INDEX

S. No. List of Experiments Date of Date of Signature

Experiment submission
1 Study and practically implement the cross-wired
cable and straight through cable using crimping
tool.
2 Study of different types of Network Equipment’s.

3 Study of College Network.

4 Study & Verification of standard Network
topologies i.e. Star, Tree, Bus etc. (Tool used:
Cisco Packet Tracer)
5 LAN installation and Configuration in Windows 7
or later version. Procedure.
6 Implement & configure various types of routing
algorithm using packet tracer. Distance Vector
Routing protocol.
7 Implement & configure various types of routing
algorithm using packet tracer. Link state Routing
protocol.
8 Study and Configure DHCP protocol by creating
the pool.
9 Study and Configure of Application Layer
Protocols: DNS, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP and Telnet.
 Experiment No - 1
Aim: Study and practically implement the cross-wired cable and straight through cable using
crimping tool.
Apparatus: RJ-45 Cables, twisted pair and crimping tool.
Procedure:
 Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very
careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter
the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one more
time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.
 Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand.
You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable must
only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be 'out of spec'. At this
point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.
 You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-made cable,
with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the crossed over end.
Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable
end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below.

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 Experiment No - 2
Aim: Study of different types of Network Equipment’s.
Repeater, Hub, Switch, Bridge, Router, Gateway
Apparatus (Software): No software or hardware needed.
Procedure: Following should be done to understand this practical.
Repeater: A repeater is a network device that is used to extend the range or reach of a network by
regenerating and retransmitting data signals. It operates at the physical layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, which deals with the transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium,
such as cables.

Hub: A hub, in the context of networking, is a basic network device that operates at the physical layer
of the OSI model. It is often referred to as a "network hub." Hubs are simple devices used to connect
multiple network devices together within a local area network (LAN).

Switch: A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network
segments. The term commonly refers to a network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link
layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3
and above) are often referred to as Layer 3 switches or multilayer switches.
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Bridge: In computer networking, a bridge is a device or software component that operates at the data
link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Its primary function is to connect and filter traffic between two
or more network segments, effectively dividing a larger network into smaller, isolated segments.
Bridges use MAC addresses to make forwarding decisions, allowing them to selectively pass or block
data based on the destination MAC address. This segmentation enhances network performance,
reduces collision domains, and improves security by containing broadcast traffic within individual
segments. Bridges are instrumental in managing and optimizing traffic flow in local area networks
(LANs).

Router: A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and
selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information
that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data
packet must be transferred from one network to another.

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Routers are used in a large collection of interconnected networks; the routers exchange information
about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths
between any two systems on the interconnected networks.

Gateway: In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with another
network that uses different protocols.
 A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate
converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability.
It also requires the establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between
both networks.
 A protocol translation/mapping gateway interconnects networks with different network protocol
technologies by performing the required protocol conversions.

Experiment No - 3
Aim: Study of College Network.
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Computer network is defined as the collection of large number of computers which are interconnected
with each other through some physical medium and internetworking devices like twisted pair cable,
switch, and router etc. for exchanging of information and sharing of resources.
Our internet service provider is BSNL. 100 Mbps leased line is provided by this service provider. This
100 Mbps lease line is connected to an internet switch. The ISP provides pool of ten public IP
addresses, which are allocated to various computers according to the need, like one is allocated to the
Director’s office; one is for Exam control office and so on. One of the sub links is connected to the
Proxy Server which is used as the internet resource for whole college. Other than Proxy Server, the
server like IBM (configuration of this is server is given separately) is also available in our college for
preventing data from sudden disaster. Another link is connected to the Web Server (for College
website)
The main connection is carried forward by the proxy server through a switch. The one port of this
switch is connected to the RIS and DHCP is configured in RIS. This port of the switch connects the
host of first floor labs in star and tree topology and the third port is connected to the PCs of second
floor labs. From the switch of first floor and second floor Wi-Fi devices are also connected which
provide the wireless services.
The fourth port is connected to third floor which splits connection on that floor and also in library.
These two floors 3rd and 2nd floors having backup on FTP server according to their need, they can
access files which they need.
The main line from the A block is also extended to the B-Block and C-Block. In this manner large
numbers of computers are interconnected.

