to ratios from balanced equation the According to ratios from balanced equation the
concentration of ions will be concentration of ions will be
[Ba 2+] =0.25 M, only 0.15 M will be used in the [K+(aq)]=0.2 M
below reaction [CrO42– (aq)]=0.1 M negligible (will all be used up
–
[Cl (aq)]=0.5 M as below)
BaCrO4 has negligible solubility means that Ba ions and CrO42– will react to form a solid
2+

(precipitate) according to the following equation

Ba 2+(aq) + CrO42– (aq) → BaCrO4 (s)
1 mol + 1 mol → 1mol
So, 0.1M of CrO42– (Limiting ion) will react with 0.1M of Ba 2+
And, 0.15M 0f Ba 2+ ions will be remaining (excess ion)
Rules for calculation:
1. n = CV, where C = the molar concentration, n= number of moles, V= volume in L (dm 3)
1. C = n/V
2. n = m/M, where m= mass in g, M= molar mass
3. ColdVold=CnewVnew when nold=nnew (in case of mixing solutions or dilution), in this rule you don’t have to
convert units as long as you are using the same unit on both sides