Coastal and Estuarine Processes

CIVE 487

Ming Li & Yan Zhou

Room 606, Brodie Tower

The University of Liverpool
E: mingli@liverpool.ac.uk
Exam: In-Person & Paper Based
● Timetabled in January 2024
● Total 3 hrs
● Covers both coastal process and estuary process
● Four questions, two from coastal process and two
from estuary process; 25 marks for each question
● Show ALL WORKINGS in answers to questions

2
Contents
1. Wave kinematics
2. Wave transformation and propagation
3. Coastal sediment transport
4. Coastal structures
5. Coastal morphodynamics
6. Coastal defence
7. Tide and surge
8. Estuary sediment process
9. Estuary management and engineering

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 Linear wave theory
● Linear (Airy, small-amplitude, first-order) wave
theory is the simplest wave theory.
● All the foregoing assumptions, plus
▪ Wave heights are small compared to wave length
(H/L<0.04)
▪ Wave heights are small compared to water depths
(Ursell Number = Ur = HL2/d3 < 40)
● Under these assumptions, the waveform is
approximately sinusoidal.

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 Linear wave theory
𝑔𝑇 2 2π𝑑 L – wave length
𝐿 = tanh T – wave period
2π 𝐿 d – water depth

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Linear wave theory
● For deep water condition
2
𝑑 gT 2
 2πd  ≈ 𝑔𝑇
> 0.5 L= tanh  
𝐿 2π  L  2𝜋
(deep water wave length)
Lo gT
Co = =  1.56T
T 2π

● For shallow water condition

𝑑 gT 2  2πd 
< 0.04 L= tanh   ≈ 𝑇 𝑔𝑑
𝐿 2π  L 
𝐿𝑠
(shallow water wave length)
𝐶𝑠 = = 𝑔𝑑
𝑇 6
08/12/2023
& other useful quantities from d/Lo7
Coastal & Estuarine Processes (CIVE487)
Tables to determine d/L
Group wave: group velocity
1 2kd 
C g = 1 +  C = nC
2 sinh 2kd 
1 2kd 
where n = 1 + 
2 sinh 2kd 
g
C = tanh k d
k
1
n= for deep water condition
2
n =1 for shallow water condition
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Group wave: energy
● Energy of a single wave per unit width of
wave crest

 g a2 L  g H 2L
E = E p + Ek = =
2 8

P = E Cg = E n C

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 H HL2
 0.04; 3  40
L d H HL2
 0.04; 3  40
L d

Regions of validity of analytical wave

theories
08/12/2023 Coastal & Estuarine Processes (CIVE487) 10
Random waves

1 N 1
H =  H i = ( H1 + H 2 + ......... + H N ) (mean wave height)
N i =1 N
1/ 2
1 N
 H12 + H 22 + ......... + H N2
H rms =   H i2  =
 N i =1  N
(root mean square wave height)

H s : Significan t wave height =

Average height of the highest 1/3 of waves

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Wave shoaling
E1C g1 = E0C g 0
C g1 H1 = C g 0 H 0
2 2

Cg0
H1 = H 0 = H0Ks
C g1 shoaling

H0 H1
where Ks is shoaling coefficient
H0 is wave height at deep water
Cg0 is wave group velocity at deep water
Cg1 is wave group velocity at shallow water

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Wave refraction
sin 1 sin  2 Snell’s law
=
C1 C2
Shoreline

depth 2
2 2
1 1

depth 1

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E n c b = E 1 n1 c1 b1
2 b =2cons2tan2t
E nC
H1 n1C1 b1 = H 2 n2C2 b2
2 2
or
n2 C2 b2
giving H1 = H 2 
n1 C1 b1
and, as T is cons tan t
C2 L2
=
C1 L1
0.693 120.19 50
then H1 = 4    = 2.21m.
0.563 135 180

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Wave breaking
● Maximum wave height depends
on wavelength L, water depth d,
and seabed slope, tan.
● In shallow water, H b = 0.78d b
Breaking point
gives good approximation.
● Wave height should be limited
to the above maximum value
after breaking in the surf zone.

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Cross-shore circulation
The water level at the shore
will be higher than at the
z breaker line due to wave set-
y
x z = 0 up, which leads to a 2D
circulation in the cross-shore
direction.

▪ Near surface: flow

onshore
▪ Near bottom: flow
offshore (undertow)
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Alongshore flows
When wave propagates at an oblique
angle () to the shore, there will be
net current along the shore towards
down drift.

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V
17
Bed load & susp. load
● Threshold of motion
▪ If the flow velocity is slowly increased, a
velocity is reached at which a few grain begin
to move: threshold (or initiation) of motion.

Sediment
Transport

No
Transport

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Alongshore transport
● The long-shore current due to oblique waves
leads to sediment transport along the shore:

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Shoreline changes

Longshore transport Longshore transport

shoreline

Roky 0 x
headland
shoreline

Roky
headland
qlogshore q'logshore

q=0 shoreline
+ accretion
Roky x
headland erosion
-
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Shoreline changes
q
1. Analysis wave height/angle
distribution
2. Derive longshore current
0 direction (high Hs to low Hs)
x
3. Derive longshore transport
accretion direction
4. Examine transport variation
+
x (q=0 @ structure)
erosion 5. Derive evolution, i.e.
- accretion/erosion
y 6. Derive shoreline position
x
Roky
headland New shoreline

y  q 
08/12/2023 ~  21
x  x 
Shoreline changes
Example: Higher waves on the shore
→ higher radiation stress,
waves
→ drives flow towards lower
wave height region (where
radiation stress is lower)

Hs high
→ Leads to corresponding
Hs low Hs low
sediment transport
y
→ Shoreline changes

shoreline x
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Shoreline changes
Example: Higher waves on the shore
→ higher radiation stress,
waves
→ drives flow towards lower
wave height region (where
radiation stress is lower)
Hs high Hs high
Hs low
→ Leads to corresponding
y sediment transport

→ Shoreline changes

shoreline
x

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 Shoreline changes
Example: Higher waves on the shore
waves
→ higher radiation stress,

→ drives flow towards lower

wave height region (where
radiation stress is lower)

Hs high Hs low Hs high → Leads to corresponding

y sediment transport
Sed trans Sed trans

→ Shoreline changes
shoreline
x

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 i) The dredged hole in the offshore
affects the wave refraction, which
causes the waves to break at large
angles along the shore. The sediment
transport on the lee side of the dredged
areas is reduced and might change its
direction as result of the reduction in
wave height. (5)

ii) The resultant shoreline will be eroded

at the lee of the dredged area, but both
sides of the erosion area will have some
accretion due to the change of transport
rates. (4)

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Coastal structures
Vertical breakwater

Wave overtopping

• Wave overtopping occurs when a

barrier crest height is lower than
the potential wave runup level.
• Waves will flow or splash over
the barrier crest.
• The overtopping rate q has the
Unit: m3/s/m
08/12/2023 Coastal & Estuarine Processes (CIVE487) 26
Coastal defence - applications
● Effects of groynes include:
▪ Reduce wave height within the compartments.
▪ Reduce wave-induced long-shore currents and thus of littoral drift.
▪ Deflect tide-induced long-shore currents to deeper water.
▪ Generate circulation patterns within compartments
▪ Realign beach between the groynes.

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Coastal defence - applications
● Beach nourishment
▪ Nourishment is the mechanical placement of sand on
the beach to advance the shoreline or to maintain the
volume of sand.
▪ A soft protective and remedial measure.
▪ Relative cheap if the borrow area is not too far.
Beach recharge

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