Internetworking Devices:-

Switches: A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams
(chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses
in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports
involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision
domain but represents itself a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames
on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star
topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches are capable of routing
based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches.
The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and
bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a
Web URL identifier).
Specification of Switch:-

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 D-Link DES-1016D (16 port Switch).
D-Link DES-1024D (24 port Switch).
KVM Switch (4 port, Manufacturer D-Link)
Routers: A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using information in
protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best next router for each packet. Routers work
at the Network Layer (layer 3) of the OSI model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP.
Category 5 & 6 cable: It is a twisted pair high signal integrity cable type often referred to as Cat5 or
Cat-5. Most cables are unshielded, relying on the twisted pair design for noise rejection, and some are
shielded. Category 5 has been superseded by the Category 5e specification structured cabling for
computer networks such as Ethernet, and is also used to carry many other signals such as basic voice
services, token ring, and ATM (at up to 155 Mbit/s, over short distances).
Topology used in LAN:-

Star Topology: All computers/devices connect to a central device called hub or switch. Each
device requires a single cable point-to-point connection between the device and hub. It is widely
implemented in most organisations. Hub is the single point of failure.

Technical Details

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Result: Hence we have learned about the network topology of our college which is a star
configuration.

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 Experiment No - 4
Aim: Study & Verification of standard Network topologies i.e. Star, Tree, Bus etc.
Apparatus (Software): Packet tracer Software
Procedure: To implement this practical following network topology is required to be configured using
the commands learned in previous practical.
After configuring the given network a packet should be ping from any one machine to another.
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer
network.
Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted physically or logically.
Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various components, including device
location and cable installation, while logical topology shows how data flows within a network,
regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission
rates, and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be identical.
A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical
links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that
can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Conversely, mapping the data flow
between the components determines the logical topology of the network.
There are two basic categories of network topologies:-
Physical topologies: The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical
topology of the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the
interconnections between the nodes and the cabling.
Logical topologies: The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the
network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost
associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols.
Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as
routers and switches.
The study of network topology recognizes eight basic topologies:
1. Star Topology
2. Bus Topology
3. Ring or circular Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

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1. Star Topology:
 Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected directly to a central hub or
switch. The central hub acts as a communication hub, and data traffic flows through it.
 Advantages: Easy to set up, centralized management, and if one device fails, it doesn't
affect the others.
 Disadvantages: Dependence on the central hub; if it fails, the entire network may go
down.

2. Bus Topology:
 Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central
communication cable. Data is transmitted along the cable and is accessible to all
devices.
 Advantages: Simple and cost-effective for small networks.
 Disadvantages: Susceptible to cable failures, data collisions, and limited scalability.

3. Ring Topology:
 Description: In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices,
forming a closed loop. Data travels in one direction around the ring.
 Advantages: Even data distribution, predictable performance.
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  Disadvantages: If one device or connection fails, the entire ring can be disrupted.

Ring Topology

4. Mesh Topology:
 Description: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device. This
creates a redundant and highly fault-tolerant network.
 Advantages: High redundancy and fault tolerance.
 Disadvantages: Complex to set up and expensive due to the number of connections
required.

Mesh Topology

5. Tree (Hybrid) Topology:

 Description: A tree topology is a combination of star topologies connected to a central
bus or backbone network. It combines the scalability of star topologies with the
redundancy of bus or ring topologies.
 Advantages: Scalability and fault tolerance.
 Disadvantages: Complex and can be costly to set up.

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 6. Hybrid Topology:
 Description: A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies to meet
specific networking needs. For example, combining a star topology with a ring or mesh
topology.
 Advantages: Flexible, can cater to diverse requirements.
 Disadvantages: Complex and may require careful planning.

Result: Hence we have learned about the different types of topology using Cisco Packet Tracer 8.0.
Experiment No - 5
Aim: LAN installation and Configuration in Windows 7 or later version.

