T.A.
Moore / International Journal of Coal Geology 101 (2012) 36–81
Fig. 5. CBM Production in Australia from 1996 to 2009. Source: http://www.
australiamines.atlas.gov.au and http://www.ga.gov.au.
2008; Wang et al., 2010a; Whiticar et al., 1986) and greatly oversim-
plifies the process of gas formation; however, it should give the reader
at least a “mostly true” (at this point in time!) understanding of how
bacteria and archaea work to form methane. A review of this same sub-
ject can also be found in Gilcrease and Shurr (2007).
It is believed that bacteria begin the initial fragmentation of the
coal macro-molecule through two main processes: fermentation
and/or anaerobic oxidation. The fermentation of polyaromatics and
carbonylic acids results in acetate whilst ketones are fermented to
H–CO2 compounds. In contrast, different bacterial species anaerobically
oxidise the aromatic and aliphatic structures into CO2. Additionally,
through a process of homoactogenesis, some H–CO2 compounds may
be metabolised into acetate by bacteria. With the fermentation and
anaerobic oxidative processes complete, archaea take over. A number
of studies have found that archaea methanogens create CH4 through
either an acetoclastic or CO2-reduction methanogenesis process (e.g.
Green et al., 2008; Hendry et al., 2007; Penner et al., 2010 among
others).
The environmental factors limiting bacteria and archaea in a bio-
genic system are not well understood. It is known that archaea are
strictly anaerobic micro-organisms (Green et al., 2008) and are con-
sidered extremophiles as some species thrive in high salt and heat
conditions. In laboratory experiments, Green et al. (2008) have
shown that the quantity of biogenically-derived CH4 is influenced
by three factors: temperature, pH and surface area. They show that
Fig. 6. Coal basins in Australia.
41
increasing the temperature even a little (22 to 38 °C) increased labo-
ratory methane production by 300%. Similarly, decreasing the pH
from 7.4 to 6.4 resulted in a 680% increase in CH4 laboratory produc-
tion. Finally, when particle size was decreased (and thus surface area
increased) methane production increased by 200%. Rice and Claypool
(1981) also suggest that for methanogenic microbes to thrive, the
formation waters have to be low in sulphur. Recently, Papendick et
al. (2011) found that increases in both hydrogen content and surface
area may encourage microbial activity producing more methane.
These early laboratory results seem to indicate that reservoir condi-
tions of water pH, abundant surface area and temperature have to
be just right before the methanogenic process can be of relevance in
gas production. Variation in these reservoir conditions may explain
why some basins are prolific biogenic gas producers (Powder River
Basin, Wyoming [Flores et al., 2008]; Surat Basin, Queensland [Li et al.,
2008]), and others seem to be quite variable in gas contents (Huntly
Coalfield, New Zealand [Mares and Moore, 2008]) or have essentially
no biogenically-sourced gas at all (Hanoi basin, Vietnam; as indicated
from Dart Energy's relinquishment; Dart Energy Ltd., 2012).
Biologically-produced methane can form at almost any time during
a coal's life cycle. However, if coals are exposed to high heat with
resultant rank increases, it is thought that the methanogenic consortium
may be killed off (Aravena et al., 2003; Strąpoć et al., 2008a, 2008b). It is
thought that the consortia of microbes needed to produce methane can
survive at temperatures greater than 55 °C (Scott et al., 1994). This does
not, apparently, preclude the reoccurrence of methanogenic methane
formation after heating, if the coal is uplifted and favourable subsurface
environmental conditions are restored. An important criteria in the
re-formation of biogenic gas is that the coals are re-inoculated, through
water recharge, with methanogenic consortia (Clayton, 1998; Rice, 1993;
Ulrich and Bower, 2008). Shimizu et al. (2007) found methanogenic
archaea in a thermogenic gas play in Japan and interpret that they may
be contributing to the overall gas volume of the seam. Similarly, Ayers
(2002), Faiz et al. (2003), Flores et al. (2008), and Smith and Pallasser
(1996) have all shown evidence that there has been more than one epi-
sode of biogenically produced methane in the San Juan, Sydney, Bowen
and Powder River Basins, respectively. In contrast, Strąpoć et al. (2007)
found that high-rank coals in Kentucky were not secondarily enriched
in biogenic gas because the present geological conditions, structural in
nature, have prevented hydrologic recharge, and thus re-inoculation of
the seam with methanogenic consortium. It is conceivable however,
that in high-rank coals (e.g. semi-anthracites), the organic fraction has
been transformed into material not readily useable by the microbes
(Rice and Claypool, 1981).
Understanding the controls on biogenic processes in the formation
of methane in coal reservoirs is important as it may provide an alter-
native energy source that potentially could become ‘renewable’ as
long as there is a coal seam. Already a number of laboratories are
beginning to experiment with how to ‘inoculate’ a coal reservoir with
the right microbial consortium with the expressed purpose of genera-
tion of methane in real time (e.g. Martini et al., 2005; Ulrich and
Bower, 2008).
3.2. Generation of thermogenic gas
Simply put, when coal attains a rank of approximately 0.5–0.6%
vitrinite reflectance (high volatile bituminous), thermogenic gas
begins to evolve (Clayton, 1998). Gas evolution results from a combina-
tion of time, heat and pressure. These factors cause devolatilisation and
production of compounds and gases such as methane, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide as well as higher hydrocarbon chain
gases (e.g. ethane and propane). Onset of thermogenic gas generation
will have variable timing, in relation to coal rank, depending on organic
composition and specific basin and burial history (Whiticar, 1994).
Based on bulk organic composition as well as formation tempera-
ture, theoretical volumes of gas, and gas type can be predicted (Hunt,