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Procedure: Network interface card (NIC) or an on-the-motherboard network port for each computer.
HP and Compaq computers are network ready with NICs installed. Confirm the computer has a RJ-45
network port on the back. Network hub (or router). A separate network hub may not be necessary if
your home is already equipped with RJ-45 jacks in the walls or if your DSL or cable modem provides
RJ-45 ports (select models). If you need a network hub, consult with a network specialist at your local
computer store to determine a hub that meets your needs.
NOTE: A crossover cable can be used to connect two computers without a hub. However, it only
allows two computers to connect and is not expandable. Network cables for each computer. Disconnect
the Internet. If you have a DSL or cable modem, disconnect it. Disable any firewall software. Firewall
software may interfere with network setup. You can enable the firewall after network setup is
complete.
Step 1: Connecting the network hardware and cables to set up a local network. Do the following to set
up the network hardware and connect the networking cables.
 Set up and turn on the power for the network hub or other networking device.
 Connect the computers to the networking device. If a crossover cable is used, connect the cable
to the RJ45 network ports on each computer.

 Connect the computer power cords and turn the computers on.
Step 2: Turning on Network discovery and file sharing in Windows 7. Turn on Network discovery and
file sharing on each computer that you want to access on the network.
 Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
 Under Network and Internet, click Choose Home group and sharing.
 In the Home group settings window, click Change advanced sharing settings.
 Turn on network discovery and file and printer sharing. Review the other settings and turn them
on or off.
Step 3: Sharing drives, folders, and files in a Windows 7 network. To share non-public folders with
other computers on a local network, follow these steps:
 Click Start , and then click Computer.
 Browse to the folder you want to share.

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  Right-click the folder, select Share with, and then click Home group (Read), Home group
(Read/Write), or Specific people.
 If you chose Specific people, the File Sharing window displays.
 Click the down arrow and select the account you want to share with, and then click
 Click an arrow under Permission Level to set the permission level for each account or group.
 Click Share.
Step 4: Testing a local network in Windows 7. Open the Windows 7 network window and browse
through the shared folders in each computer on the network. If the computer is able to read and access
files from a remote computer, the remote computer is set up correctly. Browse to every available
computer from each computer on the network. If there are any issues, go back through these steps and
verify that the settings are correct.

 Wired LAN - A wired LAN, as the name suggests, uses physical cables to connect devices.
Ethernet cables, such as Cat5e or Cat6, are commonly employed for this purpose. Wired LANs
offer high-speed and reliable connections, making them ideal for situations where bandwidth
and latency are critical, such as businesses and data centers. They are also secure, as they are
less susceptible to interference and eavesdropping compared to wireless alternatives. However,
wired LANs can be less flexible because they require cables to be installed and can be costly to
implement and maintain.

Wired LAN

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  Wireless LAN - Wireless LANs utilize radio waves to connect devices without the need for
physical cables. Wi-Fi is the most prevalent technology for wireless LANs. Wireless LANs
provide mobility and convenience, allowing devices to connect from anywhere within the
coverage area. They are suitable for a wide range of environments, from homes to coffee shops
to large corporate campuses. Wireless LANs are relatively easy to set up and expand, making
them a popular choice for many applications. However, they may have limitations in terms of
speed and reliability, as they can be affected by interference, signal attenuation, and security
concerns, which need to be properly addressed.

Wireless LAN

Result: Hence we have configured a LAN interface in windows 7.

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 Experiment No - 06
Aim: Implement & configure various types of routing algorithm using packet tracer. Distance
Vector Routing protocol.
Apparatus (Software): Cisco Packet Tracer
Procedure:- Establish the network in this format.
Theory:
 Static Routing - Static routing is a simple and manually configured method for determining the
paths that data packets should take in a computer network. In static routing, network
administrators manually define the routes for data packets to follow, specifying the next-hop
router or exit interface for each destination network or IP address. These static routes are set up
and maintained by administrators and do not change automatically, even if network conditions
or topology evolve. Static routing is straightforward to set up and typically requires less
processing overhead than dynamic routing, making it suitable for small, simple networks or
specific routing scenarios. However, it has limitations in larger or complex networks, as it lacks
the ability to adapt to changes like link failures or congestion. Any adjustments or updates to
the routing table must be done manually, which can be time-consuming and error-prone.

 Dynamic Routing - Dynamic routing algorithms, in contrast, automate the process of route
determination in a network. These algorithms use protocols to exchange routing information
between routers and dynamically adjust routes based on real-time changes in the network.
Dynamic routing protocols, such as OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and RIP (Routing
Information Protocol), enable routers to share information about the network's topology, link
status, and routing metrics. This information is used to calculate the best paths for data packets,
considering factors like link cost and available bandwidth. Dynamic routing provides flexibility
and adaptability, making it suitable for larger and more complex networks where network
conditions change frequently. It responds to events such as link failures by automatically
recalculating routes, thus ensuring data is delivered efficiently and reliably. However, dynamic
routing may introduce more complexity and overhead compared to static routing, and the
choice of protocol should align with the network's specific needs and scale.

Distance Vector Routing Algorithm - Distance Vector Routing is a type of dynamic routing
algorithm used in computer networks to determine the best path for data to travel from the source to the
destination. It operates by exchanging routing information between neighbouring routers in the
network, and each router maintains a table that stores distance estimates (typically in the form of hop
counts) to various destinations.

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 Routers periodically share their routing tables with neighbouring routers. When a router receives
these tables, it updates its own routing table based on the information provided by its neighbours. The
router selects the path with the shortest distance (the minimum number of hops) to a destination and
records it in its routing table.
One commonly known example of a Distance Vector Routing protocol is the Routing Information
Protocol (RIP). Distance Vector Routing algorithms are relatively simple but can suffer from slow
convergence in larger networks or in the presence of network changes. To address this, routing updates
include a "timeout" mechanism to prevent loops and a "split horizon" rule to improve routing stability.

 This topology needs the network segmentation in the above mentioned format.
 Each router has to be given the global knowledge of the routers present in this topology.
 Once each router is configured with global knowledge to global topology, then start the
simulation and let it run for few seconds so that all routers can send their distance vector tables
to their neighbouring routers.
 Once the simulation settle downs, run the ping test from left most network to the pc in right
most network.

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Result: Hence we have learned about the simulation of distance vector routing (RIP) in Cisco Packet
Tracer.

Experiment No - 07

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Aim: Implement & configure various types of routing algorithm using packet tracer. Link state
Routing protocol.
Apparatus (Software): Cisco Packet Tracer
Theory: The Link state Routing protocol belongs to the Intra domain routing protocol where the
routers share their link state table with other routers in the domain using FLOODING OF LINK
STATE TABLE. In Distance vector routing the router sends its distance vector table to its
neighbouring tables only, but in link state the router floods the domain with its link state table to ensure
the transmission to the remote corners of the domain. This makes each router capable to implementing
the shortest path first algorithm on the knowledge of the topology of the domain.
This topology for link state routing protocol implementation makes the routers to flood intra domain
network with their link state table. Initially the tables will look like.
Upon flooding each router in domain can have its own graph of router upon which it can apply
dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm.
Advantage of Link State Routing Protocol –

 Fast Network Convergence: It is the main advantage of the link-state routing protocol. Because of
receiving an LSP, link-state routing protocols immediately flood the LSP out of all interfaces with-
out any changes except for the interface from which the LSP was received.
 Topological Map: Link-state routing uses a topological map or SPF tree for creating the network
topology. Using the SPF tree, each router can separately determine the shortest path to every net -
work.
 Hierarchical Design: Link-state routing protocols use multiple areas and create a hierarchical de-
sign to network areas. The multiple areas allow better route summarization.

Disadvantage of Link State Routing Protocol –

 Memory Requirements − The link-state routing protocol creates and maintains a database and SPF
tree. The database and SPF tree required more memory than a distance vector protocol.
 Processing Requirements − Link-state routing protocols also require more CPU processing be-
cause the SPF algorithm requires more CPU time than distance-vector algorithms just like Bellman-
Ford because link-state protocols build a complete map of the topology.
 Bandwidth Requirements − The link-state routing protocol floods link-state packet during initial
start-up and also at the event like network breakdown, and network topology changes, which affect
the available bandwidth on a network. If the network is not stable it also creates issues on the band-
width of the network.

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Result: Hence we have discussed about the on paper details of Link State routing algorithm.

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 Experiment No - 08
Aim: Study and Configure DHCP protocol by creating the pool.
Apparatus (Software): Cisco Packet Tracer
Procedure: First establish a simple start topology using a switch and a root router which will be our
DHCP server.
Theory: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used to dy-
namically assign an IP address to nay device, or node, on a network so they can communicate using IP
(Internet Protocol). DHCP automates and centrally manages these configurations. There is no need to
manually assign IP addresses to new devices. Therefore, there is no requirement for any user configu-
ration to connect to a DHCP based network.

DHCP can be implemented on local networks as well as large enterprise networks. DHCP is the
default protocol used by the most routers and networking equipment. DHCP is also called RFC (Re -
quest for comments) 2131.

Components of DHCP –

 DHCP Server: DHCP server is a networked device running the DCHP service that holds IP ad-
dresses and related configuration information. This is typically a server or a router but could be
anything that acts as a host, such as an SD-WAN appliance.
 DHCP client: DHCP client is the endpoint that receives configuration information from a
DHCP server. This can be any device like computer, laptop, IoT endpoint or anything else that
requires connectivity to the network. Most of the devices are configured to receive DHCP infor-
mation by default.
 IP address pool: IP address pool is the range of addresses that are available to DHCP clients.
IP addresses are typically handed out sequentially from lowest to the highest.
 Subnet: Subnet is the partitioned segments of the IP networks. Subnet is used to keep networks
manageable.
 Lease: Lease is the length of time for which a DHCP client holds the IP address information.
When a lease expires, the client has to renew it.
 DHCP relay: A host or router that listens for client messages being broadcast on that network
and then forwards them to a configured server. The server then sends responses back to the re-
lay agent that passes them along to the client. DHCP relay can be used to centralize DHCP
servers instead of having a server on each subnet.

Benefits of DHCP –

 Centralized administration of IP configuration

 Dynamic host configuration

 Seamless IP host configuration

 Flexibility and scalability

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  Configure the router’s interface with its ip address of 192.168.1.1/24
 Enter in its CLI mode configure it as DHCP server.
 Once done, let the simulation run for few seconds and when the simulation settles down you
will see that each PC which was configures for DHCP IP allocation would have been allocated
with a IP address.

Result: Hence we have established a DHCP server using a router as a root node in the network
topology.

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 Experiment No - 09
Aim: Study and Configure of Application Layer Protocols: DNS, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP and
Telnet.
Domain Name System: Domain Name System (DNS) is a critical component of the global Internet
infrastructure. The Domain Name System is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers,
services or any resource connected to the internet or a private network. It associates various
information with domain name assigned to each of entities. Most prominently, it translates domain
names, which can be easily memorized by humans, to the numerical IP addresses needed for the
purpose of computer services and devices worldwide. Domain Name System distributes the
responsibility of assigning domain name and mapping those names to IP addresses by designating
authorities name serves for each domain. It also specifies the technical functionality of the database
service which is at its core. It defines the Domain Name System protocol, detailed specification of
structure and data communication exchanges used in Domain Name System, a part of the Internet
Protocol Suite.
Features of DNS -
 Scalability: No limit to the size of the database (i.e. one server can have 40,000,000 names).
No limit to the number of queries (24,000 queries are easily handled per second). Queries
distributed among masters, slaves and caches.
 Reliability: Data is replicated (data from master is copied to multiple slaves & system can deal
with outrage of servers) Clients will typically query local catches. DNS protocol can use either
UDP or TCP.
 Dynamicity: Database can be updated dynamically (add/delete/modification) Modification of
master database triggers replication. Clients can query (master server, any of the copies at slave
servers).
 Loose Coherency: The database is always internally consistent. Cached data expires according
to timeout set by zone administrator.
 Top Level Domain: Some types of top-level domains:
o Organizational: It’s a 3 character code/domain. It indicates the function of the
organization. Examples: .gov, .edu, .org, .com, .net, etc.
o Geographical: it’s a 2 character code that represents any specific geographic location
like country or region. Examples: .us, .in, etc. used IP address-to-name mapping. There
are more than 200 top-level∙ domains.

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Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): It is the secure version of HTTP, the protocol over
which data is sent between your browser and the website that you are connected to. The 'S' at the end
of HTTPS stands for 'Secure'. It means all communications between your browser and the website are
encrypted. HTTPS is often used to protect highly confidential online transactions like online banking
and online shopping order forms.
Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Chrome also display a padlock icon in the address
bar to visually indicate that a HTTPS connection is in effect.

How Does HTTPS Work?

HTTPS pages typically use one of two secure protocols to encrypt communications - SSL (Secure
Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security). Both the TLS and SSL protocols use what is known
as an 'asymmetric' Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) system. An asymmetric system uses two 'keys' to
encrypt communications, a 'public' key and a 'private' key. Anything encrypted with the public key can
only be decrypted by the private key and vice-versa.
As the names suggest, the 'private' key should be kept strictly protected and should only be accessible
the owner of the private key. In the case of a website, the private key remains securely ensconced on
the web server. Conversely, the public key is intended to be distributed to anybody and everybody that
needs to be able to decrypt information that was encrypted with the private key.

What is a HTTPS certificate?

When you request a HTTPS connection to a webpage, the website will initially send its SSL certificate
to your browser. This certificate contains the public key needed to begin the secure session. Based on
this initial exchange, your browser and the website then initiate the 'SSL handshake'. The SSL
handshake involves the generation of shared secrets to establish a uniquely secure connection between
yourself and the website.

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When a trusted SSL Digital Certificate is used during a HTTPS connection, users will see a padlock
icon in the browser address bar. When an Extended Validation Certificate is installed on a web site, the
address bar will turn green.
The major benefits of a HTTPS certificate are:- Customer information, like credit card numbers, is
encrypted and cannot be intercepted ∙ Visitors can verify you are a registered business and that you
own the domain ∙ Customers are more likely to trust and complete purchases from sites that use
HTTPS

File Transfer Protocol: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an application layer protocol which moves
files between local and remote file systems. It runs on the top of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a file, 2
TCP connections are used by FTP in parallel: control connection and data connection.
What is control connection?
For sending control information like user identification, password, commands to change the remote
directory, commands to retrieve and store files, etc., FTP makes use of control connection. The control
connection is initiated on port number 21.

What is data connection?

For sending the actual file, FTP makes use of data connection. A data connection is initiated on port
number 20. FTP sends the control information out-of-band as it uses a separate control connection.
Some protocols send their request and response header lines and the data in the same TCP connection.
For this reason, they are said to send their control information in-band. HTTP and SMTP are such
examples.
FTP Session: When a FTP session is started between a client and a server, the client initiates a control
TCP connection with the server side. The client sends control information over this. When the server
receives this, it initiates a data connection to the client side. Only one file can be sent over one data
connection. But the control connection remains active throughout the user session. As we know HTTP
is stateless i.e. it does not have to keep track of any user state. But FTP needs to maintain a state about
its user throughout the session.

Data Structures: FTP allows three types of data structures:

Prashant Jain
0701CS223D06
  File Structure: In file-structure there is no internal structure and the file is considered to be a
continuous sequence of data bytes.
 Record Structure: In record-structure the file is made up of sequential records.
 Page Structure: In page-structure the file is made up of independent indexed pages.

TELNET: It stands for Terminal Network. It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to
connect to local computer. It is a used as a standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service which
is given by ISO. Computer which starts connection known as the local computer. Computer which is
being connected to i.e. which accepts the connection known as remote computer. When the connection
is established between local and remote computer. During telnet operation whatever that is being
performed on the remote computer will be displayed by local computer. Telnet operates on
client/server principle. Local computer uses telnet client program and the remote computers uses telnet
server program. It is a general-purpose client/server application program. This program enables the
establishment of the connection to the remote system in such a way that the local system starts to
appear as a terminal at the remote system. It is a standard TCP/IP protocol that is used for virtual
terminal service. In simple words, we can say that the telnet allows the user to log on to a remote
computer. After logging on the user can use the services of the remote computer and then can transfer
the results back to the local computer.
The TELNET was mainly designed at the time when most operating systems operate in the time-
sharing environment. And in this type of environment, a large computer can support multiple users.
Usually, the interaction between the computer and user occurs via terminal (It is a combination of
keyboard, mouse, and monitor). TELNET makes the use of only one TCP/IP connection.

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Prashant Jain
0701CS223D06